Aerodynamic Stability and Control Derivatives 371

By definition, the yawing moment due to the fin in a yaw rate perturbation is given by
◦ 1
r Nr (fin) = Nfin = − ρV0 SF lF2 a1F r (13.165)
2
Whence, the expression for the fin contribution to the dimensional yawing moment
due to yaw rate derivative is
◦ 1
Nr (fin) = − ρV0 SF lF2 a1F (13.166)
2
As before, and with reference to Appendix 2, the dimensionless form of the derivative
is given by
◦
Nr (fin) lF lF
Nr(fin) = 1
= −a1F V F = − Nv(fin) (13.167)
2 b b
2 ρV0 Sb

The fin volume ratio V F is given by equation (13.109). The total value of the yawing
moment due to yaw rate derivative is therefore given by the sum of all the significant
contributions.

13.4 AERODYNAMIC CONTROL DERIVATIVES

Estimates may be made for the aerodynamic control derivatives provided that the
controller in question is a simple flap like device and provided that its aerodynamic
properties can be modelled with a reasonable degree of confidence. However, esti-
mates of the aileron and rudder control derivatives obtained from simple models are
unlikely to be accurate since it is very difficult to describe the aerodynamic conditions
applying in sufficient detail. Estimates for the lateral–directional aerodynamic control
derivatives are best obtained from the appropriate ESDU data items or, preferably, by
experimental measurement. However, simple models for the aileron and rudder con-
trol derivatives are given here for completeness and in order to illustrate the principles
of lateral–directional control.
For convenience, a summary of the derivative expressions derived in the following
paragraphs are included in Tables A8.3 and A8.4.

13.4.1 Derivatives due to elevator

Typically, the lift coefficient for a tailplane with elevator control is given by

CLT = a0 + a1 αT + a2 η (13.168)

where a1 is the lift curve slope of the tailplane and a2 is the lift curve slope with
respect to elevator angle η. The corresponding drag coefficient may be expressed

CDT = CD0T + kT CL2T (13.169)

where all of the parameters in equation (13.169) are tailplane dependent.

372 Flight Dynamics Principles

◦ ∂X
Xη = Axial force due to elevator
∂η

It is assumed that for a small elevator deflection, consistent with a small perturbation,
the resulting axial force perturbation arises from the drag change associated with the
tailplane only. Whence

1
X ≡ XT = −DT = − ρV 2 ST CDT (13.170)
2

Thus
◦ ∂XT 1 ∂CDT
Xη = = − ρV 2 ST (13.171)
∂η 2 ∂η

Substitute for CDT , from equation (13.169), into equation (13.171) to obtain

◦ ∂XT ∂CLT
Xη = = −ρV 2 ST kT CLT (13.172)
∂η ∂η

= V0 , from equation (13.168) ∂CLT /∂η ∼

For a small perturbation, in the limit V ∼ = a2
and equation (13.172) may be written

◦
Xη = −ρV02 ST kT CLT a2 (13.173)

With reference to Appendix 2, the dimensionless form of the derivative is given by

◦
Xη ST
Xη = 1 2
= −2 kT CLT a2 (13.174)
2 ρV0 S
S

◦ ∂Z
Zη = Normal force due to elevator
∂η

As before, it is assumed that for a small elevator deflection the resulting normal force
perturbation arises from the lift change associated with the tailplane only. Whence

1
Z ≡ ZT = −LT = − ρV 2 ST CLT (13.175)
2

Thus
◦ ∂ZT 1 ∂CLT
Zη = = − ρV 2 ST (13.176)
∂η 2 ∂η

Substitute for CLT , from equation (13.168) to obtain

◦ ∂ZT 1
Zη = = − ρV 2 ST a2 (13.177)
∂η 2
 Aerodynamic Stability and Control Derivatives 373

For a small perturbation, in the limit V ∼

= V0 and with reference to Appendix 2, the
dimensionless form of the derivative is given by
◦
Zη ST
Zη = 1 2
=− a2 (13.178)
2 ρV0 S
S

◦ ∂M
Mη = Pitching moment due to elevator
∂η
It is assumed that the pitching moment resulting from elevator deflection is due
entirely to the moment of the tailplane lift about the cg. Whence
1
M ≡ MT = −LT lT = − ρV 2 ST lT CLT (13.179)
2
Thus, it follows that
◦ ∂MT 1 ∂CLT ◦
Mη = = − ρV 2 ST lT = Z η lT (13.180)
∂η 2 ∂η
With reference to Appendix 2, the dimensionless form of the derivative is given by
◦
Mη S T lT
Mη = 1 2
=− a2 = −V T a2 (13.181)
2 ρV0 Sc Sc

where V T is the tail volume ratio.

13.4.2 Derivatives due to aileron

Typical aileron geometry is shown in Fig. 13.15 and comprises a part span flap in
the outboard sections of both port and starboard wings. Differential deflection of the
flaps creates the desired control in roll. As described in Section 2.6, a positive aileron
deflection results in the starboard (right) surface deflecting trailing edge down and
the port (left) surface trailing edge up and aileron angle ξ is taken to be the mean of
the two surface angles. Thus, referring to equation (13.168), the local lift coefficient
at spanwise coordinate y is given by

CLy right = a0 + ay α + a2A ξ

CLy left = a0 + ay α − a2A ξ (13.182)

Since it is not practical to define a simple model for the increment in local drag
coefficient due to aileron deflection, let it be defined more generally as
 ∂CDy
CDy right = ξ
∂ξ
 ∂CDy (13.183)
CDy left = − ξ
∂ξ
374 Flight Dynamics Principles

sb/2

o
dy dy
y

cy y1 cy
y2

Figure 13.15 Aileron control geometry.

where it is assumed that for small aileron angles, the change in drag ∂CDy /∂ξ is
dominated by induced drag effects and may vary over the aileron span.
◦ ∂Y
Yξ = Side force due to aileron
∂ξ
For aeroplanes of conventional layout the side force due to aileron is zero or insignif-
icantly small. However, for aeroplanes of unconventional layout, with highly swept
wings or that utilise differential canard surfaces for roll control, this may not be the
case. In such cases, simple analytical models would not be the most appropriate means
for obtaining an estimate of the derivative value.
◦ ∂L
Lξ = Rolling moment due to aileron
∂ξ
This derivative describes the roll control property of the aeroplane and an accurate
estimate of its value is important to flight dynamics analysis. With reference to equa-
tions (13.182) and Fig. 13.15, the application of simple strip theory enables the rolling
moment due to starboard aileron deflection to be written
' y2 ' y2
1  1
Lright = − ρV 2 CLy right cy y dy = − ρV 2 (a0 +ay α+a2A ξ)cy y dy (13.184)
2 y1 2 y1

where a2A is the aileron lift curve slope, which is assumed to be constant over the
span of the aileron. Similarly, the rolling moment due to port aileron deflection may
be written
' y2 ' y2
1  1
Lleft = ρV 2 CLy left cy y dy = ρV 2 (a0 +ay α−a2A ξ)cy y dy (13.185)
2 y1 2 y1

It follows that the total rolling moment may be written

◦
' y2
Lξ ξ = Lright + Lleft = −ρV 2 (a2A ξ) cy y dy (13.186)
y1
 Aerodynamic Stability and Control Derivatives 375

Whence, the simple expression for the dimensional derivative

◦
' y2
Lξ = −ρV 2 a2A cy y dy (13.187)
y1

Alternatively, with reference to Appendix 2, the dimensionless derivative may be

written
◦ ' y2
Lξ 1
Lξ = 1 2 = − a2A cy y dy (13.188)
2 ρV0 Sb
Ss y1

where b = 2s is the wing span.

◦ ∂N
Nξ = Yawing moment due to aileron
∂ξ
This derivative describes the adverse yaw property of the aeroplane in response to
aileron roll commands. With reference to equations (13.183) and Fig. 13.15, the
application of simple strip theory enables the yawing moment due to starboard aileron
deflection to be written
' '

1 2 y2  1 2 y2 ∂CDy
Nright = ρV 
CDy right cy y dy = ρV ξ cy y dy (13.189)
2 y1 2 y1 ∂ξ

and similarly, the yawing moment due to port aileron deflection may be written
' y2 ' y2

1  1 ∂CDy
Nleft = − ρV 2 CDy left cy y dy = − ρV 2 − ξ cy y dy (13.190)
2 y1 2 y1 ∂ξ

It follows that the total yawing moment may be written

◦
' y2

∂CDy
Nξ ξ = Nright + Nleft = ρV 2 ξ cy y dy (13.191)
y1 ∂ξ

Whence, a simple expression for the dimensional derivative

◦
' y2

∂CDy
Nξ = ρV 2
cy y dy (13.192)
y1 ∂ξ

Alternatively, with reference to Appendix 2, the dimensionless derivative may be

written
' y2 ∂C

◦
Nξ 1 Dy
Nξ = 1 2
= cy y dy (13.193)
2 ρV0 Sb
Ss y1 ∂ξ

13.4.3 Derivatives due to rudder

In normal trimmed flight the fin and rudder generate zero side force. Deflection of
the rudder ζ, and in the notation a positive rudder angle is trailing edge to the left,
376 Flight Dynamics Principles

generates a positive side force which gives rise to both rolling and yawing moments.
With reference to Fig. 13.14, for example, it is assumed that the side force acts at
the aerodynamic centre of the fin which is located a distance lF aft of the cg and a
distance hF above the cg. Since the aerodynamics of the fin and rudder will inevitably
be significantly influenced by the presence of the aft fuselage and the horizontal
tailplane, the accuracy of the following models is likely to be poor

◦ ∂Y
Yζ = Side force due to rudder
∂ζ

The side force generated by the fin when the rudder angle is ζ is given approximately by

1 2
Y = ρV SF a2R ζ (13.194)
2

and by definition

◦ 1 2
Yζ ζ = Y = ρV SF a2R ζ (13.195)
2

Where a2R is the rudder lift curve slope, which is assumed to be constant over the
span of the fin and rudder. Whence the very simple expression for the dimensional
derivative

◦ 1 2
Yζ = ρV SF a2R (13.196)
2

Alternatively, with reference to Appendix 2, the dimensionless derivative may be

written
◦
Yζ SF
Yζ = = a2 (13.197)
1 2
2 ρV0 S
S R

◦ ∂L
Lζ = Rolling moment due to rudder
∂ζ

This derivative describes the adverse roll property of the aeroplane in response to
rudder yaw commands. Since the side force due to rudder acts above the roll axis, the
rolling moment due to rudder follows directly

◦ 1 2
Lζ ζ = YhF = ρV SF hF a2R ζ (13.198)
2

Thus a simple expression for the dimensional derivative is

◦ 1 2
Lζ = ρV SF hF a2R (13.199)
2
 Aerodynamic Stability and Control Derivatives 377

and, with reference to Appendix 2, an expression for the dimensionless derivative

may be written

◦
Lζ SF hF hF
Lζ = 1 2
= a2R ≡ V F a2R (13.200)
2 ρV0 Sb
Sb lF

where V F is the fin volume ratio.

◦ ∂N
Nζ = Yawing moment due to rudder
∂ζ
This derivative describes the yaw control property of the aeroplane and, again, an
accurate estimate of its value is important to flight dynamics analysis. Since the side
force due to rudder acts well behind the cg it generates a yawing moment described
as follows:
◦ 1
Nζ ζ = −YlF = − ρV 2 SF lF a2R ζ (13.201)
2

Thus, the simple expression for the dimensional derivative is

◦ 1 2
Nζ = ρV SF lF a2R (13.202)
2

and, with reference to Appendix 2, an expression for the dimensionless derivative

may be written
◦
Nζ SF lF
Nζ = =− a2 ≡ −V F a2R (13.203)
1 2
2 ρV0 Sb
Sb R

13.5 NORTH AMERICAN DERIVATIVE COEFFICIENT NOTATION

An alternative notation for the dimensionless aerodynamic stability and control

derivatives, based on the derivatives of aerodynamic force and moment coefficients,
is the standard notation in North America and is commonly used in Europe and
elsewhere. Interpretation of the derivatives as quasi-static representations of contin-
uously varying aerodynamic properties of the aircraft remains the same as described
in Section 12.2.
To illustrate the mathematical derivation of the coefficient notation, it is useful to
remember that in a non-steady flight condition, with perturbed velocity V , the lift
and drag force are described in terms of the dimensionless lift and drag coefficients
respectively, namely

1 2
L = ρV SCL
2
1
D = ρV 2 SCD
2