Pharmaceutical Microbiology & Parasitology | Lecture 2017

Prepared by: Aldrex B. Dacawe, RPh

CELL STRUCTURES

I. External to the Cell Wall

1. Glycocalyx: “Sugar Coat”
-sticky, sugary envelope composed of polysaccharides &/ or polypeptides that surround the cell

 Capsule- firmly attached to the cell wall. Help bacteria escape the host
immune system, by preventing destruction by phagocytosis
 Slime Layer- loosely attached & is used by the prokaryotic cell to adhere
to surfaces external to the cell
-chemical composition varies widely with species

Functions of Glycocalyx:
 Attachment to host cells
 Source of nutrition
 Prevent dehydration
 Escape host immune system

 Capsules: organized polysaccharide substance that is firmly attached

to the cell wall
 Important in virulence
 Eg: Anthrax bacteria & Streptococcus pneumonia
 When bacteria lose their capsules they become less likely to
cause disease & more susceptible to destruction

 Slime Layer: thin polysaccharide substance that is loosely attached to

the cell wall
 Important for virulence
 Eg: Oral bacteria stick to teeth
 Allow bacteria to adhere to objects in their environment so
they can remain near sources of nutrients or oxygen

2. Flagella (Sing. Flagellum)

-long, thin, helical appendages
-3 Parts:
 Filament- (outermost region) a long hollow shaft which
extends out into the cell’s environment & is composed of
many globular molecules of CHON
 Hook- wider segments that anchors filament to basal body
 Basal Body- complex structure with a central rod
surrounded by a set of rings. Gram (+)- 1 pair; Gram (-)- 2
pairs

Differences in the CHONs associated with bacterial flagella vary

enough to allow classification of species into groups (strains) called
serovars.

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 Pharmaceutical Microbiology & Parasitology | Lecture 2017
Prepared by: Aldrex B. Dacawe, RPh

A bacteria may have one or several flagella, which can be the following arrangements:
1. Monotrichous: single polar flagellum at one end
2. Amphitrichous: two polar flagella, one at each end
3. Lophotrichous: two or more flagella at one end or both ends
4. Peritrichous: many flagella over entire cell surface

 Endoflagella: form an axial filament that wraps around

the cell between its cytoplasmic membrane & an outer
membrane. Rotation of endoflagella causes axial
filament to rotate around the cell, causing the
spirochete to “corkscrew” through its medium
Eg. Borellia burgdorferi, Treponema pallidum
 Taxis- movement in response to stimulus
 Phototaxis
 Chemotaxis
 Runs or swims: bacterium moves in one direction
 Tumbles: bacterium changes direction caused by reversal of flagellar rotation
 Flagella protein H antigens- used to identify important pathogens

3. Fimbriae
-may occur at poles or over entire cell surface & enables bacteria to adhere to surfaces
Eg. Neisseria gonorrhoeae

o Pellicle

4. Pili- conjugation or sex pili

-longer than fimbriae
-Cells only have one or two sex pili. Attach two cells together & allow
the transfer of genetic material (DNA) between cells.
-medically important because it allows the transfer of antibiotic
resistance genes from one cell to another

II. The Cell Wall

General Characteristics:
 Semirigid structure

 2 major functions:
o Maintains characteristic shape of cell
o Prevents the cell from bursting
 Contributes to bacterial ability to cause
disease
 Site of action of some antibiotics
 Very porous
 Composed of Peptidoglycan
o NAG
o NAM
 Alternating sugar molecules covalently linked
in chains. These chains are “glycan” portions or peptidoglycan. Alternating disaccharides (NAG-NAM) are linked together in
rows of 10- 65 molecules

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 Pharmaceutical Microbiology & Parasitology | Lecture 2017
Prepared by: Aldrex B. Dacawe, RPh

 PCN interferes with the final linking of peptidoglycan rows by peptide cross bridges. As a result, the cell wall is greatly
weakened & cell undergoes lysis.

Gram Positive Cell Wall

 Consist of several layers of peptidoglycan
 Also contain teichoic acids, which are made
up of ROH & PO4 group
o Lipoteichoic acids
o Wall teichoic acids
Gram Negative Cell Wall
 Cell wall is thinner, more complex & more
susceptible to mechanical breakage than
that of G(+) bacteria
 Consist of one or a few peptidoglycan layers
& an outer membrane
 Peptidoglycan is bonded to lipoproteins in:
o Outer membrane
o Periplasmic space: region between outer membrane & plasma membrane

 Outer Membrane consists of:

 Phospholipid bilayer
 Porins: membrane CHONs that allow the passage of nucleotides, disaccharides, peptides, amino acids, vitamins &
iron
 Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
o O polysaccharide: antigens
o Lipid A: endotoxin
-“Endo” due to the erroneous idea that Lipid A is inside the G (-) bacteria.

 Functions of Outer Membrane:

 Evade phagocytosis
 Barrier

Atypical Cell Walls

1. Acid- Fast Bacteria

 Cell wall is thick
 Contains 60% lipids & has a waxy consistency
 Lipids make cells impermeable to many stains & protect them from
acids, alkalis & antibiotics
 Organisms grow slowly
 Stain as G(+)

2. Mycoplasma
 Smallest known bacteria that can grow & reproduce outside of host
cells
 They have no cell wall
 Unique plasma membrane contains lipids called sterols

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 Pharmaceutical Microbiology & Parasitology | Lecture 2017
Prepared by: Aldrex B. Dacawe, RPh

3. Archaebacteria
 May lack cell walls or have cell walls without peptidoglycan
 Instead of peptidoglycan, they may have pseudomurein

III. Internal to the Cell Wall

1. The Plasma (Cytoplasmic) Membrane
 Thin structure outside of cell wall
 Phospholipid bilayer (Fluid Mosaic Model)
o Internal membrane CHONs
o Peripheral membrane CHONs
 Lack sterols
o Exception: Mycoplasmas

 Functions of the Plasma (Cytoplasmic) Membrane:

1. Selective barrier.
o Impermeable to large CHONs, ions & most
polar molecules
o Permeable to H2O, O2, CO2, some simple
sugars & small nonpolar substances
2. Nutrient breakdown & energy production.
3. Synthesis of cell wall components.
4. Assists with DNA replication.
5. Site of photosynthesis. Photosynthetic bacteria have membrane extensions called thylakoids.
6. Secretes CHONs.
7. Contains bases of flagella.
8. Responds to chemical substances in the environment.

 Destruction of the Plasma Membrane:

-several antimicrobial agents damage the integrity of the plasma membrane
Eg. ROH, antibiotics (Polymyxin), quaternary ammonium compounds

 Movement of Materials Across Membranes

 Passive Transport Processes:

 Substances move spontaneously from an area of high
concentration to one of low concentration
 Include the following processes:
 Simple diffusion- used to transport small
molecules
 Facilitated diffusion- substance to be transported
combines with a carrier CHON in plasma
membrane
 Osmosis- net movement of solvent molecules
across a semipermeable membrane
a. Isotonic- concentration of solutes & water are equal on both sides of a cell membrane
Result:
b. Hypotonic- solute concentration is lower outside the cell
Result:
c. Hypertonic- solute concentration is higher outside the cell
Result:

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 Pharmaceutical Microbiology & Parasitology | Lecture 2017
Prepared by: Aldrex B. Dacawe, RPh

 Active Processes
 Substances are concentrated, moved from an area of low concentration to one of high concentration
 Include the following processes:
 Active transport- requires carrier CHONs or pumps in plasma membrane
 Group translocation- substance transported is chemically altered during process

2. The Nuclear Area (Nucleoid)

 Contains a single chromosome, a long circular molecule of double stranded
DNA
 The chromosome is attached to the plasma membrane
3. Plasmids
 Small, circular, double stranded DNA molecules
 Found in many bacterial cells in addition to chromosomal DNA

4. Inclusions: reserve deposits in the cytoplasm of cells

 Metachromatic granules- contain inorganic phosphate that can be used in the
synthesis of ATP
- Stain red with blue dyes
 Polysaccharide granules- contain glycogen & starch
 Lipid inclusions- contain lipids
 Sulphur granules- contain sulphur & sulphur containing compounds
 Carboxysomes- contain enzyme ribulose 1,5- diphosphate carboxylase
 Gas vacuoles- hollow cavities found in many aquatic bacteria
- Contain individual gas vesicles, hollow cylinders covered by CHON
 Magnetosomes- contain iron oxide, which acts like a magnet.
- Enable bacteria to respond to magnetic fields (magnetotaxis)
- May help decompose H2O2

Non- membranous & Membranous Organelles of Cells

Organelle General Function Prokaryote Eukaryote
Ribosomes CHON synthesis
Cytoskeleton Shape in prokaryotes; support, cytoplasmic streaming & endocytosis in eukaryotes
Centrosome Appears to play a role in mitosis, cytokinesis; flagella & cilia formation in animal
cells
Nucleus Control center of the cell
ER Transport within the cell; lipid synthesis
Golgi bodies Exocytosis & secretion
Lysosomes Breakdown of nutrients, self- destruction of damaged or aged cells
Peroxisomes Neutralization of toxins
Vacuoles Storage
Vesicles Storage, digestion, transport
Mitochondria Aerobic ATP production
Chloroplasts Photosynthesis

 Endospores
 Specialized “resting” cells formed by certain G(+) bacteria
 Highly durable, dehydrated cells with thick cell walls & additional layers
 Can survive extreme temperatures, disinfectants, acids, bases, lack of
water, toxic chemicals & radiation

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 Pharmaceutical Microbiology & Parasitology | Lecture 2017
Prepared by: Aldrex B. Dacawe, RPh

 Process of Sporulation: One cell produces one spore.

1. Newly replicated DNA is isolated by an ingrowth of the plasma membrane called a spore septum.
2. Spore septum becomes a double- layered membrane that surrounds chromosomes & cytoplasm. (forespore)
3. Peptidoglycan layer forms between membranes of forespore.
4. Spore coat forms: Thick layer of CHON around the outer membrane.
5. Maturation

 Sporulation
 May be part of normal life cycle or triggered by adverse
environmental conditions
 Endospores do not carry out metabolic reactions, unlike vegetative
cells. Endospores can remain dormant for thousands of years

 Germination
 Endospore returns to its vegetative state
 Usually occurs when environmental conditions become more
favorable

End of Discussion.
Thank you for listening!

“Most of the time, those who succeed are the ones who know how to handle
failures best.” –SIR ALDREX 

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