Fact Sheets On Air Emission Abatement Techniques - Final 2009 02 20 PDF

Fact sheets on air emission
abatement techniques
File: B8176
Registration number: MD-MV20090007
Version: 3
VITO/InfoMil
February 2009
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Table of contents
1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 5
2 Research lay-out and results ....................................................................... 6
3 Use of the fact sheets .................................................................................. 8

3.1 Selection and application of air emission abatement techniques ..................... 8
3.2 Lay-out fact sheets..................................................................................11
3.3 Sub-division of techniques........................................................................12
4 Fact sheets ................................................................................................ 14
4.1 Gravitation .............................................................................................14

Settling chamber / Gravitational separator ........................................................................... 15
Cyclone / Dust cyclone / Wet cyclone / Multi-cyclone / Vortex separation ................................. 18
4.2 Scrubbing ..............................................................................................22

Scrubbing (general) / Wet dust remover / Wet dust scrubber.................................................. 23
Spraying tower / Rotational scrubber / Dynamic scrubber ...................................................... 26
Venturi-scrubber / Venturi-scrubber / Whirl scrubber............................................................. 29
4.3 Filtration ................................................................................................32

Fabric filter (filtering dust separator) / Tube filter / Bag filter .................................................. 33
Ceramic filter (filtering dust-separator) / Ceramic filter / High temperature filter / Candle filter.... 37
Two-stage dust filter......................................................................................................... 40
Absolute filter / HEPA-filter / surface filter / cartridge filter / micro filter ................................... 43
Demister / Aerosol filter / Deep bed filter............................................................................. 46
Dry electrostatic precipitator / Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) / Dry E-Filter / Dry ESP
/ Dry electrostatic precipitator / Electro filter ........................................................................ 48
Wet electrostatic precipitator / Wet E-filter / Wet ESP / Wet Electrostatic precipitator
/ Electro-filter .................................................................................................................. 51
4.4 Condensation..........................................................................................54
Condenser / Heat exchanger / Odour control condensation (OCC) ........................................... 55
Cryocondensation / Cooled condensation ............................................................................. 58
4.5 Adsorption..............................................................................................61
Adsorption (general)......................................................................................................... 62
Adsorption of active coal / Active coal filtering / Coal filter...................................................... 65
Zeolite filter (adsorption) / Zeolite filter / Hefite filter ............................................................ 69
Polymer adsorption........................................................................................................... 72
Dry lime injection / dry lime-sorption / Fixed bed lime-sorption / Cascade adsorption................. 75
Semi-dry lime injection / Spray-dry adsorption / Semi-dry lime adsorption
/ Semi-wet lime sorption ................................................................................................... 78
4.6 Absorption..............................................................................................81
Gas scrubber (general) / Scrubber / Absorber / Air scrubber................................................... 82
Acid gas scrubber / Acid scrubber ....................................................................................... 85
Alkaline gas scrubber ........................................................................................................ 88
Gas scrubber alkaline-oxidative .......................................................................................... 91
4.7 Biological cleaning...................................................................................94

Biofiltration / Bio-bed / Biological filter / Bio-bed filter / Compost filter ..................................... 95
Biotrickling / Lavafilter / BTF / Biodenox .............................................................................. 99
Biological scrubber (general) / Bioscrubber / Bioscrubber ..................................................... 102
Moving bed trickling filter / MBTF...................................................................................... 105
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4.8 Thermal oxidation .................................................................................108
Thermal incinerator / Incinerator / Thermal oxidation .......................................................... 109
Catalytic incinerator / Catalytic oxidation (catox) / Thermocat............................................... 113
Flare ............................................................................................................................ 117
4.9 Cold oxidation.......................................................................................121

Ionization / Active oxygen injection / Ozone injection / Plasma cleaning ................................. 122
Photo oxidation / UV-oxidation ......................................................................................... 125
4.10 Chemical reduction................................................................................127

Selective non-catalytic reduction / SNCR ........................................................................... 128
Selective catalytic reduction / SCR .................................................................................... 130
Non-selective catalytic reduction / NSCR............................................................................ 133
4.11 Other techniques...................................................................................135

Membrane filtration / Solvent recuperation / Air separation with membranes .......................... 136
Vapor recovery unit / VRU ............................................................................................... 139
5 Additional research on specific techniques .............................................. 140

5.1 Techniques ...........................................................................................140
5.2 Field-testing of emissions .......................................................................143
6 Cost effectiveness.................................................................................... 144
7 Recommendations for future research ..................................................... 145
8 Index ....................................................................................................... 146
9 Annexes ................................................................................................... 147

Annex 1 Field emission data.................................................................................148
Annex 2 Illustrative calculations of cost effectiveness..............................................149
Annex 3 List of suppliers who provided information.................................................150
10 Colophon .............................................................................................. 151
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1 Introduction
The fact sheets with basic information on air emission abatement techniques are meant to
answer the most frequently asked questions on these techniques. They are an aid in
determining the Best Available Techniques (BAT) in specific situations. They also are the Dutch
and Flemish input in the revision of the BREF Wastewater and gas treatment for the chemical
industry.
The fact sheets give a brief description of the functioning, efficiency, financial aspects, etcetera
of the air emission abatement techniques that have proven to work in the field. Because of the
standardized lay-out the information is easy to find. Based on the fact sheets a first selection
of the possible techniques for a specific application can be made. The primary target audience
of the fact sheets are the competent authorities, advisors and companies that are not or
barely familiar with the techniques. For detailed technical information one can contact the
suppliers.
The precursor of this document, publication, L26 ‘Fact sheets waste gas treatment techniques’
(2000), was issued in 1999. On behalf of InfoMil, DHV has researched the topicality of the
fact sheets en renewed them where necessary. The revision of the BAT Reference document
(BREF) Waste gas and water treatment for the chemical industry was a reason to check the
fact sheets for topicality. The information in these renewed fact sheets was offered as
information for the revision of this BREF. The range of application of the fact sheets however,
is broader than just the chemical industry.
In the Flanders region of Belgium, VITO provides similar information fact sheetvia ‘LUSS’
(starting 2004). LUSS is a system that may help with first explorations and final decisions on
possible air pollution abatement techniques. This system is digitally available through
http://www.emis.vito.be/luss/.
The renewal of the fact sheets took place in close cooperation with research institute VITO
and with suppliers, companies and governments. The research consisted of:
a) Literature study (including LUSS and BREFs);

b) Survey among Dutch suppliers;
c) Interviews with suppliers, companies and the competent authoritiy.
This manual is restricted to air emission abatement techniques that are currently applied on an
industrial scale. Techniques that are only applied on a research or laboratory scale are not
described in these fact sheets. Distinction between the techniques is based on their working
principle, such as: gravitational separation, filtering and adsorption; the most important
implementations are described in the fact sheets. The before mentioned techniques represent
the majority of air emission abatement techniques in existence, although not every single
existing technique can be found in this manual.
Reading directions
In chapter 2 the research and the resulting conclusions are briefly explained. Chapter 3
explains the use of the fact sheets, including an overview of the described techniques and the
most critical parameters per technique. Chapter 4 contains the 36 fact sheets in total. Chapter
5 displays the results of further research on some techniques. These techniques are relatively
new or interesting for further research, for different reasons. For a number of techniques the
topicality of the previously determined emission ranges was also judged. In chapter 6 some
examples are given of cost effectiveness calculations. Chapter 7 gives an overview of the
missing information (blank spots).
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2 Research lay-out and results
The predetermined lay-out of the renewal of the fact sheets is displayed in general outlines in
figure 1. The research project was guided by a commission wherein the competent authority,
the suppliers, the industry, the Ministry of VROM and InfoMil were represented.
Figure 1. Research project renewal fact sheets
Existing sheets
BREF, EPA,
3.1. Desk study, Kick off
LUSS, literature,
first analysis meeting
cost assessment
1st updated sheets
3.3. questionnaire
suppliers
Input from
literature,
Meeting with
competent
3.4. Analysis 2 project
authorities,
committee
Emission reports,
permits
3.5. Interviews
selected suppliers
3.6. Report &

Final meeting
updated sheets
The research plan assumed that for the renewal of the data, information would be gathered
from literature and from the internet (point 3.1 from figure 1), as well as from the market
(point 3.2 in figure 1).
The key literature and internet sources used are: BREFs, LUSS and the US Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA).
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In gaining information from the market, the suppliers played an essential part. By means of
amonst others a surveythey were interviewed about recent market developments regarding
their products. Over 80 suppliers were summoned and asked to answer a number of
questions regarding costs, new techniques and changes in techniques in their range of
products. The Organization of Suppliers of Environmental Equipment (VLM, about 30
members) approached its its membersabout. In spite of this, the response of the suppliers
was low: about 15%.
An important consequence of this low response is that the indexation of the costs is
primarily based on data from literature and only very little upon data from suppliers.
Simply applying an index number on the old economical numbers turned out to be
impossible in a number of cases. In one case the costs had decreased (minimum caustic
scrubber), while in another case the costs have remained the same or have risen sharply
(active coal).
The suppliers that did respond reported that the development of air emission abatement
techniques is slow. The techniques evolve, but there are no reports of revolutionary
developments. However, new variants of existing techniques and optimizations are
reported. These developments can be described as the fine-tuning of existing techniques. A
different development is the application of existing techniques within different sectors.
Stricter environmental legislation (emission requirements) within a specific sector is often
the cause . Chapter 5 further investigates the developments as reported by the suppliers
and competent authorities.
The research lay-out also aimed at verifying the efficiency and emission values through use
of measurement reports. Measurement reports were collected from the competent
authorities, suppliers of installations and from open information sources (internet). In
practice it sometimes turned out to be difficult to get clear to what specific configurations of
techniques the measurements apply. For this reason fewer measurements were collected
than was planned. In Annex 1 the gathered emission values are further investigated.
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3 Use of the fact sheets
3.1 Selection and application of air emission abatement

techniques
The factsheets containing basic information on air emission abatement techniques serve as
an aid in selecting the Best Available Techniques (BAT) in specific situations. The described
techniques can be applied after checking the applicability of process integrated measures
for preventing or decreasing the environmental impact, for example by switching to
different raw materials or recycling of emission streams. If this is not feasable, air emission
abatement techniques are to be considered.
In order to make a first selection of air emission abatement techniques, an overview-table

(table 3.1) is included. With the aid of this table a first choice can be made based on the
component to be removed, the flow or other critical process variables.
For a first selection of techniques for removing (fine) dust, figure 2 can be used as well. For
example, in figure 2 one can find that a cyclone and gravitation-separator are effective at a
larger dust load (about 10 g/m³) and particle size (>Hm 10), while a wet scrubber is more
effective for a smaller dust load and particle size. Sometimes a combination of techniques
is necessary to attain a low emission value.
(Source: D.R. Woods, Process design and engineering practice, Prentice Hall PTR, New Jersey,
ISBN 0-13-805755-9)
After the first indicative selection of techniques (table 3.1), the corresponding fact sheets
may be used to compare the techniques’ most important features and to further consider
their application in the situation concerned. Further elaboration may be needed for the
preferred technique, requiring more information than that offered in the fact sheet. In that
case one may decide to search for further expertise or information. One example of this is
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the calculation of a techniques’ cost effectiveness. The fact sheets do not always provide
sufficient information for calculating the cost effectiveness in a specific situation according
to the NeR1-method 4.13 (see also chapter 6).
Table 3.1. The table below indicates which chemicals can be removed by use of a specific
air emission abatement technique. If a technique’s primary goal is not the removal of a
specific pollution, but this pollution is (partly) removed by the technique, this is indicated
by a ‘+’.
Working Name Removed components Parameters

principle technique
Efficiency [%]
Indication of
applied flow
parameters
Inorganic
Dry dust
Wet dus
Critical
gasses
[m3/h]
Odour
VOC
NOx
NH3
SO2
Gravitational Sinking 100 – Fluid percentage
10 -90
separation chamber 100,000
Cyclone 5 - 99 1 – 100,000 Fluid percentage
Dust scrubber Dust 720 – Pollution
99
scrubber 170,000
Spray tower 1,000 – Temperature,
70 - 99
50,000 pollution
Venturi 720 –
50 -99
scrubber 100,000
Filters Fabric 300 – Temperature,
filter 99.95 1,800,000 fluid percentage
Ceramic 80 – 300 – Stickiness

filter 99.99 1,800,000
Two-stage < 75,000 Ingoing gas flow
dust filter and speed
Absolute 99.99- 100 - 360 Fluid percentage
filter 99.999
Demister <99 <150,000 Temperature
Dry Energy
97 - 1,800 –
electrostatic consumption,
>99.9 2,000,000
precipitator maintenance
Wet 1,800 – Energy
electrostatic 97 - 99 9,000,000 consumption,
precipitator maintenance
Condensation Condenser 100 – Saturation of
60 -90
100,000 ingoing gas
Cryoconden- <5,000 Fluid percentage
>99
sation of ingoing gas
Adsorption Adsorption 100 – Fluid percentage,
80 – 95
(general) 100,000 VOC conc.
Adsorption 100 – Fluid percentage,
80 – 98
(active coal) 1,000,000 VOC conc.
Adsorption < 100,000 Fluid percentage,
zeolites 80 - 99 dust in ingoing
gas
Adsorption - Dust in ingoing
95 – 98
polymeric gas
Dry lime 10,000 – Temperature,
10 - 95
injection 300,000 pressure
Semi dry < 1,000,000
85 –
lime
>90
injection
Absorption Gas 50 - Temperature
30 – 99
scrubber 500,000
Acid gas 50 – Temperature
80 - 99
scrubber 500,000
1
NeR is short for ‘Nederlandse emissierichtlijn lucht’ (Netherlands emission guidelines for air).
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Working Name Removed components Parameters
principle technique
Efficiency [%]
Indication of
applied flow
parameters
Inorganic
Dry dust
Wet dus
Critical
gasses
[m3/h]
Odour
VOC
NOx
NH3
SO2
Alkaline gas 50 – Temperature
90 - 99
scrubber 500,000
Gas 50 – Temperature
scrubber 500,000
80 – 90
alkaline
oxidative
Biological Bio filtration 100 - Temperature
70 – 95
cleaning 100,000
Bio trickling 1,000 - Temperature
70 – 99
500,000
Biological - Temperature
70 – 95
scrubber
Moving bed 5,000 - Temperature
80 - >
trickling 40,000
98
filter
Thermal Thermal 90 – 86,000 Ingoing
98 –
oxidation incinerator concentration
99,9
VOC
Catalytic 90 – 90,000 ingoing
incinerator 80 – 99 concentration
VOC
Flare < 1,800,000 Caloric value of
> 99
ingoing gas
Cold Ionization 80 – 20 – Fluid percentage
oxidation 99.9 200,000 of ingoing gas
Photo 2,000 – Temperature,
80 -98
oxidation 60,000 fluid percentage
Chemical Selective < 200,000 High T required
reduction non-catalytic 40 -70
reduction
Selective < 1,000,000 High T required
catalytic 80 - 97
reduction
Non- < 35,000
selective
90 – 98
catalytic
reduction
Remaining Membrane < 3,000
99.9
techniques filtration
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3.2 Lay-out fact sheets
Title / synonyms
First a common name for the technique concerned is given as a title, followed by synonyms
that are used in practice .
Brief description
Here the main description of the technique is given. The abatement principle is clarified
using a schemetic diagram. Often VITO provides a more extensive description:
http://www.emis.vito.be/Luss/.
Applicability
Under this heading the industrial sectors are listed wherein these techniques are often
applied. The list is not always exhaustive and the application of the technique in other
sectors than indicated is possible.
Also the efficiency, remaining emission and the quality of these data are listed here. The
quality of the information is divided into three categories:
- Validation number 1 means no validation: the numbers are not substantiated by
measurement reports.
- Validation number 2 means limited validation: when measurements weren’t directly
presentable or available, for example when measurements are mentioned in an
environmental permit or measurements taken by a non-certified agency.
- Validation number 3 means validation: the numbers are substantiated by at least one
measurement report.
The efficiency and emission data used here are those gained from suppliers and/or
competent authorities. The values were often gained under different circumstances and in
specific situations and thus must be regarded as indicative. The preconditions and process
conditions are of great importance and are often presented as a wide range. The wide
ranges are a result of the often wide variety in possible applicability of a technique.
Measured values are based upon half-hour average values as prescribed in the NeR.
Elaborate description
Some techniques have a strong resemblance to the described technique and may be seen
as a variant of this technique. In those cases they are referred to in the fact sheet as a
variant and are not described in a separate fact sheet. The variants can be found easily
through the index in the back of this document.
Qualitative criteria for design and maintenance are also described under this heading. The
quantitative information on maintenance, when available, is listed under the financial
aspects.
The elaborate description also further examines the monitoring. A brief consideration is
given of the points of interest. Monitoring is a very important and complex aspect of air
emission abatement techniques and the corresponding emissions of residues. A further
observation of this subject falls outside of the range of the fact sheets and for this we refer
to the specific literature and legislation on this subject like the NeR and BEES (Netherlands
decree on emission limits for combustion plants).
Environmental pros and cons

The pros and cons listed here apply to the application of the technique in an “average
situation”. In specific situations these pros and cons won’t all apply. The cross media effects
may imply an important pro or con for the environment and are mentioned here for this
reason. Also the use of additional materials, which is connected to the assessment, is
mentioned here because it may affect the choice of a technique in a severe(ly) (negative)
manner.
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Financial aspects
The ranges mentioned give an indication of the costs. The exact costs of course depend on
the specific conditions, situation (existent or not) and configuration of the technique. The
costs apply to operational costs and investment costs. These costs can be subdivided
further, for example into fixed costs, like maintenance and operation, and variable costs
like gas, water, electricity and residue processing (see method 4.13 from the NeR).
Operational costs in the fact sheets basically imply all these costs, unless otherwise
indicated. As many nuances as possible were taken into consideration. Where possible the
personal costs, or utility costs (including electricity) are explicitly mentioned. The
aforementioned investment costs apply to the bare purchase price. Additional and single
investments may far exceed this purchase price, especially in existent situations. Chapter 6
offers examples for calculating the cost effectiveness of several techniques.
Information source
Here the most important reference documents used to test the existing information (L26)
are listed. Besides the documents listed under this heading especially the suppliers (Annex
3) and the competent authorities (paragraph 5.2) were an important source of information
for this research.
3.3 Sub-division of techniques
In chapter 4 the techniques are divided as follows:
Gravitation (paragraph 4.1)

Techniques that are based on the principle of separation by gravitation or gravity include
the settling chamber and the cyclone.
Dust scrubbers (paragraph 4.2)

The dust scrubbers are techniques where the separation of dust and air takes place by
means of using the medium water. The techniques described here include the scrubbing
(general), the venturi scrubber and the spraying tower.
Filtration (paragraph 4.3)

Filters work based on a filter medium that filters the dust from the incoming polluted gas.
The dust remains on the filter. The filter medium may consist of a fixed filter that the gas
stream and particles must pass, like a fabric filter, or an electrical field with collectors, like
the electro filter. Six different applications of this technique are described in the fact
sheets: fabric filter, ceramic filter, two-stage dust filter, absolute filter, demister, dry
electrostatic precipitator and wet electrostatic precipitator.
Condensation (paragraph 4.4.)

The techniques that belong to this group are based on the principal of separation by cooling
through means of a cooling medium and a lowering of the vapor pressure of a component
that is to be removed. Applications mentioned here are the condenser and
cryocondensation.
Adsorption (paragraph 4.5)

Adsorption is a reaction binding the polluted components to a solid or liquid, adsorbing it
and removing it from the incoming gas stream. Six different applications of this technique
are described in the fact sheets: adsorption (general), active coal, zeolite filter, polymer
adsorption, dry and semi-dry lime injection.
Absorption (paragraph 4.6)

With absorption, as opposed to adsorption, no chemical reaction takes place. In the wet
absorption section however, an exchange does take place between the absorption medium
and the component to be removed. The techniques described here are four different
applications of gas scrubbers: gas scrubber, acid gas scrubber, alkaline gas scrubber and
gas scrubber with alkaline oxidative.
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Biological cleaning (paragraph 4.7)
In case of biological cleaning, the incoming gas stream is led through a column or filter bed
consisting of micro organisms on a carrier material. The micro organisms break down the
pollution. Four techniques based on this principle are described in the fact sheets: bio
filtration, bio trickling, biological scrubbing and Moving Bed Trickling Filter (MBTF)
Thermal oxidation (paragraph 4.8)

Thermal oxidation implies the combustion of incoming gas streams at high temperatures.
Described are: the thermal incinerator, catalytic incinerator and flare.
Cold oxidation (paragraph 4.9)

As opposed to thermal oxidation, in case of cold oxidation no rise in temperature occurs.
Charged particles cause a breakdown and partial oxidation of any present pollution. The
techniques described here are: ionization and photo oxidation.
Chemical reduction (paragraph 4.10)

Chemical reduction stands for the removal of a polluted component by injecting a reducing
reagent, like ammonia, into the incoming gas. Three techniques are described in the
factsheets: SNCR, SCR and NSCR.
Remaining techniques (paragraph 4.11)

Two techniques are presented here: membrane filtration and vapor recovery, which can
either be seen as a combination of techniques or cannot be easily fitted into one of the
other categories.
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4 Fact sheets
4.1 Gravitation
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Settling chamber / Gravitational separator
Brief description
Description
The gas stream is led into a room where dust, aerosols and/or drops are separated from
the gas under influence of gravity and momentum. Because of the sharp drop in gas speed
in the settling chambers the larger particles will sink under the influence of gravity. The
separating effect becomes more effective because of the change in the gas’ flowing
direction and the collision of particles and partitions, plates or metallic gasses. Settling
chambers are primarily used as pre-separators.
Schematic diagram
Settling
chamber
Gas flow in Clean gas
Dust particles
Dust discharge
Applicability
Great range of applicability in the following sectors:
- wood and furniture industry
- construction sector
- brickyards
- glass industry
- storage and handling
- ferro and non-ferro: removal of dust for the protection of techniques in sequence.
Settling chambers are also very suitable for the removal of hot or glowing particles before
the gas stream is led to an additional technique.
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Components
Removed Removal efficiency1, % Remaining Validation number
components emission,
mg/m03
Dust 10 – 90 High; > 100 is 1
possible
1
Depending on the specific configuration and the working conditions. Values are based
upon half-hour averages. The settling chamber’s efficiency is strongly dependant on
particle size; large particles are neatly removed, smaller particles less so.
Preconditions
Gas flow, m03/h 100 – 100,000
Temperature, ºC No limitation, at least up to 540
Pressure, bar No limitation
Pressure drop, mbar Little
Fluid percentage Above dew point
Dust, g/m03 No limitation
Elaborate description
Variations
- Gravity counter stream separator: The flow direction of the incoming gas in the
separator is vertical. Under influence of gravity the particles settle in the opposite
direction of the flow direction.
- Gravity diagonal stream separator: Here the flow direction of the incoming gas in the
separator is diagonal. Under influence of gravity the particles settle perpendicular to
the flow direction.
- Impact filter: Because of the implementation of multiple obstacles, such as plates, the
gas stream is redirected. The particles cannot follow the stream direction due to their
slowness and thus are removed.
Installation: design and maintenance

Settling chambers may be constructed out of various materials, including steel and
synthetic material, depending on the composition of the incoming gas stream.
In the application of settling chambers a good uniform speed distribution is essential.
Preferential streams have a negative effect on the functioning of the settling chamber. By
using internal obstructions one can work at higher speeds, resulting in a smaller settling
chamber. Downside to this is the increase in pressure drop on the system. Leakage of cold
air into the settling chamber must be avoided to prevent condensation of the gas stream.
Condensation may lead to corrosion, dust accumulation and obstruction of the dust outlet.
Monitoring
The most frequently occurring cause of malfunction is obstruction of the chamber by dust.
This can be prevented through constant monitoring and periodical inspection of the
chamber.

Specific pros
- Reasonably suitable for the removal of large and midsized particles (> 15 Hm)
- Simple construction
- No moving parts
- Low investment costs
- Simple management
- Low maintenance
- Low pressure drop
- Low energy consumption
- Can be constructed to specifically apply in extreme conditions, for example high and
low temperatures
Specific cons
- Low removal efficiency
- Unsuitable for the removal of smaller particles, mostly suitable as a pre-cleanser of
rough particles
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- Unsuitable for sticky particles
- Large machine.
Additives
Settling chambers do not use additives. In some specific Applicabilitys (like the drip
separator), a settling chamber has cleaning system to keep the partitions and plates clean.
The amount of water needed for this depends on the applicability. It can range between
100 – 200 liters/m².
Cross Media Effects

The separated dust has to be carried off, and it may be conveyed as regular or
chemical/hazardous waste depending on the incoming gas stream’s composition.
Sometimes the dust can be recycled into the process.
Financial aspects
Investments, EUR/1,000 m03/h Small if the system is integrated into other systems
(Large inlet or convoy partition). Exact value is hard to
determine.
Operational expenses, EUR/1,000 m03/h Low
Personnel Very little
Help and additives None
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 m03/h Low, just for the ventilator
Electricity costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h Low, just for the ventilator
Cost-determining parameters Pressure drop, (if relevant) costs of conveying dust
Benefits None, (if relevant) recovery of raw materials
Information source
1. Description of air emission abatement techniques, L26 Infomil/Tauw, March 2000.
2. Guide on air cleaning techniques, VITO 2004/IMS/R/066.
3. IPPC Reference document on Best Available Techniques in Common Waste Water and
Waste Gas Treatment Management Systems in the Chemical Sector, February 2003.
4. Dutch Association of Cost Engineers, edition 25, November 2006.
5. US EPA CACT Air Pollution Control Technology Factsheet
(http://www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/dir1/fsetling.pdf)
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Cyclone / Dust cyclone / Wet cyclone / Multi-cyclone /
Vortex separation
Brief Description
Description
The contaminated gas stream is passed into the cylinder shaped chamber. The dust is
swung to the wall by the centrifugal force, after which the dust is carried of through the
bottom. The purified gas leaves the cyclone in the middle at the top. The gas entering is
forced to move down past the inside of the cyclone in a circular motion, and at the bottom
of the cyclone the incoming stream reverses and leaves the cyclone at the top.
Schematic diagram
Cyclone
Clean gas
Gas flow in
Dust removal
Applicability
Because of its relatively small efficiency and relatively high residue emission a cyclone is
used as pre-separator to take away the largest dust load, followed by, for example, a
scrubber or fabric filter. The pre-treatment usually applies to particles > 5 Hm.
Broad range of application in the following sectors:

- wood and furniture industries
- construction industry
- glass industry
- transport industry (storage and handling)
- food industry
- waste incineration
- chemical industries
- melting processes in metallurgy
- sintering processes
- coffee roasting
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Components
mg/m03
Dust (< 1 Hm) 5 - 1
Dust (6-10 Hm) 50 - 1
Dust (> 10 Hm) 90 100 2
Dust (> 50 Hm) 99 - 1
¹Depending on the specific configuration, operational conditions and reagents. Values are
based upon half-hour averages.
Preconditions
Gas flow, m03/h 1 – 100,000
Pressure, bar Not critical
Pressure drop, mbar 5 – 20
Temperature, oC Dependant on the construction; may be very
high
Dust, g/m03 Up to dozens
Extensive description
Variations
- High throughput cyclones have a diameter of more than 1.5m and are suitable for the
removal of particles 20 Hm and up.
- High efficiency cyclones have a diameter that varies between 0.4 and 1.5m and are
applicable for the removal of particles 10 Hm and up.
- Multi-cyclones are constructed in parallel out of cyclones with a diameter ranging
between 0,005 and 0,3m. Here the gas feed occurs tangential or axial, after which the
gas is brought into rotation by blades. A multi-cyclone is sensitive to good distribution
of the gas amongst the smaller cyclones. If the distribution is wrong, a reversal or
clogging of the gas may occur. Multi-cyclones can reach a high removal efficiency of
over 99%, depending on particle size.
- Electric cyclones work by applying an electric field between the centre and the wall of
the cyclone. This way the driving force pushing the particles towards the wall is
increased causing higher removal efficiency.
- Secondary flow enhanced cyclone: In a cylindrical casing the gas enters at the bottom
with a rotational movement. By tangential supply of secondary air at the top the
centrifugal forces working the particles are increased, causing a higher efficiency. The
secondary air can be clean or cleansed air.
- Condensation cyclone: these cyclones are cooled to below the dew point so substances
like fats and water condensate and can be removed.
- Wet cyclone: to increase the removal efficiency for dust (< 20 Hm) water is atomized.
The water binds to the fine dust and is drained off like slurry.
- Micronsep wringing separator: The system consists of a spiral-shaped interior that is
fitted into a cyclone-like casing. The system has an efficiency of more than 99.5% for
particles larger than 1 Hm, distinguishing itself from classical cyclones.
- Rotating particles separator (RPS): The core of the particle filter consists of the filter
element. The filter consists of a large amount of channels that, as a whole, rotate
around a collective rotation axis. Solid or liquid particles are forced against the walls by
the so-called centrifugal force and remain there. The cleansed gas or liquid leaves the
filter element and the filter can be periodically cleaned if necessary. Even at high gas
speeds (a few meters per second), particles smaller than one Hm can be caught by
increasing the filter’s length (usually up to a meter). The length and height of the
channels can thus be so dimensioned that the pressure drop amongst the channels is
restricted to a few mbar. The RDS has been applied in very different situations,
wherein a good efficiency at a low investment price was noted (efficiency is nearly on
the same level as the EPS but the costs are significantly lower). There is currently no
set supplier, only a licensee.

The efficiency of cyclones is dependant on the assessment of efficient with a low capacity or
less efficient with a high capacity. Cyclones are most efficient at high air entering speeds,
small cyclone diameter and large cylinder length, in contradiction to the so-called “high
MD-MV20090007 -19-
throughput” cyclone, where the high capacity and thus large size take their toll on the
efficiency.
The air entering speed of a cyclone is between 10 and 20 m/s, the average speed is about
16 m/s. Fluctuations in this speed (lower speed) causes the removal efficiency to sharply
drop. The efficiency of a cyclone is determined by the particle size and the design of the
cyclone.
The efficiency is increased by:

- Particle size and density
- Cyclone length
- Amount of circulations of the incoming gas stream in the cyclone
- Dust load
- Slipperiness of the inside of the cyclone
The efficiency is decreased by an increase in:

- The cyclone chamber’s diameter
- Diameter of the outgoing gas stream
- Surface of the incoming gas stream’s entry point
- Gas density
The maintenance requirements of a cyclone are simple: they have to be easily accessible
for periodical inspection for corrosion or erosion. The pressure drop has to be checked
regularly and the dust-catching mechanism has to be inspected for obstructions.
Monitoring
In order to monitor the cyclone’s efficiency the dust concentration in the cleansed gas
stream can be determined by isokinetic sampling (without obstructing the gas stream) or a
measurement method based on, for example, UV, visible light transparency, beta radiation
or particle detection.

Specific pros
- Simple construction
- Recovery of raw materials possible
- No moving parts
- Low maintenance
- Low investment costs and operational expenses
- Consistent pressure drop
Specific cons
- Low efficiency for smaller particles < 10 Hm
- High pressure drop (5 - 20 mbar) depending on the variant
- Bad results with shared loads
- Emission of waste water in case of the wet cyclone
- Not applicable for particles causing excessive corrosion or obstruction
- Potential noise pollution
Additives
- Energy consumption
- Consumption among other things dependant on the temperature of incoming gas (in
the wet cyclone’s case)
Cross Media Effects

Removed dust must be disposed off as waste product or recycled. The dust slurry of a wet
cyclone has to be treatedin a water treatment plant.
MD-MV20090007 -20-
Financial aspects
Investments, EUR/1,000 m03/h 1,200
Operational expenses None
Personnel, hours per week Up to 2
Help and additives Water (wet cyclone)
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 m03/h 0.25 – 1.5
Cost-determining parameters Gas flow, pressure drop
Benefits Potential regaining of raw materials
Information sources
Waste Gas Treatment / Management Systems in the Chemical Sector, February 2003.
(http://www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/dir1/fcyclon.pdf)
6. Interview Airtechnic Solutions, Romico Holding (rotating particles separator), 2008
7. Kok, H. Particle size distribution of emitted fine dust at industrial sources, TNO October
2006.
MD-MV20090007 -21-
4.2 Scrubbing
MD-MV20090007 -22-
Scrubbing (general) / Wet dust remover / Wet dust scrubber
Brief description
Description
Wet scrubbing is a variation on wet gas scrubbing. The two most common techniques are
the venturi scrubber and rotational scrubber. Wet scrubbing entails separating the dust by
intensively mixing the incoming gas with mater, mostly combined with a removal of the
coarse particles through us of centrifugal force. In order to achieve this, the gas is put in
tangentially (at an angle from the side). The removed solid dust is collected in the bottom
of the dust scrubber. Aside from the dust, inorganic chemicals like SO2, NH3 and VOC and
heavy metals that may be attached to the dust are removed. The major goal for which the
scrubber is applied is the removal of the dust.
Schematic diagram
Wet dust scrubber
Clean gas
Scrubbing
water
Gas flow in
Water & dust

discharge
Applicability
Many applications including the chemical industry and asphalt production. For the specific
applications, such as the venturi and rotational scrubber, we refer to the specific fact
sheets of those variants.
MD-MV20090007 -23-
Components

mg/m03
(fine) dust 99 < 10 2
¹Dependant on the specific configuration and operational conditions. Values are based
upon half-hour averages. Other components such as heavy metals and inorganic chemicals
can be removed simultaneously (also see absorption).
Preconditions
Gas flow, m03/h 720 – 170,000
Temperature, °C 4 - 370
Dust, g/m03 0.2 - 115
Pressure, bar atmospheric
Variations
There are many variations on the wet dust scrubber like the venturi scrubber, the
rotational scrubber, the whirl scrubber, the spraying chamber, the wet cyclone and the
packed bed and dish columns. Some of these scrubbers are also used as gas scrubbers.

The liquid-gas-ratio of a dust scrubber is the ratio between gas flow and the srcubber liquid
flow. For the proper dimensioning and judgment of a dust scrubber’s performance it is
important to know how much liquid per m03 is necessary to achieve the preferred level of
emission. The performance is strongly dependent on the degree of pollution of the dust
scrubber. Regular inspection, maintenance and cleaning are necessary for a good
performance.
Monitoring
To judge the dust scrubber’s performance, one can apply isokinetic sampling, UV or beta
radiation. Parameters that have to be checked regularly include the pressure drop on the
scrubber, the gas-liquid-ratio, the optimal amount of spraying water, and the pH. The dust
scrubber needs to be accessible in order to check these factors regularly.

Specific pros
- Low risk in applying dust scrubber for gas streams containing explosive or flammable
chemicals.
- May also be used as cooler for hot gasses
- Neutralizes corrosive gasses
- Simultaneous removal of dust and inorganic components
Specific cons
- Produces waste water
- Wet by-product
- Chance of freezing
- Incoming gas has to be treated further in order to prevent the forming of plumes
Additives
Water and possibly additional chemicals to increase the precipitation of the component that
is to be removed.
Cross Media Effects

Waste water that has to be treated or discharged.
Residues that have to be drained off after dehydration.
MD-MV20090007 -24-
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h 5,000
Operational costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h 5,000 – 50,000
Personnel, hours per month About 4
Help and additives Drainage of waste matter and treatment of waste
water
Energy consumption,
kWh/1,000 m03 /h < 0,5
Cost-determining parameters Scale and eventual special treatment of gas
stream
Benefits None
Information sources
4. http://www.frtr.gov/matrix2/section4/4-60.html
5. Netherlands emission guidelines for air, NeR paragraph 3.7 and Annex 4.7, 2008
MD-MV20090007 -25-
Spraying tower / Rotational scrubber / Dynamic scrubber
Brief description
Description
The spraying tower is a specific type of dust scrubber. The washing liquid is sprayed or
scattered by a fast-spinning nebulizer disc or rotating sprays, creating a large contact
surface for the drops and the gas. There are variations of the spraying tower that do not
have a spinning turbine. The gas is put in tangentially (at an angle from the side) into the
dust removal chamber. The centrifugal forces and the rotating nebulas drag the dust
particles to the chamber wall, making high removal efficiency possible. The separated dust
has to be dehydrated and disposed of.
Schematic diagram
Spraying tower
Clean gas
Droplet separator
Scrubbing
water
Rotating wheel
Gas flow in
Water & dust

discharge
Applicability
The scrubber is primarily applied for separating very small dust particles (< PM10). Other
easily soluble water components such as HF, HCI and SO2 can also be efficiently removed.
Broad range of application including the following sectors:

- chemical industry for the removal of dust and aerosols
- metal industry for various kinds of gasses
- waste-incineration
- potato processing industry for the removal of amylum
- glass industry
MD-MV20090007 -26-
- foundries
- sintering processes
- drying process
- fertilizer production
- pharmaceutical industry
- plastics industry.
Components
mg/m03
PM10 70-992 <10 2
¹Dependent on the specific configuration and operational conditions. Values are based on
half-hourly averages.
²Including particles up to 1-2 µm.
Preconditions
Gas flow, m03/h 750 – 50,000
Temperature, ºC < 200
Dust, g/m03 some
Pressure, bar low
Pressure drop, mbar low
Variations
For a more extensive description of this technique’s variants we refer to the guide on air
cleaning techniques drawn up by VITO (http://www.emis.vito.be).

Relatively small occupation of space. The presence of moving parts in the scrubbing section
can lead to high maintenance costs.
Monitoring
To measure the scrubber’s efficiency it is necessary to do isokinetic sampling on both the
incoming and outgoing dust concentration. For details we refer to the Dutch air emission
guideline, NeR paragraph 3.7 and Annex 4.7.

Specific pros
- Scrubbing water can be re-circulated without risk of clogging
- The scrubber has low pressure drop
- Can be used for sticky, explosive and flammable chemicals
- Very high efficiency, even with small particles
- Insensitive to fluctuating gas flow
- Self-cleaning
Specific cons
- Relatively high energy consumption
- Relatively high investment costs
Additives
Water and possibly additional chemicals to increase the precipitation of the component that
is to be removed.
Cross Media Effects

Waste water that has to be treated or discharged.
Residues that have to be disposed of after dehydration.
MD-MV20090007 -27-
Financial aspects
Investments, EUR/1,000 m03/h1 5.000 - 25.000
Personnel, hours per week About 1
Operational costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h 1,000 – 30.000
Residue, EUR/ton
Ranging from 100 – 250 depending on the type
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 of waste
m03/h Costs for treatment of waste water
Benefits 0,4 - 2,7 depending on design
None
¹ For capacities > 10,000 m03/h an up scaling to the power of 0.3 applies (additional costs
> price0.3 for extra capacity beyond 10,000 m03/h).
Information sources
7. Supplier information DMT Environmental Technology
MD-MV20090007 -28-
Venturi-scrubber / Venturi-scrubber / Whirl scrubber
Brief description
Description
A venturi-scrubber consists of a converged neck (the narrowest part of the venturi tube), a
diverging expansion chamber and beyond that a drip precipitator. The dust/gas mixture
streams into the venturi tube and reaches high speeds in the neck. Then the mixture
reaches the expansion chamber where the speed diminishes. The liquid is added to the gas
just before or inside the neck. Then an intensive mixing of the gas and liquid takes place in
the venturi tube. Because of the gas and liquid’s high speed the water scatters into small
drops resulting in an intense contact between the gas and liquid phases. Achieving this fine
droplet distribution takes a relatively large amount of energy. Venturi-scrubbers can be
applied for the removal of small particles (< 1 Hm) from a gas stream, although the
efficiency generally decreases with particle size. They can however also be applied for
larger particles, although in such as a case the energy consumption rate is much higher
than those of competing techniques. Some dusts cannot be removed, even at a very high
pressure drop.
Schematic diagram
Venturi scrubber
Gas in
water water
Clean gas
Dust and waste

water
Applicability
The scrubber is primarily applied for the removal of fine dust (PM10). Broad range of
application including the following sectors:
- Chemical industry
- Basic metal industry
- Asphalt production
- Wood and paper industry
- Waste incineration
MD-MV20090007 -29-
Components
Removed Removal Remaining Validation
components efficiency1, % emission, number
mg/m03
PM10 70-992 <10 2
PM0,3 à PM0,5 <50 3 - 1
HCl, HF 50 - 90 <10 2
1
Dependent on the specific configuration, operational conditions and reagents. Values are
based upon half-hour averages.
2
Dependent on particle size.
3
The efficiency is particularly low with components that are not easily humidified.
Preconditions
Gas flow, m03/h 720 – 100.000
1
Temperature, ºC 4 – 370
Dust in, g/m03 1 - 115
Pressure, bar atmospheric
1
The venturi-scrubber is also used as a cooler to quench hot gasses (up to 1,000 °C)
Variants
Some venturis have the advantage of having a neck that has a changeable diameter,
allowing for the separator to be modified in order to maintain a high efficiency at varying
capacities. One variant is the Vane-Cage scrubber, consisting of internal static blades
creating a mist.

The venturi-scrubber itself has a small volume. The total size of the installation is primarily
determined by the demister that may be several times the scrubber’s size. A liquid-gas
(L/G) ratio of 1 to 5m³ per 1,000 m0³/h can be stuck to as a guideline. The venturi is often
constructed of erosion and corrosion-proof material in order to significantly lengthen its
lifespan. Te drip catcher has to be checked for pollution regularly. In general the venturi-
scrubber requires very little maintenance.
Monitoring
In order to increase the scrubber’s efficiency it is necessary to measure the incoming and
outgoing mass. This can be done either chemically or with infrared light depending on the
components. In case of dust the measurement should be in the form of isokinetic sampling.
For details we refer to the Dutch emission guideline, NeR paragraph 3.7 and Annex 4.7.

Specific pros
- Relatively low maintenance
- High removal efficiency rates
- Simple and compact construction
- No mechanical parts
- Gaseous components are absorbed
- Insensitive to fluctuating gas capacities
Specific cons
- High pressure drops and corresponding energy consumption
- Realistic chance of erosion and corrosion
- Potential noise pollution
- Only applicable for dust (PM) and gas components easily soluble in water.
Additives
- Water
Cross Media Effects

Waste water that has to be treated or disposed of.
Residues that have to be disposed of after dehydration.
MD-MV20090007 -30-
Financial aspects
Investments, EUR/1,000 m03/h 5,000 – 7,000, depending on design
Operational costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h 2,000 – 50,000
Additives and residues Strongly dependent on the application
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 m03 /h 0.5 – 7
Benefits None
Information sources
4. EPA-CICA fact sheet: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/dir1/fventuri.pdf
8. Supplier information: Pure Air Solutions
MD-MV20090007 -31-
4.3 Filtration
MD-MV20090007 -32-
Fabric filter (filtering dust separator) / Tube filter / Bag filter
Brief description
Description
The polluted air is lead through the fabric filter and the dust particles are separated. The
dust is periodically removed from the filter and collected in a funnel (hopper) placed below
the filtering installation. The fabric filter can be attached in many ways such as in tubes,
envelopes, etc.
The incoming air usually does not stream directly into the filters but is lead through one or
multiple dividing plates. The goal here is to achieve a good distribution of the pressure on
the cloth. This way the air also uses a lot of its kinetic energy, allowing for a pre-removal
through gravity. A tapping mechanism is used to frequently remove the accumulating dust
from the filter. The dust that falls off the cloth is caught in the bottom of the filter and can
in some cases be re-cycled into the process.
Schematic diagram
Fabric filter
Clean gas
Compressed air
or mechanics for
dust discharge
Gas flow in
Dust discharge
Applicability
Fabric filters are primarily used for the removal of dust and particles up to <PM2,5. Heavy
metals present on the dust are also removed. In combination with injection systems the
technique can also be applied for the removal of specific gaseous pollutions like dioxins.
Broad range of application including the following sectors:
- Chemical industry
- Metallurgic industry
- Feed industry
- Food and stimulant industry
- Waste processing industry
MD-MV20090007 -33-
Various types of cloth can be used for different purposes. Some examples of this are given
below.
Examples of fabric filter material

Material Chemical resistance Working
Acid milieu Basic milieu temperature, ºC
Polyester Good Reasonable 130
M-Aramide Good Good 200
PTFE Very good Very 260
Polyamide Good Good 260
Components
Removed Removal Remaining Validation number
components efficiency1, % emission,
mg/m03
Dust (> 2,5 µm) 99,95 <5 3
Depending on type of
cloth used
Dioxin / furans 0,1 ng/m03 ITEQ 1
1
Dependent on the specific configuration, operational conditions and reagents. Values are based
upon half-hour averages.
Preconditions
Gas flow m03/h 300 – 1,800,000
Temperature, ºC Above dew point, < 280, depending on the
type of cloth
Pressure, bar Atmospheric
Pressure drop, mbar Up to 15
Fluid level Above dew point
Dust g/m03 0.1 – 230
Variants
- (Improved) compact filters, also known as cassette filters or envelope filters. Compact
filters are built in various sizes and with various capacities. Standard units are often
used, which can be combined into filtering installations with higher capacities. The
difference with the fabric filter is the compact construction and the way the filter
elements are installed in the filter chamber. They are installed in a way making them
easily replaceable. Synonyms include Sintamatic, Sinter-plate filter, Spirot Tubes.
- Catalytic cloths. For some specific applications catalysts can be implemented into the
cloths, making the so-called catalytic cloths. Vanadium or titanium is used as a
catalyst. The most important application is the removal of dioxins and furans, but other
pollutions such as VOC, PAHs, PCBs and other chlorinated compounds can also be
removed.
- A reactive fabric filter. This filtering material has the quality of decomposeing dioxins
and furans instead of adsorbing them. The material can withstand a temperature of
260°C works optimally at a temperature of 220°C.

The most important design parameters are:
- Incoming gas flow
- Working temperature and maximum temperature
- Incoming gas composition
- Fabric filter load (filter ratio). The fabric filter load is dependent on the type and nature
of the cloth material, the dust load and the type and size of the particles. Examples are
glass fiber: 60-120 m/h; and PFTE (Teflon): 80-100 m/h
- In the food industry the ease of cleaning and the design of the exterior is important for
hygienic reasons.
Monitoring
The performance of the filter can be checked by measuring the particle mass in the
outgoing gas. This can be done using isokinetic sampling, a UV/transparency meter,
MD-MV20090007 -34-
etcetera. Temperature and pressure have to be checked regularly. The pressure drop on
the filter determines when the cleaning cycle has to be initiated. Regular inspection of the
filters is necessary for checking the filters and casing for deterioration, so easy access to
the filter is necessary. A well-inspected fabric filter needs to have a leak-detection system
with an alarm to prevent uncontrolled emissions.

Specific pros
- High removal efficiency
- Changing loads have no influence on pressure drop and efficiency
- Removed dust can eventually be re-used as raw material
Specific cons
- Not suited for wet or sticky chemicals because of the risk of filter clogging. Eventual
heating of gas stream prevents condensation of fluid on the filter.
- Risk of explosion
- Potential electrostatic charge
- Takes up a lot of space
Additives
- Different types of cloth are available (varying in quality and depending on the type of
pollution).
- The most common filter materials are cotton, wool, nylon, polypropylene, Orlon,
Dacron, Dynel, glass fiber, Nomex, polyethylene and Teflon.
- Pre-coating of the fabric filter may be necessary in case of sticky or static chemicals for
the protection of the cloth.
- Compressed air: 3 - 7 bar is needed to clean the filter elements and for compressed air
and ultrasonic cleaning.
- Energy consumption: 0.2 – 2 kWh/1,000 m03.
- Filter cloths: 11 - 17 m2 /1,000 m03/h.
Cross Media Effects

Solid waste including the removed dust and the cloths used. The quantity is dependent on
the application. Systems with a heightened risk (explosion, fire) are to be fitted with safety
regulations such as an expansion hatch or sprinklers.
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h 1,000 – 4,500, depending on the design
Filter material, EUR/1,000 m03/h 660 – 920
Operational expenses, EUR per year/1,000 About 200 – 1,500
m03/h
Personnel, hours per week 2
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 m03/h 0.2 – 2
Cost-determining parameters Pressure drop, and eventual costs for
conveying dust
Benefits Saving in costs of raw materials when recycling
is possible, for instance in the glass industry
MD-MV20090007 -35-
Information sources
5. US EPA APTI Virtual Classroom:
http://yosemite.epa.gov/oaqps/EOGtrain.nsf/DisplayView/SI_412A_0-5?OpenDocument
6. Mikropul Filter Media Fiber Selector.
7. Various emission rapports on asphalt plants from the competent authorities, 2003-2008.
8. Kok, H. Particle size distribution of emitted fine dust in industrial sources. TNO October
2006.
MD-MV20090007 -36-
Ceramic filter (filtering dust-separator) / Ceramic filter /
High temperature filter / Candle filter
Brief description
Description
In a ceramic filter the contaminated gas is lead through filtering material, comparable to
the fabric filter. The filter ensures that the particles remain in the filtering material and the
incoming gas is cleaned. The difference with a fabric filter is that the filtering material is
ceramic. There are also designs where the acid components such as HCI, NOx and SOx and
dioxins are removed. In such a case the filtering material is fitted with catalysts and the
injection of reagents may be necessary.
Ceramic filter
Clean gas
Compressed
air
Gas flow in
Dust discharge
Applicability
Mostly applied for dust removal at high temperatures, especially with:
- combustion installations and gasification systems with coal as fuel
- waste processing industry
- plastics processing industry
- chemical industry
- glass industry
MD-MV20090007 -37-
Components
Removed Removal Remaining emission, Validation number
components efficiency1, % mg/m03
Dust 99 – 99.99 <2 2
HCl 95 unknown 1
SO2 80 unknown 1
NOx 95 < 200 1
dioxin 99 unknown 1
1
Dependent on the specific configuration, operational conditions and reagents. Values are based
Preconditions
Gas flow, m03/h 300 – 1,800,000
Temperature, °C < 1,200
Pressure, mbar ~ 50 higher of lower then atmospheric
Pressure drop, mbar 25
Fluid level Has to be above the dew point of condensable
materials in the gas to avoid clogging
Dust, g/m03 < 20
Sticky particles have to be avoided
Variants
- (Improved) compact filter
- Three-stage filter
The filtering material of the ceramic filter can be applied in many different forms. It is
possible to convert the ceramic material into cloth, fiber felt, fiber elements, sinter element
or filter candles. The table below gives an overview of the different applications:
Filter medium Filter cloth1 Fiber felt Fiber element Sinter element
Design Bag with Bag with
Pipe, self- Pipe, candle, self-
supporting supporting
carrying carrying
basket materials
Surface weights
1,000 – 2,000 2,500 – 3,500 2,000 – 4,500 12,500 – 22,800
(g/m2)
Mechanical Flexible, not Flexible, not
Half stiff, a little
qualities very grating- very grating- Stiff, grating-proof
grating-proof
proof proof
Air
High Average Average Small
transparency
1 Cloth with ceramic material

The ceramic filters require a relatively large amount of maintenance and regular inspection,
in order to prevent clogging and bad performance of the filtering elements. For these
reasons it may decided that the process temperatures should be lowered and fabric filters
installed, for they are easier to maintain.
Monitoring
outgoing gas. This can be achieved by, for example, isokinetic sampling, tribo-electric flow
gauge, UV/Transparency meter, etc. The temperature and pressure drop have to be
registered in order to determine the condition of the filtering material and to ensure that it
is cleaned in time. For details we refer to the NeR paragraph 3.7 and Annex 4.7.
MD-MV20090007 -38-
Specific pros
- High dust removal efficiency
- Modular construction
- Can handle high and varying capacities
- Can withstand acid and basic chemicals
- Removed dust may potentially be re-used
- Simple mechanic
Specific cons
- Vulnerable (ceramic material)
- Relatively high pressure drop
- A lot of maintenance and relatively large weight
- Less suitable for wet and/or sticky chemicals
- Explosion risk in case of flammable chemicals
- Relatively high operational costs compared with other filtering materials
Additives
Filtering material
Compressed air for the cleaning of the filtering elements
Cross Media Effects

The lifespan of the filtering material is dependent on the design and application. The
removed dust can be disposed of as waste or recycled back into the process.
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h 30,000 – 55,000
Operational costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h About 1,000
Help and additives, EUR/ton - 0 (in case of recycling. See: benefits)
- Inert waste: about 75 (solid, non-hazardous waste)
- Hazardous wastel: about 250
Cost-determining parameters Gas flow , filtering material, surface pressure
Benefits Cost-saving because of potential recycling of material
Information sources
1. Description of air emission abatement techniques, l26 Infomil/Tauw, March 2000.
3. IPPC, BREF Waste Gas and Waste Water Treatment, 2003.
4. Reference document on BAT in the large volume inorganic chemicals, ammonia, acids
and fertilizers industry, draft 2004.
5. Netherlands emission guidelines for air, NeR paragraph 3.7 and Annex 4.7, 2008.
6. Suppliers: Airtechnic Solutions, Lutec, Nedfilter
7. Gamma Holding, Madison Filter; Cerafil, presentation January 2007.
MD-MV20090007 -39-
Two-stage dust filter
Brief description
Description
The two-stage dust filter has metallic gauze as filtering material. In the first stage a
filtering layer is accumulated after which the filtering takes place in the second stage.
Depending on the pressure drop on the filters the second stage is cleaned and the air
stream is switched between the two stages. The first filter now serves as the second and
vice versa. The dust falls to the bottom of the installation where it may be removed.
Schematic diagram
Gereinigd
Clean gas
gas
Klep omfor turning

Valve
gasstroomrichting
gas flow
om te draaien
Metal gasket
metaalgaasfilter
filter
Klep omfor turning

Valve
gasstroomrichting
gas flow
om te draaien
Afgescheiden
Dust discharge Afgescheiden
Dust discharge
stof
stof
GasAfgas
flow in
Applicability
The two-stage dust filter has the same applications as the improved compact filter and is
primarily suited for the removal of dust. It has a range of application in the following
sectors:
- Waste processing industry
- Chemical industry
- Wood industry
- Refineries
MD-MV20090007 -40-
Components
Removed Removal efficiency Remaining emission Validation number
components [mg/m03]
Dust (PM) - 1 - 20 3
Preconditions
Gas flow, m03/h Up to 75,000 per module
Temperature, ºC Up to about 500
Pressure, bar Atmospheric
Pressure drop, mbar About 25
Fluid percentage No known limitation
Ingoing mass No limitation
Variants
One variation on the standard issue two-stage dust filter is a system with more than two
metallic gauze filters where a filtering layer is accumulated before the filter is placed into
the incoming untreated gas stream. This prevents the removal efficiency from decreasing
just after the cleaning of the filters.

The most important design parameters are the incoming gas flow and speed when
travelling through the filtering material and the filters. Because this filtering material can
handle a bigger load than a fabric filter, less filtering surface is required which may result
in gain in space. However, because of the fact this is a two-stage system this advantage is
nullified. It is claimed that the additional space in the two-stage system is entirely
compensated by the higher filter load.
Monitoring
outgoing gas. This can be done using isokinetic sampling, UV/Transparency meter, etc.
Temperature and pressure have to be checked regularly. The pressure drop on the filter
determines when the cleaning cycle should start. Regular inspection of the filter is
necessary in order to prevent deterioration of the filters and the casing, so good access to
the filter is essential. A dust filter should have a leak detection system with an alarm in
order to be sure of a good performance.

Specific pros
- High dust removal efficiency
- Regaining of solid materials is possible
- Modular structure
- Filtering material barely needs replacement, all-steel design
- Filter load higher than with a cloth or compact filter
- Also applicable for fluid, sticky, fibrous or static dust
- Can withstand high temperatures (limited fire risk)
- Possibility of regaining heat at high temperatures
Specific cons
- Higher costs than a fabric or compact filter when used at ambient temperatures, this
does not apply at higher temperatures
- Frequent changing between the two compartments (with a normal two-stage filter)
- Valves necessary in a dusty environment; greater change of malfunctions
- Explosion risk
Additives
- Metallic gauze as filtering material
- Compressed air for the cleaning of the filters
- Energy consumption
MD-MV20090007 -41-
Cross Media Effects
The removed dust can be polluted, depending on the application. For example, dioxins
and/or heavy metals can be present in the dust in case of combustion processes. The dust
may then be classified as toxic waste.
Financial aspects
3
IInvestments, EUR/1,000 m0 /h 3 40,000
Operational costs, kWh/1,000 m0 /h about 1.5
nPersonnel, hours/week About 2
fHelp and additives, EUR/ton Conveyance as toxic waste: 150 - 250
oCost-determining parameters Gas flow, pressure drop, conveyance toxic waste
rBenefits Savings or profits from regained materials (in
case of eventual recycling)
m
Information sources
4. BP Australia, Installs & commissions Pall GSS 3rd stage blow back filter system to reduce
RCC flue gas emissions, 2004.
5. Bioflamm, http://www.bioflamm.de 2008
MD-MV20090007 -42-
Absolute filter / HEPA-filter / surface filter / cartridge filter /
micro filter
Brief description
Description
The incoming gas stream is lead into a chamber and guided through a High Efficiency
Particle Air filter (HEPA filter). A HEPA’s filtering material consists of very thin glass fibers
mounted in paper or a paper filter. In order to attain the largest possible filtering surface,
the glass fiber paper is folded like a harmoniabout This is necessary because the thick mass
of glass fiber paper doesn’t let much air trough. In order to move a high enough volume of
air a large surface is required. The dust remains on the filter, but does not penetrate it. So
the process consists of surface filtration. The layer of dust that forms a layer onto the filter
can initially improve the dust removal efficiency. If the pressure drop on the filter grows
too large after some use, it has to be replaced. The HEPA-filter can be placed directly into a
piping, or in a separate casing. HEPA-filters do require a pre-cleaning stage to remove the
coarse dust. Because of this, HEPA-filters are often the last filtering stage for the removal
of dust. HEPA-filters are rarely re-used, because the cleaning of it may cause damage or
leakage of the filter.
Schematic diagram
Clean gas
Pre filter
Gas flow in
Applicability
Absolute filters are applicable for the removal of dust between PM0.12 and PM0.3 and for
toxic or dangerous particles, like most heavy metals. Because of it’s high efficiency another
installation is placed before the absolute filter for the removal of coarse particles, like an
electrostatic precipitator or fabric filter. Absolute filters are often used for the filtration of
inside air in locations where a good air quality is necessary like in operating rooms in
hospitals or in production spaces of the pharmaceutical, the photographic and the
electronics sectors. Other sectors where the absolute filter is applied include:
- Biochemical industry
- Food industry
- Chemical industry
Components
Removed Removal efficiency, % Remaining Validation number
mg/m03
PM > 99.999 > 0.0001 1
PM0.01 > 99.99 unknown 1
PM0.1 > 99.999 unknown 1
1
Depending on the specific configuration and working conditions
MD-MV20090007 -43-
Preconditions
Gas flow, m03/h 100 – 360 per module
Temperature, ºC < 200 for most common HEPA
< 530 for glass or ceramic HEPA
Pressure Atmospheric
Pressure drop, mbar Size unknown, although pressure drop is
present
Fluid level, % < 95; always above the incoming gas’ dew
point
Ingoing dust concentration, mg/m03 1 - 30
Variants
One can distinguish between two variants:
- HEPA (High Efficiency Particle Air) filter: 99.97% minimal removal efficiency for fine
dust > 0.3 micrometer
- ULPA (Ultra Low Penetration Air) filter: 99.9995% minimal removal efficiency for fine
dust > 0.12 micrometer

Absolute filters are the last filtering phase for the removal of dust, prior to the absolute
filter an ESP or fabric filter is applied in order to remove the coarse particles. Determining
parameters for the design of the mechanical aspect and the casing are temperature and
pressure. With the most common designs, the filtering units are either right-angled or
cylindrical in shape. The filter is folded in order to enlarge the surface.
Monitoring
The outgoing gas stream can be monitored with the help of an isokinetic sampler or a
meter based on UV, light-transparency, beta-radiation or particle detection.

Specific pros
- Filters submicron particles of fine dust
- Very high efficiency, low remaining emission (see applicability)
- Filtered incoming gas stream is very clean and can be re-circulated into the process
- Modular design
- Not sensitive to small variations in the gas stream
- Relatively easy operational management
- Not sensitive to corrosion
Specific cons
- Not suitable for the removal of wet dust or Applicability in humid conditions
- Not suitable for large dust loads (unless after pre-filtering)
- Not suitable for gas streams containing bases
- Explosion risk
- Frequent replacement of filtering element is necessary
Additives
Filtering material (paper and/or glass fibers) has to be replaced frequently. Energy
consumption < 0,1 kW/1,000 m03/h.
Cross Media Effects

The used filter is carried off as waste material, with one filtering module generally
absorbing 1 kilogram of dust. Multiple modules can be in effect simultaneously.
Financial aspects
Operational costs, kWh/1,000 m03/h < 0.1
Help and additives, EUR per year/1,000 100 - 190
m03/h
Cost-determining parameters Gas flow, filtering material
Benefits None
MD-MV20090007 -44-
Information sources
4. Dutch Association of Cost Engineers, Edition 25, November 2006.
5. http://www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/dir1/ff-hepa.pdf
MD-MV20090007 -45-
Demister / Aerosol filter / Deep bed filter
Brief description
Description
Most demisters are woven elements of metal or synthetic material. The filters work on the
principal of mechanical removal and depend on the speed at which the particles or drops
pass the filter. The efficiency of demisters can rise up to 99% for dust and aerosols.
Filtering elements with a small mesh for the removal of dust (1 - 3 Hm) are more efficient
for the smallest drops, but the chance of clogging increases. For the removal of sticky
matter and fatty or viscous fluids, interchangeable filters can be applied. In case of fatty
fumes the filter may become clogged if coagulation takes place as a result of a drop in
temperature.
Schematic diagram
Demister
Clean gas
Filter element
Gas flow in
Applicability
Demisters often form an integrated part of other techniques, for example a gas scrubber.
Broad range of application for the removal of pollution in the form of drops and aerosols
after steam kettles and gas scrubbers in the:
- Chemical industry
- Textile industry
- Food industry
- Plastics processing
Components
Removed Removal Remaining emission, Validation number
components efficiency1, % mg/m03
Dust, drops Scrubbing liquid with removed
and aerosols < 99% dust and polluted filtering material 1
1
Depending on the specific configuration and operational conditions. Values are based on half-
hour averages.
Preconditions
Gas flow, m03/h Up to 150,000
Temperature, °C < 170
Pressure -
Pressure drop, mbar Normally up to 25 (up to 90 at high loads)
Aerosol level, g/m03 Some
Dust, mg/m03 <1
MD-MV20090007 -46-
Variants
Besides those demisters based on woven elements of metal or synthetic materials there
are also variants based on specially designed gaskets or bended plates.

Material of choice: steel.
Dimensioning basis: gas flow and filter load.
When the demister separates drops and aerosols, these may be self-cleaning because of
the running fluid. In this is not the case, the filter should be rinsed.
Monitoring
The pressure drop after each filtering stage should be measured separately in order to
determine the performance of the filter.

Specific pros
- Self-cleaning in case of removal of fluids
- Suitable for filtration of fluid aerosols.
Specific cons
- Polluted scrubbing fluid when cleaning the filter
- Chance of high pressure drop when separating solid dust particles
- Chance of obstruction because of solid matter and fatty fumes.
Additives
- Filtering medium
- If applicable scrubbing fluid for cleaning.
Cross Media Effects

Scrubbing fluid containing removed dust and polluted filter material should be considered
waste, depending on the chemical.
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR/ 1,000 < 2,300
m03/h
Operational costs, EUR/year 2,500 + (450 * flow/1,000)
Personnel about 2 hours per week
Help and additives, EUR per 250 to 600 (filtering material)
year/1,000 m03/h
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 Energy consumption rate depends on the filtering system
m03/h
Cost-determining parameters Gas flow, pressure drop, filtering element
Benefits None
Information sources
3. IPPC BREF, Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment, 2003.
MD-MV20090007 -47-
Dry electrostatic precipitator / Electrostatic precipitator
(ESP) / Dry E-Filter / Dry ESP / Dry electrostatic precipitator
/ Electro filter
Brief description
Description
A dry electrostatic precipitator is a device that charges (ionizes) particles by means of
electrical fields and removes them from the gas stream by having them pulled towards
collecting electrodes. The removed particles fall because of gravity or (in the case of solids)
because of the periodical tapping or shaking of the collecting electrons and end up in a
dumping bunker.
There are two types of dry electrostatic precipitators:

- The plate filter wherein the gas is carried horizontally past the plates.
- The pipe filter wherein the gas is carried through the tubes vertically.
Schematic diagram
Dry Electrostatic precipitator
Isolator
Clean gas
Discharge electrode
Collector electrode
High voltage
Gas flow in
Discharge of
dust
Applicability
The primary areas of application are large complex waste gas cleaning systems in power
plants and waste incineration facilities.
Components
Removed Removal efficiency1, Remaining emission, Validation number
components % mg/m03
Dust, aerosols 5 – 20 3
PM1 > 97
PM2 > 98
PM5 > 99.9
1
Depending on the specific configurations and operational conditions. Values are based on half-
hour averages.
MD-MV20090007 -48-
Preconditions
Gas flow, m03/h 360,000 – 2,000,000 (plate filter)
1,800 – 180,000 (pipe filter)
Temperature, °C ^ 700
Pressure drop, mbar 0.5 – 3
Dust, mg/m03 2 - 110 (plate filter)
1 – 10 (pipe filter)
Extended description
Variants
The two-stage electro-filter consists of two compartments, with the ionization of the
particles taking place in the first compartment and the removal and collection of the
particles in the second compartment.

- Material of choice: steel
- Dimensioning basis: gas flow, gas speed in filter (0.6 - 1 m/s)
- Capacity (m3/1,000 m03/h): 1.4 – 2.8
Construction aspects
An electro-filter consists of one or more chambers among which the incoming gas is evenly
divided. This done by means of a gas-dividing screen. The system is built based on a series
of independently operating fields, placed in serial order. The first field removes the majority
of the dust, while the last fields are there in order to keep the remaining emissions low.
Independently coordinated fields are preferred because of the operational safety. Each field
should be fitted with it’s own dust funnel.
Cleaning of the electrodes

Because of the electrodes being tapped the removed dust can be collected in the dust
funnel. However, when too many plates are being cleaned at the same time the remaining
emission will temporarily be higher. It is thus beneficial to limit the amount of electrodes
being tapped simultaneously. The plates should be tapped frequently in order to prevent
the layer of fly ash to become too thick and thus decreasing the efficiency. However, when
the plates are tapped too often, the fly ash layer doesn’t become thick enough, and breaks
of into pieces and is sucked away with the gas stream. The configuration of the plates is
important in this regard, with low gas-speed zones and the height/width ratio of the plates
being essential for a good efficiency.
Maintenance
Electro-filters are relatively sensitive to proper maintenance and adjustments in the
settings. Especially the removal of dust and the tapping mechanism may be a cause for
extra maintenance.
Monitoring
The performance of the filter can checked by measuring the particle mass in the effluent
gas. This can be done by means of isokinetic sampling or a UV transparency meter. For
details we refer to NeR paragraph 3.7 and Annex 4.7. The system itself is to be regularly
checked for corrosion of the electrodes and the isolation material.

Specific pros
- Very high efficiency (including small particles)
- Dust can be removed dry, making re-use possible.
- Suitable for very large gas streams.
- Suitable for use at high temperatures.
- The efficiency of electro-filters can be increased by adding additional fields or zones.
- Low pressure drop.
MD-MV20090007 -49-
Specific cons
- Less suited for processes with varying gas streams, temperatures or dust
concentration. This however, can be compensated for by automatic adjustments.
Varying operational conditions are no problem, if the installation is designed for the
worst case situation.
- Sensitive to maintenance and the right settings.
- Risk of explosion in combination with flammable chemicals such as soot.
- Cleaning capacity is dependent on the conductibility of the chemicals that are to be
removed.
- Takes up a lot of space.
Additives
None
Cross Media Effects

The removed dust can be re-used as, for example, filling matter in the asphalt and cement
industry (depending on the dust’s nature), or it has to be disposed of as waste.
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR/1,000 m03 /h 10,000 – 30,000 (for systems 30,000 –
200,000 m03/h)1
Operational costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h 0.05 – 0.1 (for systems > 50.000 m03/h)
Personnel, hours/day about 0.25 (maintenance of electrodes)
Help and additives, EUR/ton Processing costs of the removed dust are
dependent on the nature of the remaining
dust.
In case of recycling: 0
Inert non-hazardous waste: about 75
Chemical waste: 150 – 250
Energy consumption, kW/1,000 m03/h 0.2 - 1
Cost-determining parameters Gas flow, dust concentration, efficiency
Benefits Use of removed dust
1)
Costs may turn out higher when the system has to be constructed out of stainless steel
or titanium as a result of the nature of the dust that is to be separated.
Information sources
1. Fact sheets on air emission abatement techniques, www.infomil.nl, Infomil
2. Guide on air cleaning techniques, VITO 2004/IMS/R/066
3. IPPC, BREF, Large Combustion Plants, 2006
4. IPPC, BREF Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment, 2003
6. Dutch power station, emission measurement, 2008
7. Kok, H. Particle size distribution of emitted fine dust in industrial sources, TNO October,
2006
MD-MV20090007 -50-
Wet electrostatic precipitator / Wet E-filter / Wet ESP / Wet
Electrostatic precipitator / Electro-filter
Brief description
Description
A wet electrostatic precipitator consists of one or more chambers among which the
untreated gas is evenly divided. This is done by means of a gas-dividing screen. The filter
consists of a number of independently operating, serially placed electrodes. The wet
electrostatic precipitator works in the same way as the dry version, however the collecting
electrodes are not tapped, but the removed dust is removed by a flushing liquid. The
incoming air should be moistened beforehand.
There are two types of wet electrostatic precipitators:

- The plate filter wherein the gas is carried horizontally past the plates.
- The pipe filter wherein the gas is carried through the tubes vertically.
Schematic diagram
Wet Electrostatic filter
Isolator
Clean gas
Discharge electrode
Collector electrode
High voltage
Water in
Gas flow in
Dust discharge
Applicability
The primary areas of applications are small-scale waste gas cleaning systems in the metal
industry and the chemical industry where dry electrostatic precipitators do not suffice when
handling wet and sticky matter, flammable and explosive mixes and material with a high
resistance. It is also applied for the removal of mercury in waste incineration plants.
Components
Removed Removal efficiency1, Remaining Validation number
components % emission,
mg/m03
Dust, aerosols 97 – 99 - 1
1
Depending on the specific configuration and operational conditions. Values are based upon half-
hour averages.
MD-MV20090007 -51-
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h 180,000 – 900,000 (plate filter)
1,800 – 180,000 (pipe filter)
Temperature, °C 80 - 90
Pressure drop, mbar Some
Dust, g/m03 2 - 110 (plate filter)
1 – 10 (pipe filter)
Variants
The two-stage electro-filter consists of two compartments with the ionization taking place
in the first and the particles being collected in the second.

- Material of choice: steel.
- Capacity: 1.4 - 2.8 m3 per 1,000 m03/h.
- Sensitive to proper maintenance.
Monitoring
The performance of the filter can be checked by measuring the particle mass in the effluent
gas. This can be done by means of isokinetic sampling, a UV/Transparency meter, etcetera.
For details we refer to the NeR, paragraph 3.7 and Annex 4.7. The system should be
checked regularly on corrosion of the electrodes and the isolation material.

Specific pros
- Very small particles can be removed
- Both wet and dry dust is removed
- System can be constructed in modules
- Partial removal of acid fumes.
- At a voltage of > 50 kV, the removal is independent of the residence time, making
compact construction possible.
- It is possible to remove sticky particles, fumes and explosive chemicals.
Specific cons
- Waste water is released
- The electro-filter is very heavy
- High investment costs.
Additives
Scrubbing liquid (usually water) is used as an additive. This can be (partly) recycled,
minimizing the consumption rate.
Cross Media Effects

The removed dust and waste water can be re-used or has to be disposed of as waste.
MD-MV20090007 -52-
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR per 1,000 60,000 – 300,000 (systems of 30,000 – 200,000
m03/h m03/h)
Operational costs 0.05 – 0.1 (systems larger than 50,000 m03/h)
Personnel, hours/day about 0.25 (maintenance electrodes)
Help and additives, EUR/ton Processing costs of the removed dust is dependent
on the nature of the dust.
Recycling waste: 0.
Inert waste: about 75
Chemical waste: 150 – 250
Energy consumption, 0.2 – 1 (including fan)
kW/1,000/m03/h
Cost determining parameters Flow, dust concentration, efficiency
Benefits Eventual recycling of removed dust
Information sources
1. Fact sheets on air emission abatement techniques, www.infomil.nl, InfoMil
3. IPPC, BREF, Large Combustion Plants, July 2006.
4. IPPC, BREF Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment, 2003.
MD-MV20090007 -53-
4.4 Condensation
MD-MV20090007 -54-
Condenser / Heat exchanger / Odour control condensation
(OCC)
Brief description
Description
When applying a condenser (odour) components (including acids, alcohols and ammonia)
are removed from a gas stream that is saturate with water or warm and damp, by
condensing to far below the water’s dew point. The condensate that forms on the heat
exchanger, serves as an absorption liquid (only) for (odour) components that are easily
dissolvable in water. The relatively large contact surface that is required for the exchange
of heat is also used as a contact surface for the exchange of dust. After passing trough the
condenser the gas stream is 100% saturated with water, and the remaining condensate
drips are to be collected with a demister. The odour components are absorbed in the
condensate.
Schematic diagram
Clean gas
Separator
Gas flow in
Cooler
Condensate
Coolant
Applicability
Condensation is primarily applied for the cleaning of humid gasses with odour components
or high solvent concentrations (> 50 g/m03). For solvents, cryocondensation is often
applied (see fact sheet on cryocondensation). Condensation is also used as a preliminary
treatment so that abatement technique is less loaded, reducing the total processing costs.
- Food industry
- Feed industry
- Composting facilities
- Sludge processing facilities
Components
mg/m03
Ammonia 80 – 90 - 1
Odour 60 – 90 - 1
Dust 80 – 90 - 1
1
Depending on the specific configuration and operational conditions.
MD-MV20090007 -55-
Preconditions
Flow, m03/hour 100 – 100,000
Fluid level Humid or saturated incoming gas stream The water dew
point should be at a temperature of 42 ºC or above.
Dust, mg/m03 < 50, not sticky
NH3, mg/m03 200 – 1,000
Odour, ouE/m03 >50,000. Can only be applied for (odour)components
easily dissolvable in water.
Variants
Two types of heat exchangers are applied:
- Conventional Shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
- Spiral heat exchanger, consisting of two concentric passages. The coolant streams
through one passage en leaves the heat exchanger through the center. The incoming
gas enters through the center and exits the heat exchanger at the periphery
(counterflow principal).
There is also a difference between direct and indirect systems:

- With direct systems, the coolant comes in direct contact with the incoming gas stream.
This causes a very good heat exchange. Practical designs include, for example, the
spraying chamber. The disadvantage is that the coolant then has to be processed to
remove the dissolved chemicals.
- With indirect condensers the coolant does not come in direct contact with the incoming
gas. Thus, the cooling medium does not get polluted. The disadvantage is that this
way, it is impossible to remove sticky chemicals.

Condensation may occur at different temperatures, depending on the composition of the
incoming gas stream. This has an effect on the construction of the condenser and the
accompanying cooling unit (for cooling the coolant that runs through the condenser). The
cooling unit may consist of, for example, a compression cooling unit (low condensation
temperatures) or a cooling tower (higher condensation temperatures up to 25ºC). The
cooling of the gas streams to below 25-30ºC often only guarantees a minimal improvement
in efficiency, considering that the amount of condensation will only increase very little in
such a case. In order to increase the humidity level in the air, especially for relatively hot
and dry gas streams, it is useful to humidify the air in advance.
Monitoring
The removal efficiency of the installation is determined by measuring the concentration of
the component that is to be removed (like odour) before and after passing through the
condenser. For odour components the efficiency can be determined by means of olfactory
measurement. Ammonia can be chemically determined, when wet. A measurement of the
dust concentration should take place under isokinetic conditions.

Specific pros
- Compact and robust technology
- Possibility of recovering (some) heat
- Suitable for separating the majority of the pollution, making more economical or
technical use of the subsequent processing techniques possible.
- Possibility of regaining solvents, if the composition of the dissolved VOCs allows for
this.
Specific cons
- In some designs cooling water is necessary
- The removal efficiency is dependent on the incoming gas composition and flow
- Often further treatment is necessary.
MD-MV20090007 -56-
Additives
- Coolant, for the coolant other supporting additives are necessary
- Corrosion-inhibitors
- Biocides to prevent the growth of bio-organisms
- Energy for cooling installation.
Cross Media Effects

In case of direct condensation the components from the incoming gas stream are absorbed
by the coolant. The amount of waste water corresponds directly to the amount of
condensation water, that in turn corresponds directly to the fluid level and the selected
cooling temperature. For example: when cooling 100% saturated air from 50 to 25ºC,
about 80 liters of condensation fluid gets released per 1,000 m03.
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR per 1,000 m03/h 7,500 – 15,000
Operational costs Unknown
Personnel, hrs/week 2
Help and additives Coolant, depending on the system
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 m03/h Energy consumption depending on the type
and application of the cooling system
Cost determining parameters Coolant temperature and flow, airflow and
temperature.
Benefits Eventual re-covery of remaining heat
Information sources
5. Supplier information: DMT Environmental technologies.
MD-MV20090007 -57-
Cryocondensation / Cooled condensation
Brief description
Description
Cryocondensation is based primarily on the condensation of volatiles by cooling. The
remaining emission is determined by the selected temperature; the remaining emission
decreases at a lower temperature. With a precise control on temperature, the components
can be removed at the required rate. The cooling may take place through the use of liquid
nitrogen or by using a compression cooling system.
Schematic diagram
Cryocondensation Clean gas
Separator
Gas flow in
Liquid
nitrogen Heat exchange
Atmosphere or
reuse
Secondary cooling system
Applicability
Cryogenic condensers are applied with:
- process gasses from reactors
- gasses from storage tanks (especially during filling)
- small gas streams with high VOC-concentrations
- chemical industry
- (hazardous) waste-treatment industry
- transport of chemicals
Components
mg/m03
Acetone - < 150 3
Dichloromethane - < 20 3
MEK - < 150 3
Methanol - < 150 3
Toluene - < 100 3
VOC > 99 < 150 3
1
hour averages.
MD-MV20090007 -58-
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h Maximum < 5,000; standard about < 250
Pressure 20 mbar – 6 bar
Pressure, mbar A few dozen
Fluid level Dry gas stream; the forming of ice with the condensation
may not occur, eventually by de-humidifying
Ingoing concentration,
g/m03
Acetone
MEK
Methanol Up to 1,000
Toluene
VOC
Variants
Direct use of nitrogen: there is the possibility to bring liquid nitrogen directly into the gas
stream. The solvents will then freeze in the air and produce solvent snow. This snow is
then removed by filtering. The solvents are later regained by defrosting them.

In order to increase the removal of the solvents a few points of attention must be
considered:
- A sufficiently long residence time and a turbulent stream in order to cool all the gas;
- The condenser temperature has to be low enough and there has to be enough cooling
capacity available;
- The amount of air in the organic fraction should be kept to a minimum. This air causes
a higher energy consumption rate and a higher percentage of solvents that cannot be
removed (lower efficiency). In order to limit the volume of air, a form of adsorption can
be applied where the more concentrated de-sorption stream is processed in the
condenser. This causes a severe drop in cooling power and a heightened removal
efficiency in the condenser;
- The temperature of the condenser is best kept below the freezing point of the solvent
so the damp pressure of the solvent is kept to a minimum;
- Periodically, the solvents have to be removed from the condenser surface;
- The effectiveness can be increased by compressing the incoming gas.
Nearly any emission value can be achieved, as long as the cooling is strong enough. In
practice, it has rarely been lower than -95°C, with an average temperature between -50°C
and -80°C. The final dimensioning is based on a careful assessment between the efficiency,
the remaining emission and the amount of recoverded VOC on the one hand and the
investments and operational costs, including the nitrogen consumption, on the other hand.
Most systems are applied on relatively small gas flows (up to 50 m03/hour) and for the
treatment of batch emissions, for which the system is on stand-by during most of its
operational time. Non-stop systems larger than 250 m03/h are less common, the largest
units in construction have a range of around 500 m03/h; for applications larger than 1000
m03/h condensation temperatures are limited to -30°C. Systems are usually designed to
reach an efficiency of at least 99%. If necessary an adsorption technique (active coal,
zeolith) is used afterwards in order to meet the emission limit values.
Monitoring
The condenser has to be defrosted regularly in case ice forming takes place. This can be
done by periodically defrosting or by defrosting depending on the amount of ice on the
condenser. The system can be fully automated. The pressure drop has to be checked in
order to prevent leaks.
MD-MV20090007 -59-
Specific pros
- Compact technology
- Recovering of organic solvents if the solvents can be recovered purely;
- The required final concentration can be steered by carefully selecting condenser
temperature;
- High efficiency in case of high VOC concentrations.
Specific cons
- Consumption of liquid nitrogen which has to be produced or obtained;
- In case of humid gas streams, precautions have to be made in order to minimize ice
forming on the condenser, for example by de-humidifying.
Additives
- Liquid nitrogen. The consumption of liquid nitrogen can be divided into stand-by
consumption (for keeping the system at the right temperature) and the consumption
for the cooling of the (warm) incoming gas stream down to the required temperature
plus the energy that is needed to condense the components (equal to damping heat).
Consumption rate averages at 10 - 15 kg/kW cooling.
- Compressed air. A minimal use of compressed air for the pneumatic control of the
system. This compressed air should be moisture-free.
- Energy consumption. If the cooling takes place by a compression cooling system, the
energy consumption rate is around 70 kWh per 1,000 m03, The energy consumption is
dependent on the cooling system and the damping temperature.
Cross Media Effects

- Remaining emissions are primarily determined by the chosen temperature. Also, inert
nitrogen releases, which could be used in a limited number of processes. In order to
minimize the unwanted emission of condensed drops, the use of a de-misting unit is
inevitable;
- Condensate. The condensate can be reused, processed or disposed of as liquid waste.
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h 400,000 apart from nitrogen storage and additional techniques
Operational costs -
Personnel, days per week 1
Help and additives, kg/kW cooling Nitrogen consumption 10 – 15
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 m03 Nitrogen cooling; negligible
Compressor cooling system: 7
Cost-determining parameters Gas flow, cooling capacity, desired cleaning level
Benefits Recovering of product (in some cases)
Information sources
1.Description of air emission abatement techniques, L26 Infomil/Tauw, March, 2000.
2.Guide on air cleaning techniques, VITO 2004/IMS/R/066.
3.IPPC Reference document on Best Available Techniques in Common Waste Water and
4.Dutch Association of Cost Engineers, edition 25, November 2006.
5.US EPA CACT Air Pollution Control Technology Fact Sheet
6.http://www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/dir1/refrigeratedcondensers.pdf
7.Linde Gas Benelux, 2008.
MD-MV20090007 -60-
4.5 Adsorption
MD-MV20090007 -61-
Adsorption (general)
Brief description
Description
Adsorption is a heterogenic reaction where the polluted components are attached to a solid
or liquid (adsorbent) that has a tendency to attach itself to a certain chemical, and thus
removed from the incoming gas stream, Adsorption is a exothermic process. If the
adsorbent is completely saturated, it can be decomposed or regenerated (de-sorption).
During the regeneration the removed components return in high concentrations and can
then be recovered or disposed of. There are different kinds of adsorbents, with active coal
being the one most applied. Different designs are available, with a distinction between
systems with integrated continuous regeneration of the adsorbent and systems where the
regeneration takes place separate from the adsorption process.
The de-sorption can be realized by lowering the pressure, increasing the temperature or a
combination of those. For the de-sorption, usually steam, hot air or hot inert gas are used.
The gasses that are released in the de-sorption process require further treatment. In case
of steam or vacuum regeneration, the solvent can easily be regained from the de-sorption
gasses using a condenser. This leaves only a very small stream of non-condensable
components that can be sent back to the adsorption circle. It is important to remember
that the operational capacity of the adsorbent is smaller in a regenerative installation than
it is when using fresh adsorbents. This is because not all active places are returned in the
de-sorption cycle.
When using active coal, the operational capacity is approximately 50% of the capacity
when using fresh active coal. With zeolite, the capacity is about 90% of that when using
fresh zeolite and with polymer the capacity varies between 50% and 90%. This should be
considered when designing the installation.
Specific designs are further explained in the followingfact sheets. The diagram below
represents an overview of the different adsorbents, systems and regeneration processes.
Schematic diagram
These techniques all

Active coal have continuous
adsorbent regeneration
Continuous
Zeolites moving bed
adsorption
Polymers
Fluid bed Regeneration fixed bed
adsorption
Thermal regeneration
Fixed bed Vacuum regeneration

adsorption
MD-MV20090007 -62-
Applicability
- degreasing
- paint sprayers
- solvents extraction
- surface treatment of metals, plastics and paper
- pharmaceutical sector
- foundries
- chemical sector
- waste incineration plants.
Adsorption is less suitable for high concentrations of VOCS because this severely increases
the regeneration costs.
Components
mg/m03
VOC 80 – 95 -
See: specific
Toluene 90 -
adsorption
Odour 80 – 95 - techniques
Mercury - < 0.01 – 0.05
H2S 80 – 95 -
Dioxins - <0.1 mg TEQ2/m03
1
hour averages.
2
TEQ = Toxicity equivalent
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h 100 – 100,000
Temperature, ºC Active coal: 15 – 80
Zeolites < 250
Pressure, bar Active coal: 0.1 – 2
Zeolites: atmospheric
Fluid level, % Active coal: < 70, as low as possible
VOC Maximum of 25% of LEL1 value
Dioxins, mg TEQ*/m03 10 -100
1
LEL = lower explosion limit.
Variants
The most important designs are:
- Fixed bed adsorption. Fixed bed adsorption is applied often, usually with multiple beds
so that one bed can be regenerated while the other remaining beds process the
incoming gas. The regeneration is not integrated and is achieved by heating the
adsorbent, by creating a vacuum or through pressure-swing adsorption.
- Floating bed adsorption. The incoming gas stream (with a speed between 0.8 and 1.2
m/s) keeps the adsorbent floating. The adsorbent has to be able to withstand wear and
tear to prevent it from decaying to dust. The regeneration is continuous because the
adsorbent is regenerated by a heat exchanger under the adsorber. The adsorbent is
then pneumatically re-routed into the system.
- Continuously moving bed adsorption. The adsorbent is continually entering through the
top of the adsorber and thus passes the incoming gas counter-stream. In the bottom of
the adsorber the saturated adsorbent is conveyed and regenerated in a moving bed
regenerator.
- Pressure swing adsorption (PSA). PSA removes gasses or fumes from a gas stream and
continuously regenerates the adsorbent. The process consists of four stages. 1)
Pressure is built up from the gas flowing into the adsorber. 2) Adsorption of pure
components takes place at a high pressure. 3) Pressure is lowered. 4) Components are
released at high pressure or in a vacuum.
MD-MV20090007 -63-
Regeneration
- Thermal regeneration: with thermal regeneration the installation consists of 2 or more
adsorbing beds. While one bed is regenerated the other remains active for adsorption.
The third bed (if present) is dried and cooled after regeneration and remains on
standby. The regeneration can be achieved through steam, hot air, hot nitrogen, built-
in heating elements and micro-waves. This happens at temperatures between 80 and
200 °C. After de-sorption, cooling air is blown through the bed so it cools and dries.
This is done until the preferred temperature and moisture are achieved. Thermal
regeneration is most suitable for VOC.
- In a rotor concentrator the adsorbent is placed in a spinning wheel. The wheel’s largest
surface is used to remove the pollution from the incoming gasses. A small part of the
rotor is used for de-sorption. In a concentrator the incoming gasses the gasses are
concentrated 10 - 15 times, making it possible for the following incinerator to be 10
times smaller in scale and thus consuming only a fraction of the additional fuel required
originally. Especially with large incoming gas flows with low solvent concentrations, a
rotor concentrator is present to lower the costs of cleaning the incoming gas. It is
important that the concentrated gas stream stays below 25% of the lower explosion
limit (LEL) as a safety measure.

See the specific fact sheets.
Monitoring
Determining the pressure drop is important for determining the clogging of the filter by
dust or by pulverization of the granules. The pressure should be evenly divided and
constant over the whole bed. Measuring the temperature is necessary in order to prevent
fires. By continuously measuring one can determine when a bed is saturated and has to
start regeneration. This causes the beds and the de-sorption to be fully optimized leading
to a higher energy efficiency.

Specific pros
- high efficiency for the removal and regaining of VOC
- simple and robust technology
- high saturation value of the adsorbent
- easy installation and maintenance.
Specific cons
- dust particles in the incoming gas stream may cause complications
- mixtures may cause a premature bursting of the adsorption bed
- not suitable for humid incoming gas streams
- fire risk.
Additives
See the specific fact sheets for active coal and polymers.
Cross Media Effects

When no regeneration takes place, the adsorbent should be treated as waste and
incinerated (unless it contains mercury). In case of regeneration using steam, waste water
is released with relatively high concentrations of waste materials.
Financial aspects
See the specific fact sheets.
Information sources
1. Description of air emission abatement techniques, L26, Infomil/Tauw, March 2000.
5. US EPA CACT Air Pollution Control Technology Fact Sheet
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/dir1/fadsorb.pdf
MD-MV20090007 -64-
Adsorption of active coal / Active coal filtering / Coal filter
Brief description
Description
Active coal is a micro porous inert carbon matrix with a very large intern surface (700 to
1,500 m²/g) making it ideal for adsorption. The gas stream is lead through the active coal,
where the components that are to be removed are combined until the active coal is
saturated. After reaching the saturation level of the active coal, the coal is replaced or
regenerated. When replaced, the loaded active coal is often taken back by the
manufacturer that treats it as hazourdous waste or regenerates it. When the company
regenerates the coal themselves it is known as regenerative adsorption. Detailed
information concerning adsorption can be found in the fact sheet ‘Adsorption (general)’.
Schematic diagram
Active coal adsorption

Clean gas
Heat
Air
exchan
ger
Gas flow in
Active coal
Combustion
chamber
Burner
Desorption
Applicability
Active coal has a very broad range of application including the following sectors:
- foundries
- printing works (VOC)
- waste incinceration (dioxins, heavy metals like mercury and other remaining emissions)
- steel industry, cement industry, coal-fired power plants
- landfills and solvent recuperation (including synthesis gasses, hydrogen, natural gas,
carbon dioxide)
- food industry and stimulant industry
- (petro)chemical industry.
MD-MV20090007 -65-
Components
Removed Removal efficiency1, Remaining emission, Validatiekengetal
components % mg/m03
VOC 80 – 95 5 – 100 3
Odour 80 – 95 - 3
Mercury > 983 < 0.05 3
H2S 80 – 95 - 3
Dioxines > 98 <0.1 ng TEQ2/m03 3
Toluene 90 - 3
1
Depending on the specific configuration, operational conditions and reagents. Values are based
on half-hour averages.
2
TEQ = Toxicity equivalent
3
With a fixed bed filter removal efficiencies up to 99,5% are possible. When cleaning waste gas,
powder coal is often used making efficiencies up to 98% possible.
The effectiveness is dependent on the type of pollution, the type of active coal used and
the incoming gas temperature and humidity. With a proper functioning installation, one can
expect an efficiency of 95 - 99% with incoming concentrations of 500 - 2,000 ppm. When
functioning properly, concentrations of 400 - 2,000 ppm can be decreased to below 50
ppm.
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h 100 – 1,000,000
Temperature, ºC 15 – 80, ideally about 20
Pressure, bar 1 – 20
Pressure drop, mbar About 10
Fluid level, % < 70; minimal precondition is no condensation. At humidity levels
above 70%, the efficiency will decrease because of the water
taking up the active spaces in the carbon.
Dust, mg/m03 Dust levels low enough to prevent the forming of obstructions in
the bed. Basically, the air has to be dust-free. A maximum value 3³
is essential.
Ingoing concentration:
VOC, mg/m03 10 - 50,000
3
Odour, ouE/m 5,000 - 100,000
Mercury, mg/m03 1 - 10
Dioxins, ng TEQ/m03 10 - 100
H2S, ppm Maximum of 1,000
Variants
There are many different designs of the active coal bed:
- filled cartridges
- loose sheet-ironed coal in a packed bed
- injection of powdered coal combined with a fabric filter
- prepacked filtering cartridges that have to be periodically replaced in the filtering
installation (for systems with that are not fully loaded)
- Impregnated active coal. For specific applications and to increase the removal efficiency
the active coal is chemically treated or impregnated. Impregnated active coal adsorbs
and holds the specific components long enough for the chemical to react with the
pollution (chemi-sorption). Impregnated active coal is specifically designed for the
removal of chemical components that are hard to adsorb with regular active coal.
Potential applications include:
• Active coal impregnated with oxydators, like KMnO4, for the removal of odour.
• Active coal impregnated with sulfur compounds in order to better remove heavy
metals such as Hg (mercury) by forming of sulfides.
• Impregnation with potassium iodide in order to increase the adsorbing capacity for
H2S, with H2S being oxidized into SO2 which can be removed by rinsing the active
coal.
• Impregnation with an acid such as sulfur and phosphorus in order to remove basic
components such as NH3.
MD-MV20090007 -66-
• Impregnation with base (for example NaOH), to remove acid components such as
H2S.
- Sorbalite (active coal + lime): this mixture is used for the cleaning of the gas streams
of incinerators. This way one products can tackle both problems of SOx and dioxins.
- Active coal is also used as an additional technique to prevent emissions of dioxins and
furans. This is applied in the waste incinerators where it is referred to as a police-filter.

In practice, adsorption often takes place in a bed of active coal. In the bed, an adsorption
zone begins to form that moves away from the air intake and towards the exit as the bed
gets more saturated. The air enters the saturation zone with a 100% ingoing concentration
and leaves the zone with the lowest possible fume pressure, balanced with the active coal.
All adsorption processes are exothermal so adsorbing heat releases to the bed. Also, the
active coal or the metals on or in the active coal can cause a catalytic oxidation of the VOC
in the bed. This might cause strong local heating and even self-ignition of the bed that
(partially) decomposes the bed. Self-ignition can be prevented by humidifying the air and
preventing any ingoing concentrations > 50 mg/m03. In this case one must also beware
that the efficiency of the active coal does not drastically decrease.
In general the saturation level is expressed in grams of adsorbed dust per kilogram of
active coal. There is a direct relation between the concentration of polluted chemicals and
the capacity of the active coal. In general an adsorption capacity of 20 - 25 g solvent
(carbon) per 100 g active coal can be adsorbed when the adsorption is effectively
functioning. If the component is not easily adsorbed, the temperature rises and the air
humidity increases, the capacity will decrease. This general capacity rate does not apply for
impregnated active coal where the process includes chemi-sorption (see variants). The life-
span of a filter can be calculated by some suppliers when inquired.
Monitoring
The efficiency can be determined by measuring the VOC concentrations before and after
the filter (using a flame-ionization detector), odour emission can be determined using
olfactory measurement. Determining the pressure drop is essential in preventing clogging
of the filter by dust. The pressure should be evenly divided across the bed. Temperature
measurement is necessary to prevent fire.

Specific pros
- high saturation level of the adsorbent
- suitable for discontinuous processes
- easy maintenance
- easy positioning
Specific cons
- dust can cause obstructions
- not suitable for very high VOC concentrations < 50 mg/m03
- mixtures of components may cause a fast bleeding of the bed
- not suitable for wet gasses (not as critical with impregnated active coal)
- risk of self-igniting the bed (ketons, turpentines)
- risk of polymerization of unsaturated VOC on the active coal (exothermal and causes
clogging)
Additives
Active coal, when saturated, should be replaced or regenerated. The active coal
consumption depends on:
- gas flow
- component concentrations; with higher concentrations, more coal is used. However the
specific load increases, in other words one needs less active coal to remove a specific
quantity of the component.
- type of component
- gas temperature: a higher temperature means a greater consumption
- gas fluid level: a higher fluid level means a greater consumption
- higher pressure decreases the volume and thus the consumption
MD-MV20090007 -67-
Cross Media Effects
The used active coal has to be regenerated of disposed of (incinerated). In most cases the
used active coal can be returned to the supplier. In most cases this is also the most
economical solution. If regeneration takes place locally the life span of the coal is increased
and the amount of waste limited.
Financial aspects
Operational costs Low, except for the purchase of active coal
Personnel A few days a year, depending on the specific
design
Help and additives, EUR/ton 800 to 1,700 non-impregnated active coal incl.
collection of saturated coal.
2,250 – 3,300 non-impregnated active coal incl.
collection and processing of saturated coal.
4,000 – 6,000 impregnated active coal incl.
collection of saturated coal.
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 m03/h Low

Electricity costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h None
Cost determining parameters Concentration and flow of gas stream, lifespan of
the filter (purchase of active coal)
Benefits Potential recovery in regeneration stage
Information sources
6. Supplier information: Norit BV, 2008
MD-MV20090007 -68-
Zeolite filter (adsorption) / Zeolite filter / Hefite filter
Brief description
Description
Zeolite is an aluminium silicate, which appears in nature but can also be produced
synthetically..Zeolites are a good adsorbent for polar chemicals. When the aluminium is
retracted from the zeolite it becomes hydrophobic, making it possible to adsorb a-polar
chemicals. Zeolites can be applied in packed beds or in an injection/fabric filter system,
just like active coal. The zeolite has a constant adsorption capacity and can be regenerated
after use.
Schematic diagram
Zeolite
adsorption
Clean gas
Air
Gas flow in
Heat exchange
Combustion
chamber
Desorption
system
Applicability
Zeolite is primarily applied for the concentrating of effluent gasses in spraying cabins,
varnish production etc. The concentrated gas can be treated more effectively than
through, for example, incineration or condensation.
Components
Removed Removal efficiency1,% Remaining Validation number
mg/m03
VOC 99 - 1
Solvents - - -
NH3 - - -
Odour 80 – 95 - 1
1
Depending on the specific configuration and operational conditions. The performance depends
on: the type of zeolite, the type of VOC, the gasses’ temperature and humidity levels.
MD-MV20090007 -69-
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h < 100,000

Temperature, °C < 250
Pressure drop, mbar -
Fluid level -
Dust -
Ingoing concentration < 25% LEL (lower explosion limit of gas)
Variants
- Zeolite combined with active coal or polymers: active coal or polymers might be used
to remove high concentrations of pollution, after which zeolites might be used as last
cleaning phase. This can be achieved by using multiple bed, or by mixing the
adsorbents in one bed.
- Amalgator: the amalgator is dedicated to removing Hg and dioxins. The principle is
based on adsorption in a special adsorption material based on vanadium oxide. The
removal efficiency is 99.8% for Hg and 99% for dioxins. In order to prevent dust
clogging, a dust filter has to be used as pretreatment when the gas stream contains a
lot of dust. The amalgator is applied in crematoria and wood furnaces, among others. A
part of the amalgator is a regeneration system. The system makes continuous
regeneration possible as well as the recovery of mercury as a fluid. When regenerating,
about 10% of the catalyst is lost (with active coal this is about 20%). Currently (2008)
there are about 35 amalgators in service. The costs are about five times higher than
with active coal, however the lifespan is also five times as long.

- Material of choice: steel (casing), fabric material
- Basis for dimensioning: flow, components that are to be removed, pilot test is preferred
- Maintenance: easy, however the zeolite is sensitive to clogging
Monitoring
The efficiency of the system can be determined by monitoring the concentrations before
and after passing the zeolite. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) can be measured as total
carbon by a flame-ionization detector. A qualitative emission analysis can be made by
analyzing with GC/MS.

Specific pros
- efficient VOC removal
- very suitable for low concentrations of VOC
- suitable for discontinuous processes
- easy positioning and maintenance
Specific cons
- dust may cause clogging
- mixture of components may cause fast bleeding of the bed/filter
- risk of fires in the bed (ketons, turpentines, etc.)
Additives
The zeolite only has to be replaced once in a while when applied in a regenerating system.
Generally the lifespan guarantee is about five years. Because of the high costs zeolites are
not commonly applied for a single use.
Depending on the system used steam, inert gas, coolant or heat is required.
Cross Media Effects

Sporadically, used up zeolite has to be disposed of.
In case of steam regeneration, poluted waste water is produced (4-6 m03/ton regenerated
zeolite).
MD-MV20090007 -70-
Financial aspects
Investment costs Greatly varying, depending on application and design
Operational costs, EUR/ton VOC 1,000 - 3,000
Personnel -
Help and additives, EUR/kg Hydrophobic zeolite: 20 - 100
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 -
m03/h
Cost-determining parameters Flow, filtering material, fabric load, odour load
Benefits none
Information sources
3. Zeolite a versatile air pollutant adsorber, EPA, 456/F-98-00, July 1998.
4. Amalgator, Vermeulen Product Engineering, Deventer 2008.
MD-MV20090007 -71-
Polymer adsorption
Brief description
Description
When adsorbing with polymers, the adsorbent used is a polymer in the form of small plastic
balls. The polymer is about twenty times as expensive as the active coal. For this reason,
polymers are only used in regenerating applications. When producing polymers, pores of
different sizes appear. The polymer’s smallest pores however, are still bigger than the
active coal’s micro pores. Polymers have a low selectiveness towards VOC adsorption.
Every type of polymer does have a specific type of VOC which it adsorbs better. Polymers
also have a high adsorption capacity. The polymer is used in a fixed bed to remove the
VOC. The saturation and evolution of the adsorption zone is the same as for active coal
(see Fact Sheet Adsorption active coal). Polymers have a linear adsorption-isotherm. This
means their adsorption capacity increases corresponding to the (partial) pressure of the
VOC in the gasses. The higher the pressure of the incoming gasses, the higher the
concentration in the incoming gasses, the more VOC can be adsorbed per kg of polymer.
Detailed information on adsorption can be found Fact Sheet Adsorption (general).
Schematic diagram
Polymer adsorption
Clean gas
Air
Gas flow in
Heat exchange
Combustion
chamber
Desorption
system
Applicability
Is applied in the wood-processing industry, for example.
Components
components % ppm
VOC 95 – 98 10 – 200 1
Formaldehyde unknown <1 1
1
hour averages.
MD-MV20090007 -72-
Preconditions
Flow -
Temperature Low temperature
Pressure -
Fluid level Less critical than with active coal
Dust Low concentration to prevent obstruction
Ingoing concentration: 500 – 2,000
VOC, ppm
When regenerating the temperature has to be above the boiling point of the VOC but also
below the melting point of the polymer. The concentration of VOC can be maximally 25%
of the lower explosion limit (LEL).
Variants
Polymers can be used in combination with active coal and zeolite. This can be done in
series with the polymers in the first stage separating the high concentrations and the
zeolites in the second stage separating the lower concentrations, or it can be done it a
mixed bed.

No information available.
Monitoring
and after the filter. Volatile organic compounds (VOC) can be measured as total carbon by
a flame-ionization detector. A qualitative emission analysis can be made by analyzing
samples using GC/MS.

Specific pros
- Simple and robust technology
- Easy de-sorption of the VOC
- High adsorption capacity
- No tendency towards catalytic reactions that cause self-ignition
- Long lifespan
- Not sensitive to fluid/humidity
- Suitable for discontinuous processes
- Easy maintenance
- Easy positioning
Specific cons
- Dust may cause clogging
- Mixtures of components may cause fast bleeding of the bed
- High initial costs
Additives
Periodical replacement of the polymer is only sporadically needed when applied in a
regenerating system.
Cross Media Effects

Replaced polymer has to be disposed of as (hazardous) waste.
MD-MV20090007 -73-
Financial aspects
Investment costs
Operational costs Little information available
Personnel
Help and additives, EUR/kg 20 - 100 (replaced polymer)
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 m03/h Minimal
Cost-determining parameters -
Benefits -
Information sources
MD-MV20090007 -74-
Dry lime injection / dry lime-sorption / Fixed bed lime-
sorption / Cascade adsorption
Brief description
Description
Dry lime injection is applied in combination with a filtering technique, for example an
electrostatic precipitator or a fabric filter. Lime is injected into the incoming gas or the filter
in powder form. At high temperatures the gaseous components attach themselves to the
lime. The removal of the components takes place in the reactor and in the following dust-
separator. The removed (partially) polluted dust is disposed of. The load can be increased
by reusing a part of the loaded dust (recirculation). When using a fabric filter for the
removal of the reaction product, the contact between the lime and the gaseous pollution is
better than when using an electrostatic precipitator. For the mechanics of dust-separators,
we refer to the specific fact sheets. Due to the small contact surface, the necessary excess
of chemicals is much bigger than when using a semi-dry cleaning method. Dust emissions
can be removed simultaneously with the dry reaction products and the excessive
chemicals. The used chemicals are partially re-circulated with the removed pollution. Even
so, the chemical use and the quantity of removed dust are considerably higher than when
using semi-dry cleaning.
Schematic diagram
Dry Calcium oxide injection
Calcium oxide
supply
Gas flow in
Clean gas
Dust filter
Discharge of
rest materials
MD-MV20090007 -75-
Applicability
- Glass industry
- Ceramic industry
- Chemical industry.
Components
Removed Removal efficiency1, % Remaining Validation
components (at a certain temperature) emission, number
mg/m03
Electrostatic precipitator Fabric filter
(400ºC) (200 - 280ºC) (130 - 240ºC)
SO2 50 10 10 – 70 (SOx) - 2
HCl 70 35 80 < 10 1
HF 95 95 95 <1 1
1
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h 10,000 – 300,000
Temperature See table above
Pressure
Pressure drop, mbar See fabric filter
Fluid level
SOx wide range
HCl wide range
HF wide range
Variants
- Cascade adsorption / bed adsorption: In this process the adsorbent is not injected into
the gas stream but the gas stream is lead through a fixed adsorption bed. The reaction
of the adsorbent (mostly lime) with the pollutants takes place in a space where the
adsorbents drops because of gravity and where the waste gasses are lead through in a
counter stream or cross stream fashion. In order to ensure that the reaction time is
sufficient and the contact surface large enough, obstacles have been placed in these
spaces that decrease the dropping speed of the adsorbents and ensure an efficient
circulation and division of the waste gasses in the installation. The reacted calcium
carbonate is collected in the bottom of the installation.
- Sorbalite: In this process a mixture of lime and active coal is injected. This technique
offers the advantage of not only removing the acid components, but having the active
coal adsorbing a large portion of the PCDF’s and PCDD’s. This technique however may
result in large quantities of polluted dust.

The reagents is injected as a powder, with a small average particle diameter being
beneficial for a better removal. Smaller particles however, are harder to remove, requiring
a high investment in the dust removal technique.
Because of the transport of the solid matter the particle size will decrease because of the
internal collisions and friction. This should be considered when applying recirculating
systems.
When injecting into the incoming gasses, speeds high enough prevent collapse of the
injected reagents in the incoming gas channel should be ensured.
The degree of cleaning can be increased injecting the reagent as suspension, vaporising the
liquid completely (also see: semi-dry lime injection).
MD-MV20090007 -76-
Monitoring
The performance is monitored by measuring the remaining concentrations and the dust
removal efficiency. Temperature and pressure drop over the filter should be measured
regularly (see the fact sheet on fabric filters).

Specific pros
- No additional parts need to be installed, because a dust removal installation is mostly
already installed.
- High efficiency rates can be achieved with a good reactor design.
- No waste water
Specific cons
- Excessive quantity of lime is required; remaining emissions also contain excessive lime
- Large quantity of remaining emission to be conveyed
- The dosing of lime may cause problems concerning obstructions
- Commonly a low efficiency rate
Additives
The required quantity of lime is three times the theoretically required amount. Different
types of reagents are available: slaked, non-slaked and with an extra large specific surface.
It is also possible to have other chemicals added (like active coal), making it possible to
remove other components from the gas streams. (Also see: adsorption systems)
Cross Media Effects

Remaining emission: plaster, calcium mixture
Financial aspects
Investment costs Very dependent on the installed dust removal
system
Operational costs -
Help and additives, EUR/ton 100 – 160 (reagents)
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 m03/h Dependent dust removal system
Electricity costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h Dependent dust removal system
Cost-determining parameters flow, pressure drop, SO2-vracht
Benefits none
Information sources
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/dir1/ffdg.pdf
MD-MV20090007 -77-
Semi-dry lime injection / Spray-dry adsorption / Semi-dry
lime adsorption / Semi-wet lime sorption
Brief description
Description
Semi-dry lime injection is applied in combination with a filtering technique. With semi-dry
lime injection the adsorbent (Ca(OH)2, CaCO3 (lime)) is sprayed as a suspension (lime
milk) into a reaction chamber which causes the liquid to vaporize during the reaction of the
calcium and the acid components such as HCl, HF en SO2. This way a dry end product is
created with the pollution in a solid form, which can be removed using, for example, a
fabric filter.
Schematic diagram
Semi dry Calcium oxide adsorption
Supply Calcium oxide
Gas flow in
Make up of
calcium oxide
liquid
Pump Clean gas
filter
Discharge of
rest materials
Applicability
Broad range of application for the removal of acid in components in incineration processes
in:
- Waste incinerators
- Production of anodes
- Power plants
MD-MV20090007 -78-
Components
components % mg/m03
SOx 85 – 90 < 40 1
HCl > 90 < 10 3
HF > 85 <1 3
1
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h tot 1,000,000
> 280
Pressure -
Pressure, mbar About 25
Ingoing concentration: Wide range of application
SOx
HCl
HF
Variants
- Dry lime injection; see corresponding fact sheet
- Wet lime injection; SO2 is removed from the incoming gas by direct contact with a
watery suspension containing powdered lime. This gas is then additionally cleaned by a
demister.

Regular inspection of the system is required in order to prevent clogging of the piping and
the moving parts and to ensure the performance of a following fabric filter.
Monitoring
The efficiency of the semi-dry lime injection system can be determined by measuring the
concentration of acid components after cleaning. Temperature, pressure drop and fluid/gas
ratio are measured when passing a following filter. For details we refer to the NeR
paragraph 3.7 and Annex 4.7.

Specific pros
- Better perfomance than dry lime injection
- Relatively easy installation
- Cheaper than wet gas scrubbing
- No waste water
Specific cons
- If a fabric filter is placed serially after, fluid may eventually cause problems
- Solid waste with excessive lime
Additives
- Adsorbents (lime). As an adsorbent, slaked calcium or limestone can be used
depending on the application
- Water
Cross Media Effects

Solid waste when the removed product cannot be recovered. Depending on the type of
process, pollution may occur in the waste material that is to be disposed of. This could be
compounds that were not decomposed like dioxins and heavy metals.
When sodium carbonate of hydrogen carbonate are used as adsorbent, an effect on NOx-
emissions is expected. The efficiency is dependent on the ratio of SO2/NOx. The optimal
performance is at an operational temperature of 120 to 160 ºC.
MD-MV20090007 -79-
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR/1,000 11,000
m03/h
Operational costs, EUR/jaar 20,000 + (400 x flow/1,000) + adsorbent costs
Personnel, days per week 1
Help and additives, EUR/ton Lime: (CaCO3: about 60)
Water: 0.03 – 0.04 L/m03
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 1 (depending on the dust removal system)
m03/h
Cost-determining parameters Dust removal systems
Benefits -
Information sources
3. IPPC BREF Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment
MD-MV20090007 -80-
4.6 Absorption
MD-MV20090007 -81-
Gas scrubber (general) / Scrubber / Absorber / Air scrubber
Brief description
Description
A gas scrubber is an air cleaning installation, creating an intensive contact between the
incoming gas stream and a liquid, often water (or watery solution), with the aim to transfer
certain gaseous components from the gas to the fluid. Gas scrubbers can be applied as an
emission abatement technique for many different gaseous emissions. Gas scrubbing is a
form of absorption. Basically, the gas scrubber consists of three parts; an absorption
section for component exchange on a moistened packing, a demister and a recirculation
tank. The cleaning rate of gas scrubbers is dependent on the residence time of the gas in
the absorption section, the type of packing used, the gas-liquid ratio (L/G), the refreshing
rate, the temperature of the water and the adding of chemicals (see acid and alkalic
scrubbers).
Gravity and centrifugal force play a more important role in the removal of particles with
dust scrubbers than with gas scrubbers (see corresponding fact sheet). The addition of
chemicals is more typical of gas scrubbers.
Schematic diagram
Gas scrubber
Clean gas
Gas flow in Chemicals

Removal of
droplets
Supply of scrubber
liquid
Discharge of
scrubber liquid
Pump
Scrubber liquid
Applicability
The technique is most commonly used for removal of compounds that are easily dissolvable
in water such as alcohol and acetone. There are also systems using organic scrubbing
fluids. Recovering of raw materials is sometimes possible using this technique. The
technique can sometimes also be used for the treatment of odour. Wide range of
application including the following sectors:
- Chemical industry
- Surface treatment
- Storage and handling of chemicals
- Pharmaceutical industry
- Intensive lifestock farming
- Primary aluminium industry
MD-MV20090007 -82-
Components
Removed components Removal Remaining Validation number
efficiency1, % emission,
mg/m03
Alcohols 30 - 99 >100 3
Acids like HCl, HF 99 <10 3
Chromatic acid 99 <10 3
Odour 60 - 85 - -
Ammonia, Amines > 99 - -
Inorganic materials 95-99 - -
VOC 50-99 - -
SO2 95-98 < 10 1
1
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h 50 – 500,000
Fluid level No restrictions
Dust, mg/m03 <10; for a good performance low dust concentrations
are required. Scrubbers that are designed for removing
dust can work with higher dust concentrations.
Ingoing concentration, mg/ m03:
Alcohols 200 – 5,000
Acids like HCl, HF 50 – 50,000
Variants
Upstream, cross stream and counter stream scrubbers. Scrubbers with packing material or
dishes, and scrubbers without built-in packing material, such as venturi scrubbers, jet
scrubbers and spraying towers.

- An optimal designed scrubbing system with low emissions requires a high reliability, a
full automation and a good level of maintenance.
- Content: 1 - 2 (m03/1,000 m03/h)
- The most important design parameters are gas flow, operational temperature,
maximum temperature and gas composition.
Monitoring
In order to measure the efficiency of the scrubber, it is necessary to measure the ingoing
and outgoing gas concentration. This can be determined with infrared or phys chemically
depending on the component. For details we refer to the NeR paragraph 3.7 and Annex
4.7.
Routine measurements should concern the pressure drop, make-up water flow, recycling
stream, the reagent stream and in some cases the pH values, temperature and
conductibility of the outgoing water stream.

Specific pros
- Wide range of application
- Very high removal efficiency is possible
- Compact installation and easy maintenance
- Relatively simple technology
- May serve as a cooler for hot gas streams (quencher).
Specific cons
- Waste water has to be treated
- Water and reagent consumption
- When dust is simultaneously being removed, extra drainage is necessary; more
important, other designs are often applied for the removal of dust
- Sensitive to corrosion and frost
MD-MV20090007 -83-
- A plume may be visible (but cooling reduces the rising of the plume which negatively
effects the spreading of odour)
- Depending on the positioning a supporting construction may be necessary.
- Packing material is sensitive to dust clogging (> 10 mg/ m03) and fat.
- For odour problems, piloting tests are required in order to see if the goal is achievable
- Recirculation of scrubbing fluid may cause an increase in odour emission.
Additives
- Water. Vaporization losses are primarily determined by the difference in air humidity of
the ingoing and outgoing air stream and the settings of the drainage (refresh rate) of
the scrubbing water. Vaporization losses are primarily determined by the temperature
and humidity of the ingoing gas stream. The outgoing gas stream is mostly completely
saturated with water vapor.
- Reacting agents: acids, bases, oxidants, bleach, peroxide, among others. This is
dependent on the component in the untreated gas stream.
Cross Media Effects

Waste water: in most cases the drainage water has to be cleansed. In some cases it can be
evaporated and processed for the recovering of products. Acid scrubbing water is partially
drained in order to control the pH. The scrubbing water is complemented with water. The
drained scrubbing water has to be treated before it is discharged.
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h 2,500 – 25,000, depending on the design
Operational costs, hours per week About 4
Personnel, EUR/year About 5,000 - 8,000
Help and additives Strongly dependent on the application
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 m03 0.2 – 0.5
Cost-determining parameters Flow and eventual remaining emission treatment
(waste water)
Benefits Potential recovering of raw materials
Information sources
Gas Treatment / Management systems in the Chemical Sector, February 2003.
4. IPPC Reference document on Best Available Techniques
5. http://www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/dir1/fventuri.pdf
7. Dutch Association of Cost Engineers, edition 25, November 2006
9. Supplier information DMT Environmental Technology, KWB and Askove.
MD-MV20090007 -84-
Acid gas scrubber / Acid scrubber
Brief description
Description
For the general mechanics of the gas scrubber we refer to the fact sheet “Scrubbers
(general)”. An acid scrubber works at low pH values, resulting in better removal of alkaline
components. As a result of this reaction, salts are formed. A part of the scrubbing water is
drained, based on the density and/or conductivity. The drained water may contain up to
15% salts and is discharged after cleaning or evaporated for reuse. The dosing of the acid
is done by means of a pH regulation. In most cases the pH is kept between pH 3 and 6.
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is often the acid of choice for economical reasons. For specific
applications, for example the removal of NH3, nitric acid (HNO3) is used. This way,
ammonium nitrate is formed which can be used as fertiliser. Because of their alkaline
nature, amines and esters can also be removed in an acid scrubber.
Schematic diagram
Acid scrubber
Cleaned gas
Gas flow in
Acid
Demister
Supply of scrubber
liquid
discharge of
scrubber liquid
Scrubber
liquid
Applicability
The acid scrubber is most commonly applied in the following sectors:
- Manure processing (ammonia)
- Composting (ammonia)
- Waste processing facilities (ammonia, amines)
- Fertilizer production (ammonia)
- Pharmaceutical industry (esters)
- Chemical industry (esters)
- Foundries (amines)
- Production of fish feed (amines)
It is most commonly applied for alkaline components in the polluted gas.
MD-MV20090007 -85-
Components
mg/m03
NH3 and amines 99 <1 3
Esters 80 - 3
Ethylene oxide 99 - 1
1
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h 50 – 500,000
Pressure drop, mbar 4-8
Ingoing concentration, mg/m03
Dust < 10
Ammonia 200 – 1,000
Amines 10 – 1,000
Esters > 100
Variants
Upstream, cross stream and counter stream scrubbers. Also see scrubbing in general.

- When designing the acid scrubber, synthetic material is used as the primary
construction material.
- Content: 0.5 - 1 (m03/1,000 m03/h)
- The most important design parameters are flow, maximum temperature and the
composition of the gas that has to be cleaned
Monitoring
In order to check the efficiency of the scrubber it is necessary to measure the ingoing and
outgoing gas concentration. The concentration can be measured with UV, IR or phys
chemically, depending on the component. For details we refer to the NeR paragraph 3.7
and Annex 4.7. Routine measurements should apply to the pressure drop, make-up water
stream, recycling stream, reagent stream, pH values, temperature and conductivity of the
outgoing water stream.

Specific pros
- Very high removal efficiencies
- Compact installation
- Can be constructed in modules.
Specific cons
- Waste water has to be processed
- Consumption of reagents.
Additives
Make-up water and reagents such as sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid or nitric acid.
Cross Media Effects

In the most cases the drain water has to be cleaned. In some cases it can be evaporated
and processed to recover products. Acid scrubbing water is partially drained in order to
regulate the pH value. The scrubbing water is supplemented with water. The drained
scrubbing water has to be treated before it is discharged.
MD-MV20090007 -86-
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h 7,500 – 25,000, depending on the scale and
Operational costs design
Personnel, days per week About 0.5
Help and additives, EUR/ton Acids, about 150
Cost-determining parameters Flow, reagents and eventual remaining emission
processing (waste water)
Benefits Is possible depending on the application.
Information sources
1. Description of air emission abatement techniques, L26, Infomil/Tauw, March 2000.
Waste Gas Treatment / Management Systems in the Chemical Sector, February 2003
8. Supplier information DMT Environmental Technology
MD-MV20090007 -87-
Alkaline gas scrubber
Brief description
Description
For the general mechanics of the gas scrubber, we refer the fact sheet “scrubbers
(general)”. An alkaline scrubber removes the acid components better by neutralizing them
with an alkaline as scrubbing fluid. In this process salts are formed that can potentially be
recovered. The drainage water is treated and discharged in the sewage. The dosing of the
base is done by means of pH regulation or a direct measurement in the outgoing gas
stream, for example an H2S measurement. The pH value of the alkaline scrubber is often
kept between 8.5 and 9.5. The pH value should not be too high because of absorption of
CO2 in the water. A pH value of 10 and up will cause the dissolved CO2 to be present in the
water as carbonate, causing the alkaline consumption rate to increase dramatically. The
calcium carbonate will also deposite on the gaskets, increasing the pressure drop. To avoid
this , softened water can be used in an alkaline gas scrubber.
Schematic diagram
Alkaline scrubber
Clean gas
Gas flow in
Alkaline
Droplet separator
Supply of
scrubber liquid
Discharge of
scrubber liquid
Scrubber liquid
Applicability
The alkaline scrubber is mostly applied with acid components in the incoming gas, in the
following sectors:
- Chemical industry
- Galvanic industry
- Storage and handling of chemicals
- Sludge processing installations, sewage water pumping stations, WWT plants
MD-MV20090007 -88-
Components
mg/m03
HCl 99 <10 3
HF 99 <1 3
SO2 99 <10 1
H2S 90-95 < 10 ppm 1
Phenols 90 - 1
1
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h 50 – 500,000
Ingoing concentration, mg/ m03
Dust < 10; this number is higher for dust scrubbers (see
specific fact sheet)
HCl 50 – 20,000
HF 50 – 1,000
Phenols < 5,000
SO2 100 – 10,000
H2S 1,000 – 10,000 ppm
Variants
Upstream, cross stream and counter stream scrubbers. Also see scrubbing (general).

- In designing the alkaline scrubber, synthetic material is the primary construction
material.
- Contents: 1 - 2 (m03/1,000 m03/h).
- The most important design parameters are the incoming gas flow, maximum
temperature of the untreated gas and the composition of the incoming gas stream.
Monitoring
To measure the scrubber’s efficiency it is necessary to measure both the incoming and
outgoing gas stream. The concentration can be determined using UV, IR or phys chemical
measurement depending on the component. For details we refer to the NeR paragraph 3.7
and Annex 4.7. Routine measurements should apply to the pressure drop, make-up water
stream, recycling stream, reagent stream, pH values, temperature and the density and
conductivity of the outgoing water stream.

Specific pros
- Very high removal efficiency
- Potential simultaneous removal of dust
- Compact installation
- Relatively simple technology
- Can be built in modules
Specific cons
- Sewage water has to be treated
- Recovery of plaster when removing SO2 is negligible
- Use of water and chemicals
- When dust is removed simultaneously, extra drainage may be necessary
- Plume rising may be visible (is reheating necessary?)
- Packing material potentially sensitive to clogging caused by dust (> 10 mg/ m03) and fat.
MD-MV20090007 -89-
Additives
- Water. The consumption of water is dependent on the ingoing and outgoing
concentrations of gaseous components. Evaporation losses are primarily determined by
the temperature and the air humidity of the ingoing gas stream. The outgoing gas
stream is in most cases completely saturated with water vapor.
- Reacting agents. Alkaline chemicals like caustic soda.
Cross Media Effects

Waste water. Scrubbing water is partly drained, to regulate the pH or to prevent the
deposition of salts. The drained water in most cases requires treatment before being
discharged. In some cases the water can be re-used, for example into plaster in the case of
SO2 removal. The scrubbing water is supplemented by water.
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h 2,500 – 35,000,
Depending on scale and design
Operational costs -
Personnel, days per week About 0,5
Help and additives, EUR/ton Especially base, use of caustic soda (20%),
about 200
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 m03/h 0.02 – 0.1
Cost-determining parameters Flow, reagents and eventual remaining emission
treatment (waste water)
Benefits Commonly none
Information sources
8. Supplier information: Pure Air Solutions, DMT Environmental Technologies, KWB and
Askove.
MD-MV20090007 -90-
Gas scrubber alkaline-oxidative
Brief description
Description
For the general mechanics of the gas scrubber we refer to the fact sheet “Scrubbing
(general)”. Alkaline-oxidative gas scrubbing is mostly applied for odour control. In this
process the organic odour components in the alkaline environment are oxidized at pH 7 -
10. Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCL), potassium permanganate (KMnO4) or hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2) are used as strong oxidants. In case of potassium permanganate, MnO2 is created
which has to be removed from the scrubbing liquid periodically. In case of hypochlorite,
chlorides are formed and in case of hydrogen peroxides no byproducts are formed.
However, hydrogen is not as strong an oxidant as hypochlorite and permanganate.
Especially for odour removal it recommended to test on a smaller scale first to determine
the specific removal efficiency, because it can be complex concerning the composition of
the odour components. If amines are present in the incoming gasses it is recommended to
use acid scrubbing beforehand in order to prevent the forming of chloramines.
Schematic diagram
Alkaline-oxidative gas scrubber
Clean gas
Gas flow in Chemicals: alkaline and oxidation
Droplet separator
Supply and
discharge of
scrubber liquid
Scrubber
liquid
Applicability
The alkaline-oxidative scrubber is applied in the following sectors:
- food industry
- compound feed factories
- slaughter houses
- flavouring agents production
- textile industry
MD-MV20090007 -91-
When using NaOCl at low pH, toxic chlorine fumes may be released. That is why, when
applying NaOCl, an alkaline scrubber should be placed in series to remove the chlorine
fumes.
Components
components efficiency1, % emission
Odour 80 – 90 Very specific to the 3

situation
1
Depending on the specific configuration, operational conditions and reagents. Values are
based on half-hour averages.
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h 50 – 500,000
Pressure drop, mbar A dozen
Dust < 10
Variants
Upstream, cross stream and counter stream scrubbers. Also see scrubbing (general). In
case of H2S-scrubbing a two-tower system can be applied: first alkaline scrubbing and then
oxidative scrubbing. This leads to higher investment costs, but lower operational costs,
because the amount of (expensive) hypochlorite is reduced drastically this way.

- In designing the alkaline scrubber, synthetic material is the construction material
primarily used.
- Contents: 1 - 5 (m03/1,000 m03/h).
- The removal efficiency is dependent on the oxidizing ability of the components and the
residence time in the scrubber. An increase in the residence time requires a larger
installation and higher investment costs. Pilot tests are essential in achieving a good
design.
Monitoring
Odour measurements require a specific approach. For details we refer to the NeR
paragraph 3.6 and Annex 4.7. Routine measurements should apply to the pressure drop,
supplementary water stream, recycling stream, the reagent stream, pH values,
temperature and conductibility of the outgoing water stream. Also see additives (dosing of
reagents).

Specific pros
- Relatively high removal efficiency for aromatic substances
Specific cons
- Use of strong oxidants requires some safety precautions and special design of the
installation
Additives
- Water
- Base: caustic soda
- Oxidants: sodium hypochlorite, potassium permanganate, hydrogen peroxide, and
others.
The dosing of the reagents should be automised in order to achieve a constant

performance and to minimize the use of reagents. The oxidant is dosed in a slight excess.
MD-MV20090007 -92-
Cross Media Effects
Waste water and emissions.
In a scrubber with NaOCl, toxic chlorine fumes might be formed at low pH values. When
applying a scrubber with NaOCl, it is preferred to have an alkaline scrubber in series to
remove to chlorine fumes.
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h 10,000 – 35,000, strongly dependent on the design
Operational costs -
Personnel, days per week About 0.5 - 1
Help and additives Depending on the chemicals applied
Cost-determining parameters Flow, reagents and odour components
Benefits None
Information Sources
8. Supplier information: Pure Air Solutions, DMT Environmental Technology
MD-MV20090007 -93-
4.7 Biological cleaning
MD-MV20090007 -94-
Biofiltration / Bio-bed / Biological filter / Bio-bed filter /
Compost filter
Brief description
Description
A bio-filter consists of a bed packed with biological material, sometimes even two or three
beds. The gas stream is lead through the filter bed where the pollution is removed from the
waste gas by adsorption to and absorption by the filtering material. The components are
then decomposed by micro-organisms. The filter or the incoming gas is (intermittently)
moisturized with water to prevent the filter from dehydrating. The bed consists of a carrier
containing biological material such as: compost, tree bark, coconut fibers or peat. To
decrease the amount of acidification, calcium or dolomite is sometimes added to the
packing material.
Schematic diagram
Bio filtration Clean gas
Scrubber
Gas flow in water

Droplet separator
Water discharge
Discharge of
scrubber liquid
Scrubber
liquid
MD-MV20090007 -95-
Applicability
- WWT plants
- Composting facilities (sludge, organic waste, manure)
- Aromatic substances and artificial flavoring industry
- (Petro)chemical industry
- Food industry
- Meat and fish processing industry
Components
components % mg/m03
VOC 75 - 95 >5 2
Odour 70 - 95 < 1,000 ouE/m³ 1
Toluene 80 - 95 >5 2
Styrene 80 – 90 > 10 2
1
hour averages.
For some odour sources (mercaptans, H2S) efficiencies above 75% are possible, for other
odour sources the efficiency rate is somewhat lower. Comparative research for odour
efficiencies between scrubbers and biofilters show that biofilters reach higher efficiencies.
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h 100 – 100,000
Temperature, ºC 15 – 38; thermopile 50 - 60
Fluid level, % > 95
Dust Dust-free to prevent clogging
VOC 200 – 2,000
Toluene 20 - 100
Styrene 50 - 500
Ammonia 5 – 20
Hydrogen disulfide 5 – 20
Chlorous compounds 5 - 20
At too high concentrations of nitrogenous, sulfurous or chlorous compounds, the forming of

respectively nitric acid, sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid may acidify the filtering material
rendering it useless, and thus drastically increasing the replacement frequency of the
filtering material. The concrete of the carrier may also be damaged at high concentrations.
When applying biofiltration it is important the filtering material has a pH value between 7
and 8 to decompose organic components. At a pH value of 6.5 the decomposition speed
decreases. The residence time of the gas in the filter should be at least 30 - 45 seconds in
order to properly remove the odour and solvents.
Variants
Thermophile: a thermophile bed works at higher temperatures (about 50 - 60ºC) than
standard (meso-thermic) beds (about 15 - 38 ºC). They are most commonly applied with
larger gas streams. Thermophile beds are more sensitive to changes in temperature and if
the temperature is above 60 ºC the biological activity in the bed will quickly deteriorate.
Good regulation is thus necessary. Sometimes multiple layers are used to obtain different
MD-MV20090007 -96-
bacteria cultures. The biofilter can be open or closed. When open, the biofilter is liable to
weather influences. A closed biofilter is more secure from external weather influences and
can be controlled and regulated more efficiently.
A new development is the applicability of moulds. These can better withstand dehydration,
acidification, temporal halting of the filter and high temperatures. Biofilters with moulds
have thus far not been applied in any full-scale installations.
According to the supplier, synthetic packing is not used commonly anymore.
A supplier in Denmark (BBK) supplies biofilters with inorganic packing material that achieve
high efficiencies in practice. Benefits include the long lifespan (about 8 years) and the low
pressure drop. The filter however, is relatively expensive compared to the classical biofilter.

The typical surface pressure of a biofilter is around 50 – 500 m03/m²/h, but it can drop to 5
or rise to 500 m03/m²/h. When applying the packing one must take care to evenly spread
the filtering material and make sure there are no tight or loose areas. These can cause
short-circuit streams causing the air to be treated badly and the effective filtering surface
to decrease in size. When the filter dehydrates because of short-circuit streams, the
efficiency will decrease even more.
Cooling is necessary for applications with hot air flows (>38°C). This can be realized by a
mixture of outside air, a (single-pass) water scrubber or a heat exchanger/condenser.
The filtering material should be replaced periodically (every 0.5 – 5 years). This is
dependent to the type of packing material and the composition of the gasses.
Monitoring
Although biofilters are static in principle and require little mechanical maintenance, practice
shows that regular inspection and monitoring of the efficiency are necessary. The efficiency
can be excellent during the first few years, but decrease drastically over a short period of
time because of a lack of nutrients, problems with the fluid balance and/or the
deteriorating of the filter material.

Specific pros
- Low investment costs and operational costs
- Biological decomposition of the pollution
- Simple mechanic
- Low amounts of waste water (percolate water) and waste material.
Specific cons
- Fluctuations of the gas stream conditions have a large impact on the performance
- Filtering material has to be replaced periodically
- Relatively voluminous
- Control of fluid balance is necessary
- Dust clogging risk
- Poisoning and acidification must be avoided
- The bed has to continually be aerated to prevent anaerobe conditions
- Limited control (including the pH)
- Energy consumption (in cases where cooling of the incoming gas is necessary)
MD-MV20090007 -97-
Additives
Filtering material: the composition of the filtering material varies greatly: root wood, tree
bark, peat, compost, cocos material and/or mixtures of these. The lifespan is primarily
determined by acidification (N, S and Cl), depletion and/or poisoning and pressure drop.
Sometimes additional nutrients need to be added if the filtering material degrades too
slowly to supply the nutrients needed.
Grafting material: depending on the type of component it may be necessary to perform a

grafting with specific micro-organisms bred and selected for this application. The grafting is
usually once.
Water: The air stream should be saturated with softened water and a quantity of percolate
water will also be released from the filtering material.
Energy: The biofilter itself uses a low amount of energy (< 1 kW/1,000 m03/h). The
pressure drop the fan has to overcome mainly determines the energy consumption. This
pressure drop is around 2.5 mbar for a cocos filter and 15 mbar for a compost filter.
Cross Media Effects

Percolate water from the biofilter is polluted with decomposition products (nitrate, sulfate,
etc.) and organic materials should be discharged into the sewage or, after some treatment,
into the surface water. Periodically the filter bed material should be replaced and disposed
of (composted, dumped or incinerated).
Financial aspects
Operational costs -
Personnel 1 man-hour per week per filter + 2 man-days per
year
Help and additives 5 liters of water per 1,000 m03, strongly dependent
on the saturation level of the incoming gas
< 200 EUR/m3 filtering material
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 m03/h Low
Cost-determining parameters Flow, concentration, type component en desired
efficiency, type of filtering material
Benefits None
Information sources
5. US EPA CACT Air Pollution Control Technology Fact Sheet.
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/dir1/fbiorect.pdf
6. Supplier information: Pure Air Solutions, DMT Environmental Technology.
7. Biofilters and Biotowers for Treating Odours, C. Easter, C. Quigley, P. Burrowes and J.
Witherspoon, IWA Conference Barcelona 2008.
8. Efficiency evaluation of gas treatment equipments in terms of oder removal using
dynamic olfactometry M. E. Quadros, P. Beli Filho and H. M. Lisboa, IWA Conference
Barcelona 2008.
9. Suppliers information: BKK Denmark, information on biofilters with inorganic packing
material.
MD-MV20090007 -98-
Biotrickling / Lavafilter / BTF / Biodenox
Brief description
Description
A biotrickling filter is a combination of a biofilter and a bio-scrubber. It consists of a packed
absorption column that is humidified and supplied with nutrients by discontinuous or
continuous circular or singular supply. The idea is that the biomass stays on the packing
and is not carried off by the water. After absorption in the thin water film the pollution is
decomposed by a layer of micro-organisms growing on the packing (“biofilm’); potential
decomposition products are conveyed by the same water phase. Thanks to the mobile
water phase the drainage of acidifying decomposition products is easier than with biofilters
with a stationary water phase: the degree of acidity of the circulation stream can be
(slightly) corrected by dosing caustic solution or supplementary water. The filtering
material consists of synthetic foam and packing constructed out of lava or plastic. The
surface has to be structured in a way allowing for the biomass to properly attach.
Schematic diagram
Biotrickling
filter
Gereinigd
Clean gas gas
Nutriënten
Gas flow in Nutrients Scrubber
Afgas Opslag
water
waswater
Ventilator Dragermateriaal
Bed materials
+
and biomass
biomassa
Pomp
Spui
Water discharge
waswater
Pomp
Applicability
Broad range of application in the following sectors;:
- WWT plants (H2S)
- Intensive lifstock farming (NH3)
- Textile industry (CS2 en H2S)
- Tobacco industry (odour)
- Printer shops, wood processing industry, furniture industry, metal processing industry
(NMVOC)
- Sludge processing installations, waste processing installations, sewage water pumping
stations
MD-MV20090007 -99-
Components
Removed components Removal Remaining Validation number
efficiency1, % emission,
mg/m03
Ammonia 80 – 95 - 2
Odour 70 – 90 - 1
H2S 80 – 99 <1 2
Mercaptans 70 – 90 - 1
VOC 70 – 99 - 1
Carbon disulfide 98 – 99 at ingoing concentration of 100 mg/m03
Alcohols such as 90 - 95 at ingoing concentration of 50 – 5,000 mg/m03
ethanol, propane
Ethyl acetate 70 – 90 at ingoing concentration of 50 – 5,000 mg/m03
Toluene, xylene 70 - 90 at ingoing concentration of 50 – 5,000 mg/m03
Styrene 80 at ingoing concentration of 100 mg/m03
Monovinyl chloride 99 at ingoing concentration of 100 mg/m03
1
hour averages.
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h 1,000 – 500,000
Temperature, °C 15 – 40
Fluid level No restricting preconditions
Dust No restricting preconditions
VOC, mg/m03 400 – 4,000
NH3, mg/m03 100 – 400
Odour, ouE/m3 > 10,000
H2S, mg/m03 5 – 1,000
Mercaptan, mg/m03 100
Variants
Biotrickling filters be grafted with active sludge or grafting cultures (see fact sheet Bio-
scrubber)

The handling of the biological film layer (biofilm) of the packing is essential: a too high
growth can lead to (local) clogging that finally results in preferential streams, causing the
size of the exchange surface and thus the performance of the biotrickling filter to decrease.
The growth and thickness of the biofilm can be controlled by adjusting the thickness with
mechanics (like varying the humidification) or by adjusting the growth of the micro-
organisms by varying the degree of acidity and/or the salt content. In biotrickling filters
that process high H2S concentrations there is a chance of elementary sulfur forming
because of incomplete biological oxidation. This can be recognized by the yellow granular
textures and can eventually lead to clogging and preferential currents. Biotrickling filters
that process high concentrations of inorganic compounds (NH3 or H2S) usually have micro-
organisms that use CO2 from the air as a source of carbon. Given the relatively high
concentrations of CO2 in the air, extra precautions should be taken to avoid strong growth
of the biofilm.
Monitoring
The composition of the water should be determined by continuous measurement of pH
values, temperature and conductibility.

Specific pros
- Bio-degradation of the absorbed components
- Suited for (medium) concentrations of acid components containing sulfur, chlorine and
nitrogen
- pH-control and corrections possible within certain limitations
MD-MV20090007 -100-
- Low pressure drop
- Average investment and operational costs
- Compact construction and placing
- Low energy consumption, and thus limited CO2 emissions
- Little use of additives
- Better performance and liability than a biofilter.
Specific cons
- Fluctuations in the composition and concentrations of ingoing air streams have an
influence on the performance.
- Toxic and high concentrations of acid components should be avoided.
- Less suited for (very) hard to dissolve components
- The biomass can obstruct the packing
- More complex to construct than a biofilter
- Production of waste water stream, depending on the removed components
Additives
- Nutrients to feed the bacteria
- Filtering material: synthetic foam, packing constructed from lava or plastic
- Grafting material: depending on the type of component it may prove necessary to
perform grafting with a micro-organism specifically bred and selected for this
application. The grafting is usually once .
- Water: supplementary water to compensate for the evaporation and drainage losses
- Energy the biotrickling filter itself does not use a lot of energy (< 1 kW/1,000 m03/h).
It is primarily the pressure drop the fan has to overcome that determines the energy
consumption. This pressure drop is about 10 mbar, depending on the gas load of the
system and the amount of biological growth.
Cross Media Effects

The packing should periodically be replaced / refreshed. The composition of the sludge on
the disposed packing is dependent on the concentration and the composition of the
incoming gas. The drained water should be discharged.
Financial aspects

Operational costs Minimal
Personnel, hours/week about 4 (strongly dependent on the situation)
Help and additives Minimal
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 m03/h < 1, excluding the ventilator
Electricity costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h Minimal
Cost-determining parameters Flow
Benefits None
Information sources
5. US EPA CACT Air Pollution Control Technology Fact Sheet.
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/dir1/fbiorect.pdf
6. Supplier information: Pure Air Solution, DMT Environmental Technologies.
MD-MV20090007 -101-
Biological scrubber (general) / Bioscrubber / Bioscrubber
Brief description
Description
A bioscrubber consists of a gas scrubber and a biological reactor. The components that are
to be removed are absorbed from the gas stream inside the gas scrubber. Inside the
biological reactor, the absorbed pollutants in the scrubbing water are biologically
decomposed. The cleaned scrubbing fluid is re-circulated into the scrubber. Biologically
decomposable hydrocarbons are turned into water and CO2. The hydrocarbons that cannot
be decomposed remain in the scrubbing water. Components such as H2S and NH3 are
turned into sulfates and nitrates respectively. In order to keep the level of salts and non-
decomposable VOC low enough the scrubbing must be drained regularly. This can be done
on a basis of conductivity or by fixed drainage. The degree of drainage is dependent on the
composition of the untreated gas. An hydraulic residence time of the scrubbing water
between 20 and 40 days (maximum) gives the greatest results.
Schematic diagram
Biological scrubber
Scrubbing
Clean gas water
Gas flow in scrubber
scrubbing
water
Active sludge Settling

Polluted basin basin
water
Water
Air discharge
Applicability
Wide range of application in the following sectors:
- Cigarette industry
- WWT plants
- Removal of odours arising from enzyme production
- Removal of odours arising from aroma production
- Rubber industry
- Removal of odour and sulfur components from gasses arising from methionine
- Removal of odour arising from polymer production
- Removal of odour, VOC and nitrogen components in the processing of paint waste
- Landfills for hazardous waste
- Coffee-roasting houses
- Slaughterhouses
MD-MV20090007 -102-
Components
components % emission
Odour2, ouE/m3 70 - 80 100 – 150 1

Ammonia, mg/m03 80 - 95 - 1
VOC, mg/m03 80 - 90 - 1
1
2
Phenols, mercaptans, H2S, acetic acid and acetates contribute to the odour.
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h -
Temperature, °C 15 – 40; optimal temperature 30 – 35°C;
Pressure drop, mbar 2– 5
Fluid level No restricting conditions
Dust -
VOC, mg/m03 100 – 1,000
Silt concentration, g/l 6–8
Conductibility, µS/cm < 5,000
The following also applies:

- The pollutants have to be soluble in water;
- The pollutants have to be aerobe biologically decomposable;
- The emission has to be constant in time; peak loads can be caught in a lesser extent.
Variants
Can eventually be combined with an existing biological WWT.

The gas scrubber has to be designed in such a way that the gasses’ residence time in the
scrubber is around 1 second. Depending on the solubility of the components this may be
slighter more or less. The scrubber requires a special open packing and special sprayer
nozzles to prevent clogging by the biological sludge. A hydraulic residence time of the
scrubbing water between 20 and 40 days gives the best results.
Monitoring
In order to determine the scrubber’s efficiency it is necessary to measure the ingoing and
outgoing odour and/or gas concentrations. For details we refer to NeR paragraph 3.6, 3.7
and Annex 4.7. Routine measurements should apply to the pressure drop, the recycling
stream, the pH, the temperature and the conductivity of the outgoing water stream.

Specific pros
- Biodegradation or natural decomposition of components
- High concentrations of sulfur, nitrogen and chlorine components can be removed by the
possibility of controlling the pH values
- Peak emissions can be controlled better than with a biofilter or biotrickling filter
Specific cons
- Primarily suited for easily soluble components
- Components have be biologically decomposable
- Production of sludge that has to be conveyed
- The drainage water needs further treatment
- Sensitive to changes in flow and process conditions
- Biomass may attach to the packing causing clogging or even clinching into the packing
Additives
- Supplementary water to compromise the evaporation and drainage losses
MD-MV20090007 -103-
- Chemicals like acid or base to guarantee the pH for optimal biological activity
- Nutrients for the sludge.
Cross Media Effects

A bioscrubber creates two waste flows:
- drained water loaded with salts and non-biologically-decomposable CZV
- drained sludge from the bioreactor, that has to be removed in an environmentally safe
manner.
One must be careful with the temporal storage of the scrubbing water. Because of
anaerobic conditions, odour components may be formed here. These require further
treatment.
Financial aspects
Personnel, hours/week About 4
Help and additives Relatively low
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 0.2 – 0.5
m03/h
Electricity costs -
Cost-determining parameters Flow, type and concentration of components
Benefits None
Information sources
5. Netherlands emission guidelines for air, NeR paragraph 3.6, 3.7 and Annex 4.7, 2008
MD-MV20090007 -104-
Moving bed trickling filter / MBTF
Brief description
Description
The Moving Bed Trickling Filter (MBTF) is a system for the combined, or possibly separate,
cleaning of air and water streams. The MBTF primarily consists of a synthetic tank. The
tank is filled with 50 to 150 m3 of specially shaped synthetic balls. On and in these grooved
balls micro-organisms grow that decompose the incoming pollutants. The untreated water
is pumped to the top of the reactor by an adjustable circulation pump and spread over the
bed by a rotating spraying arm. The treated water is caught in the buffer/settling chamber,
where any potentially present sludge particles can settle. The untreated air is blown into
the reactor along with the water by an external ventilator. At the bottom, special sections
of the sieve plate ensure a good separation of the air and water, after which the treated air
is emitted to the atmosphere. As with any biological cleaning, a part of the incoming
pollutants is transformed into biomass. Thus the amount of biomass in the reactor will
increase. Without precautions this will lead to clogging in conventional trickling filters. In
the MBTF clogging is prevented by pumping some of the bio-balls to the top of the reactor
where they will be dumped onto a sieve plate by a cyclone. A large part of the biomass on
the balls will be removed by the cyclone and the drop onto the plate. The cleaned balls fall
on top of the bed and can participate in the cleaning process again. The separated sludge is
periodically disposed.
Schematic diagram
Gas flow in
Recycle water
Recycle
carrier
material
Sludge
Sludge
separator
Clean gas
Clean water
Waste water
Applicability
Full scale units in the following sectors:
- Waste processing
- Meat and fish processing industry
MD-MV20090007 -105-
Components
Removed components Removal Remaining emission, Validation
efficiency1, % mg/m03 number
VOC 80 – > 95% - 3
Odour > 90% > 2,500 ouE/ m03 1
H2S (sulfur hydrogen) > 98% - 1
Mercaptans > 95% - 1
Styrene > 90% - 1
1
Preconditions
Air flow, m03/h 5,000 – 40,000
Waste water flow, m03/h < 200
Fluid level No precondition
Dust No precondition
VOC, mg/m03 100 – 10,000
H2S, mg/ m03 1) 10 – 500
Styrene, mg/ m03 < 200 at 500 m03/(m2.h)
< 500 at 200 m03/(m2.h)
1) Higher concentrations expected to be applicable, but not applied yet.
Variants
The MBTF is a variant of the biotrickling filter (see specific fact sheet)

The MBTF is primarily dimensioned for the waste input (air and water) and the air flow.
Typical design values include:
- COD-load: 10 – 20 kg/(m03.d)
- Gas load: 200 – 2,000 m03/(m2.h)
For the treatment of gas streams containing components that are not easily soluble in
water, the design should include a severely higher recirculation capacity. In practice the
MBTF is filled with about 80% of the designed volume. After starting the system could be
loaded additionally. Eventual additions to the carrying construction are always possible.
Maintenance is restricted to pumps etc.
Monitoring
See other biofilter techniques

Specific pros
- Combined or separate treatment of waste water and waste gas is possible
- Can handle very big loads
- Free of clogging
- Suited for gas streams with very fast and large variations in concentration
- Barely sensitive to acidification when processing nitrogen, sulfur or chlorine compounds
Specific cons
- Investment costs strongly dependent on prices of raw material
- Less suited for small gas streams (< 5.000 m03/h). No limitation when processed
simultaneously with waste water
- Construction height up to 20m
MD-MV20090007 -106-
Additives
- Nutrients: only necessary if they are not present in the waste water. Without the
treatment of waste water additional water is needed for the removal of remaining
components (chloride, sulfate) and compensation of evaporation losses. In such a case
surface water can be applied.
- Carrying material: re-used or ‘virgin’ PE/PP
- Grafting material: not necessary
- Energy: the energy consumption is primarily determined by the ventilator. Pressure drop
of MBTF is up to about 40 mbar. The MBTF’s energy consumption is restricted to the
circulation pump and the carrier recirculation (intermitting).
Cross Media Effects

The MBTF is pre-eminently focused on Cross Media Effects (simultaneous treatment of
water and air). The sludge produced has to be disposed. The drained water is already
cleaned.
Financial aspects
Operational costs Small
Personnel, hours/week 1–2
Help and remaining emissions Minimal
Energy consumption, kWh/1000 m03/h Strongly variable: <1 – 5
Electricity costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h -
Cost-determining parameters Waste load, air flow
Benefits Simultaneous cleaning of air and water saves a lot
of money. The pay-back time is typically around 2
– 3 years.
Information source
1. The Moving Bed Trickling Filter, National Water symposium 2005.
2. Symposium at Lucile International, 2006.
3. Supplier information: DHV Water, A. Silverentant, 2008.
MD-MV20090007 -107-
4.8 Thermal oxidation
MD-MV20090007 -108-
Thermal incinerator / Incinerator / Thermal oxidation
Brief description
Description
Incoming gasses are heated to a high temperature by means of incineration. With thermal
incineration this temperature varies between 750 and 1,200 °C. When the incoming gas is
kept at this temperature long enough the pollutants (VOC, odour) will oxidize into
compounds such as CO2, H2O, NOx, SOx.
Schematic diagram
Thermal incinerator
Gas flow in
Fan
Combustor Clean gas
Combustion chamber
Applicability
This technique is broadly applied for the removal of odour or volatile organic compounds in
practically all sectors. Because of the potentially high fuel consumption rate, thermal
oxidation is primarily suited for applications with an average or high concentration of VOC
in the incoming gas.
Components
mg/m03
Odour 98 – 99.9 - 1
VOC, PM10, CO, 98 – 99.9 < 1 – 20 3
halogenated organic
compounds2
1
hour averages.
2
When incinerating halogenated compounds very toxic dioxins and it’s compounds can be
formed.
MD-MV20090007 -109-
Preconditions Normal Recuperative Regenerative
Flow, m03/h 900 – 86,000 90 – 86,000 900 – 86,000
Temperature, °C 750 – 1,200 (depending on the type of pollutant)
Pressure drop, mbar 10 - 50
Fluid level -
Dust, mg/ m03 <3
Ingoing concentration VOC < 25% van de gas’ lower explosion limit (LEL)1
Residence time 0.5 – 2 seconds (depending on the temperature)
1
The VOC concentration of the incoming gas should be kept below 25% of the lower explosion
limit (LEL).
Variants
The most important variants are the:
- Recuperative incinerator
Gas flow in
Clean gas
Heat exchange
Combustion
The recuperative incinerator is identical to the thermal incinerator; however, a heat

exchanger is present. With the help of the heat exchanger the untreated air is pre-heated
with the combustion gasses causing up to 80% of the heat released to be available for use.
- Regenerative incinerator
Combustion
Ceramic bed
A regenerative incinerator uses two or more ceramic beds that store the heat of the
cleaned gas and preheat the untreated gas. The thermal efficiency can reach up to 97%. In
the combustion room the gas is heated some more, resulting in thermal oxidation. The hot
gas leaving the incinerator chamber heats the second ceramic bed. The cooled gas can be
emitted afterwards. When the second bed is sufficiently heated, the gas flow is reversed so
the second bed heats the gasses to be cleaned and the first bed to take care of the cooling
of the cleaned gasses. A peak emission may occur during the reversal.
Regenerative and recuperative incineration is more cost-effective than a ‘regular’ thermal

incinerator because of the decreased fuel costs.
MD-MV20090007 -110-
Incinerators should be inspected regularly, and if necessary, cleaned to keep a good
performance and efficiency. When excess depositions occurs, preventive actions have to be
taken by cleaning the incoming gas before it enters the incinerator. From experience with
recuperative incinerators shows that the warm side of the heat exchanger’s welds may fail,
causing the maintenance costs to increase. There are companies that changed to
regenerative incinerators for this reason.
Monitoring
and after the thermal incinerator. Volatile organic compounds (VOC) can be measured as a
total carbon by a flame-ionization detector. A qualitative emission analysis can be made by
analyzing the gas samples with GC/MS.

Specific pros
- Proven technology, much applied
- High efficiency achievable up to >99.9%
- Good performance with high concentrations of VOC
- Makes use of the energy inside the incoming gasses.
Specific cons
- High variable costs for fuel at low VOC concentrations
- Not suited for strongly variable flow
- Forming of corrosive acid gasses when incinerating halogen and sulfur containing
components
- Not cost effective with low concentrations and high flow, fuel necessary for starting up.
Additives
Additional fuel such as natural gas.
Cross Media Effects

When applying additional fuels extra CO2 is released in the uncleaned situation. Besides
CO2 small amounts of CO en NOX can be formed. The forming of large qualities of CO en
NOX can be avoided with the right process monitoring and incinerator settings.
Financial aspects
Normal Recuperative Regenerative
Investment costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h 10,000 – 40,000 10,000 – 20,000 – 40,000
50,000
Operational costs, EUR per year/ < 1,000 3,000 – 14,000 1,000
1,000 m03/h
Personnel, days per year 2 5 2
Help and additives, EUR per 24,000 tot 45,000 - -
year/1,000 m03/h Eventually needed
for additional fuel 1
Energy consumption, kWh/1000 3–8 - 1.5 – 2.25
m03/h
Electricity costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h Dependent on EUR/kWh
Cost-determining parameters Flow, energy level of gasses, required removal efficiency, type
of catalyst, measurement and controlling apparatus
Benefits None
1
Additional fuel is needed to keep the incineration going. The energy consumption is dependent
on the VOC-level of the incoming gasses. When oxidizing the organic components in the gas
streams, heat is released. When the concentration of VOC is high enough, the heat released is
sufficient to keep the process at the right temperature.
MD-MV20090007 -111-
Information sources
1. Description of air emission abatement techniques, L26 Infomil/Tauw, March 2000
3. IPPC BREF, Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment, 2003
4. US EPA, Air Pollution Control Technology Fact Sheet Thermal Incinerator, EPA-452/F-
03/022
MD-MV20090007 -112-
Catalytic incinerator / Catalytic oxidation (catox) /
Thermocat
Brief description
Description
A catalytic incinerator works the same way an thermal incinerator does, however in this
case the incoming gas is lead through a catalyst making reduced reaction temperatures for
incineration possible. Gas temperatures before the catalyst are around 300 – 500 °C,
temperatures after the catalyst around 500 - 700 °C. There are low temperature catalysts
that work at temperatures of 200 – 250 °C.
Schematic diagram
Catalytic incinerator
Gas flow in
Catalyst
Burner Clean gas
Combustion chamber
Applicability
Catalytic oxidation is primarily applied for the removal of VOC in a broad range of
stationary applications such as:
- Fuel of bulk load stations
- Synthetic organic chemical industry
- Rubber and polymer industry
- Polythene, polystyrene and polyester resin production
- Paper industry.
With catalytic oxidation it is important the emission stays relatively constant and it is
preferable that no or little possible pollutants of the catalyst are present in the gas.
Components
mg/m03
VOC 95 – 99 < 1 – 20 3
PM10 < 99 - 1
Odour 80 – 95 - 3
1
hour averages.
MD-MV20090007 -113-
Preconditions Normal Recuperative Regenerative
Flow, m03/h 1,200 – 90,000 90 – 90,000 1,200 – 90,000
Temperature, 300 – 500 before catalyst
°C 500 – 700 after catalyst
Pressure drop,
10 - 50
mbar
Dust, mg/m03 <3
Ingoing
concentration < 25% LEL-value (lower explosion limit) because of explosion risk
VOC
Variants
- Fixed bed installation
- Fluidized bed installation. In a fluidized bed the air is sent upwards through the catalyst
bed. Because of the high gas speeds, the catalyst granules in the reactor begin to
move and the bed starts behaving like a fluid (better reaction because of enlarged
contact surface).
- Catalytic recuperative incineration
Gas flow in
Catalytic recuperative incinerator
Clean gas
Catalyst
Burner
Combustion chamber
The recuperative incinerator is identical to the catalytic incinerator; however, a heat

exchanger is present. With the help of the heat exchanger, the untreated air is pre-heated
with the combustion gasses resulting in a thermal efficiency up to 80%.
Catalytic regenerative incinerator

Catalytic regenerative incinerator
Ceramic
bed with
catalyst
Burner
This system is a combination of a catalytic incinerator and a regenerative thermal

incinerator. The thermal efficiency can reach up to 98%. A catalytic regenerative
incinerator uses two or more ceramic beds storing the heat of the cleaned gas to later
tranfser it onto the gasses to be cleaned. When passing the first ceramic bed the gas will
have close to the incineration temperature. In the combustion room the gas will be heated
further, causing thermal oxidation to occur. The hot gas leaving the incineration chamber
preheats the second ceramic bed. The cooled gas can then be emitted. When the second
MD-MV20090007 -114-
bed is sufficiently heated the gas flow is reversed so the second bed heats the gasses to be
cleaned and the first bed to take care of the cooling of the cleaned gasses . Peak emissions
may occur during such a reversal.
- Oxicator. This technique is based on catalytic oxidation of VOC where the catalyst is
heated with microwaves. By using microwaves the system uses very little energy. Typical
energy consumption is about 20 W/m3. Because of the relatively high costs of the specially
designed catalyst, this technique is primarily applicable for smaller gas volumes (< 1000
m03/h), for example emissions from soil cleaning. Benefits of the system include the energy
efficiency and the high cleaning efficiency (> 99% with remaining emissions <1 mg/m03).
The system can be fitted with one or two microwaves, depending on the ingoing
concentration. At high enough levels of VOC the oxidation reaction is selfsupporting and no
external energy is needed.
Micro waves
Catalyst Cooling coil

Incinerators should be inspected regularly, and if necessary, cleaned to keep a good
performance and efficiency. When excess depositions occur, preventive actions have to be
taken by (partly) cleaning the incoming gas before it enters the incinerator
Monitoring
The catalyst temperature, pressure drop on the catalyst, incineration temperature and CO
and O2 levels of the effluent gas should be checked in order to work at optimal incineration
conditions. The cleaning efficiency of the system can be determined by measuring the
remaining emission by means of flame ionization detectors. A qualitative measurement can
be made by taking samples and analyzing them with GC/MS.

Specific pros
- More compact than thermal incinerators
- Higher efficiency for the removal of VOC than thermal oxidation; lower temperature
possible (less energy consumption, less isolation requires, lower risk of fire)
- Lower NOx emissions (about 20 – 30% of thermal incineration)
- Promotes complete incineration
- Constantly high and reliable performance possible
Specific cons
- Higher investment costs than a thermal incinerator
- System is sensitive to changes in energy content of the waste gas
- Risk of dioxins formation when chlorine compounds are present
- Catalyst may be sensitive to poisoning
Additives
The catalyst will have to be replaced periodically. The expected lifespan is 2 two years or
more.
Cross Media Effects

Emissions may contain traces of CO. Because of the lower operational temperature
compared to thermal incinerators, the level of NOx forming is also lower in catalytic
incinerators.
MD-MV20090007 -115-
Because the catalyst cannot be regenerated, it has to be disposed of as hazardous waste.
Financial aspects
Normal (catalytic) Recuperative Regenerative
Investment costs, 10,000 – 80,000 10,000 – 50,000 25,000 – 89,000
EUR/1,000 m03/h
Operational costs, 2,500 – 20,000 - 3,500 – 12,000
EUR per year/1,000
m03/h
Personnel, About 3 - 2
hours/week
Help and additives, Catalyst: 35 – 250 depending on the type
EUR/kg
Energy consumption, 1–2 Lower than the normal catalytic incinerator.
kWh/1000 m03/h
Cost-determining Flow, temperature, catalyst, instrumentation, type of heat exchanger, location
parameters
Benefits None
Information sources
2. Guide on air cleaning techniques, VITO 2004/IMS/4/066
3. IPPC BREF, Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment, 2003
4. US EPA, Air Pollution Control Technology, Fact Sheet Catalytic Incinerator, EPA-452/F-
03-018
5. Supplier information: Vemeulen Product Engineering (Oxicator)
MD-MV20090007 -116-
Flare
Brief description
Description
In a flare the incoming gas is lead to a remote, high location through a pipe and
incinerated in the open air by an open flame, or lead to a closed ground flare. In order to
reach a good incineration a well designed incinerator exit, pilot light and steam or air
injection are necessary for a good turbulence and blending, and potentially additional fuel
as well. Most flares work through a diffusion flame. With a diffusion flame, the outer edge
of the fuel/incoming gas is supplemented with air so that the fuel is surrounded by a
flammable gas mixture. When diffusing this mixture a stable flame is acquired. The heat
exchange occurs through warmth diffusion between the outer layer and the fuel. When
incinerating VOC, soot particles are formed. The glowing of these soot particles gives the
flame its yellow color and clarity. In case of large diffusion flames a combustion segment
may be closed off from the outside air by gas whirls and turbulence. This causes the
forming of soot, causing local instability making the flame flicker.
Schematic diagram
Flare
Flue gas
Security flame
Natural gas supply
Gas flow in
Steam and air
Applicability
Flares are suitable for the processing of gasses with high fluctuations in the VOC level
(including methane), flow, caloric warmth and level of inert chemicals. Flaring is primarily
used as a safety device when destroying large quantities of organic chemicals in case of
calamity. If a continuous emission has to be treated for environmental reasons, the
applicability of the incinerator should be considered first.

- Oil and gas industry
- Blast-furnaces and cokes ovens
- Flaring of landfill gas from landfills - Flaring of excessive biogas in fermentation
installations and anaerobe WWT plants.
MD-MV20090007 -117-
Components
Removed Removal- Remaining emission, Validation number
components efficiëncy1, % mg/m03
VOC (including CH4) > 99 - 1
1
hour averages.
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h < 1,800,000
Minimal incineration value incoming gas, 8 - 11
MJ/m03
Pressure drop, bar 1
Temperature, ºC 500 – 1,100
Variants
- Flares with steam injection. To provide sufficient air and a good blend of air and fuel,
steam is injected in the incineration zone of this type of flare. This is the most common
type of flare in the chemical and petrochemical industry. In order to prevent noise
nuisance from the steam lance, it is recommended to keep the steam pressure lower
than 7 bar.
- Flares with air injection. Air is injected into flares with air injection in the incineration
zone to keep enough air and turbulence for a smoke-free incineration. The benefit of
air injection is that no steam has to be present at the flare’s location. This type of flare
is not widely used for the larger flares.
- Flares with pressure blending. Flares with pressure blending use the pressure of the
incoming gasses to achieve a good blend at the burner. Flares with pressure blending
are usually at ground level and thus have to be located in a remote area with sufficient
space.
- Flares without additional blending. These flares have a burner without additives to
support the blending with air. Their use is limited to gasses with a low incineration
value and gasses with a low carbon/hydrogen ration that burn easily without the
forming of soot. The gas streams require less air for complete incineration and give
lower incineration temperatures.

There are two types of flares: elevated flares and ground flares. Ground flares are primarily
applied for the continuous incineration of the base load. The elevated flares are applied for
the processing of incidental and accidental large volumes. Industries often have an
integrated system with a ground flare optimized for the efficient incineration of the base
load and a elvated flare for the unforeseen large volumes.
Elevated flare. The use of a elevated flare (10 – 180 m) can prevent potentially dangerous
situations like an open flame close to a processing unit or tank park. By placing the flare up
high, other nuisances like noise, heat, smoke and odour can be reduced. The smoke and
the odour are created by incomplete incineration. A elvated flare is always an open flare.
Ground flare. The disadvantage of open ground flares is that dangerous situations may
occur when people are near the incinerator during activation. Another disadvantage is that
the odour and incineration gasses have less room to spread than with an elevated flare.
Closed ground flares. The closed cylinder where incineration takes place, reduced the
nuisance from sound, light and heat and offers protection from the wind. There is no visible
flame and there is no elevated flare towering over all the surrounding buildings. A new type
of ground flare uses pre-blended gas mixture on a permeable medium of different layers of
wire. The incoming gas is incinerated just above the permeable medium. The system
makes it possible to recover heat.
MD-MV20090007 -118-
Monitoring
The flare and the pilot light have to be measured to guarantee a good performance of the
flare. Measuring can be done by means of thermocouples, UV monitoring, ionization-
probes, low pressure alarm and flow measurements of the gas.

Specific pros
- Economical way of processing accidental and incidental large quantities of VOC or
methane containing gasses.
- Normally, no additional fuel is necessary for good incineration (caloric values of the
untreated gas is sufficiently high)
- Suitable for strongly fluctuating or periodical emissions
Specific cons
- May cause nuissance of noise, smoke, heat and light.
- Production of SOx, NOx, CO and soot2.
- Not suitable for the treatment of halogenated compounds.
- The heat produced by the incineration is lost.
Additives
Depending on the design:
- Steam
- Air supply (through ventilator)
- Fuel gas for the pilot flame (and incinerator)
- Gas to keep the system in overpressure (nitrogen, fuel).
Cross Media Effects

Flares are essentially a safety device. However, they also contribute to the decreasing of
emissions of VOC. When flaring however, nuissance caused by light, noise and odour may
occur. The light nuissance is only with high flares. The odour nuissance is a result of
incomplete incineration. Also, the following emissions may be formed:
- soot particles
- non-incinerated VOC
- NOx, SOx, CO.
Noise pollution is primarily caused by the injection of steam to prevent smoke forming,
incineration processes and ventilation.
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h about 100,000 – 650,0001
Operational costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h on-shore design without landing
Personnel Can also strongly vary; the skill of the
maintenance personnel is the essential factor here
Help and additives Eventual steam, additional fuel, nitrogen
Energy consumption, kWh/1,000 m03/h Depending on steam en extra fuel
Electricity costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h Low, depending on, for example, use of
compressed air
Cost-determining parameters Eventual additional fuel
Benefits None
1
The costs, expressed in EUR per 1,000 m03/h, can vary strongly because it is dependent on the
amount of hours the flare is on. Because a flare is primarily a safety precaution, the amount of
hours it is on will be low (10 to 100) hours per year.
2
The forming of soot and thermally composed NOx can be decreased by using steam
MD-MV20090007 -119-
Information sources
1. Description of air emission abatement techniques, l26 Infomil/Tauw, March 2000.
4. Reference document on BAT in the large volume organic chemical industry, February
2003.
5. Reference document on BAT for the mineral oil and gas refineries, February 2003.
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/dir1/fflare.pdf
MD-MV20090007 -120-
4.9 Cold oxidation
MD-MV20090007 -121-
Ionization / Active oxygen injection / Ozone injection /
Plasma cleaning
Brief description
Description
The air or the incoming gas flow is lead through a reaction chamber, and in there it is
submitted to a very strong electrical field (20 – 30 kV) generated by electrodes causing
ions, free electrons, radicals and other high reacting particles to form. However, no notable
rise in temperature takes place. The high reacting components cause a decomposition and
(partial) oxidation of the pollutants present. The most active particles is this process are
the N, O and OH radicals. They are formed out of nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2) and water
(H2O). If the gas flow is sent directly into the plasma reactor, it acts as an electrostatic
precipitator with a dust removal efficiency of > 90%. In order to keep the reactor clean a
(self)cleaning system should be installed. The cleaning may occur through vibration,
compressed air or water. In dust-free air streams this cleaning system is not necessary.
With direct treatment the removal of organic chemicals is possible. In case of injection of
an ionized air stream one primarily gets a modification of the odour molecules and to a
lesser extent a removal of the organic load.
Schematic diagram
Ionization
Gas ionization
High voltage
Applicability
- Feed industry
- Slaughter houses
- Sludge processing
- WWT plants
Components
components % mg/m03
Odour2 80 – 98 1,000 – 20,000 ouE/m3 3
3
VOC 80 – 99.9 - 3
NOx4 80 - 95 - 1
1
hour averages.
2
The acquired odour reductions are strongly dependent on the application and the lay out of the
installation (directly into the gas stream or side stream, see variants).
3
VOC removal in the wood industry
4
Variant “LoTox”
MD-MV20090007 -122-
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h 20 – 200,000
Temperature, oC 20 – 80 higher temperatures up to 120 with plasma oxidation
Fluid level Not too high because of risks of condensation and short-
circuiting. A heightened humidity increases the performance
in a side stream set-up.
Dust If applied directly into the gas stream this has to include
relatively low amounts of dust. The ionizer will then act as an
electrostatic precipitator.
Energy Ionization is primarily suited for gas streams with a low
energy level (low concentrations of VOC) because of the low
energy consumption compared to incinerators.
Variants
- Ionization combined with a catalyst. After the ionization phase itself, the air stream can
be lead over a catalyst. This works at ambient temperature and ensures a removal of
the present ozone and causes further oxidation of the components that are to be
removed. In some designs such a catalyst is a standard, in other is available as an
option. These are often active coal catalysts.
- Side stream injection (active oxygen injection): at too high temperatures, too high dust
concentrations or corrosive gasses it can be necessary to ionize a side-stream of air
and injecting it into the main stream. Because the added gas stream has a volume of
10 – 20% of the main gas stream, the outgoing flow is about 10 – 20 % percent larger
than the ingoing flow, deluting it somewhat. The performance of the side stream is
often less efficient than direct ionization. Feasibility studies are appointed for
measuring the efficiency.
- Non-thermal micro-plasma chemistry stands out because of its low energy consumption
rate (0.005 to 0.040 kWh/1000 m03/h). This is achieved through means of a Dielectric
Barrier Discharge (DBD), creating a dielectric field (1.5 – 2.0 kV) through which no
electricity runs and thus no notable energy consumption takes place. The investment
costs are 5,000 to 25,000 EUR/1 000 m03/h of the untreated air (excluding the costs of
the catalyst of 300 EUR, life span 8,000 to 15,000 hours).
- The design and configuration of the electrodes and the nature of the used materials
differs for every technology and is often protected by patents.

Basic compact installation
Monitoring
Odour measurements require a specific handling. For details we refer to the NeR paragraph
3.6 and Annex 4.7.

Specific pros
- Very compact
- May be turned on and off at will (almost no start up time)
- Relatively simple management
- Not sensitive to variations in the gas stream
- The ionization process takes place at low temperature
- Low energy consumption rate compared to incinerators (for gas streams with low
energy levels)
- When operating in bypass not sensitive to dust
Specific cons
- Electricity consumption
- Test installation is preferred for the proper judgment of situation-specific effects and
possible removal efficiency
- Only suitable for VOC removal when the system is applied directly to the gas stream
- Risk of electromagnetic radiation. This risk is limited when the casing is made of metals.
MD-MV20090007 -123-
Additives
Energy; about 0.3 – 3kW/1 000 m03. For applications in odour removal the lower of the
range range applies. The consumption is dependent on the concentration and type of
components to be removed and the air humidity.
Catalyst; lifespan around 8,000 working hours, can be regenerated.
Cross Media Effects

- Ozone; in the electrical field ozone is created as a by-product. If it is not completely
reacted it leads to ozone emissions. Ozone has a distinctive smell and can be harmful
in high concentrations. Under normal atmospheric conditions the ozone is quickly
transformed into oxygen. When placing a catalyst in series after the ionizer, the ozone
is completely removed. In industrial applications the ozone emission stays below the 1
ppm.
- Waste water: waste water is emitted as a small quantity of drainage water.
- When dust is present in the gas stream it is emitted as solid waste.
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h Strongly dependent on the
application.
Total Up to 5,000
Injector (part of total) 2,600
Catalyst (part of total) Up to 660 (8,000 hours lifespan)
Operational Costs, EUR/year 3 - 5% of the installation costs
Personnel, man-days per year 1–2
Help and additives Restricted
Energy consumption, kWh/1 000 m03 0.3 - 3
Cost-determining parameters Flow
Benefits None
Information sources
2. Supplier website www.aexoninjector.com
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/dir1/fnonthrm.pdf
8. Suppliers: Aerox, Circlair.
MD-MV20090007 -124-
Photo oxidation / UV-oxidation
Brief description
Description
The untreated gas stream is lead through a reaction chamber and radiated with UV-waves
(100 – 280 nm). This radiation causes the decomposition of the undesired compounds. This
decomposition takes place in two ways:
1. Direct photolysis; compounds like VOC, NH3, H2S and amines are directly broken down
in the radiation.
2. Oxidation through reactive oxygen radicals; the presence of high reactive oxygen
radicals oxidize components that are not broken down by photolysis and reaction products
from the photolysis.
Schematic diagram
Photo oxidation
UV- lights Catalyst
Clean gas
Gas flow in
Applicability
Photo oxidation is primarily suited for discontinuous processes with low pollutant
concentrations in;
- coating installations
- WWT plants
- waste processing installations
- fermentation processes
- food industry
Components
components % emissions,
mg/m03
VOC 95 25 – 50 1
H2S, NH3, amines, < 98 - 1
mercaptans
Odour 80 – 98 - 1
1
hour averages.
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h 2,000 – 58,000 (in theory not very critical)
Temperature, oC < 60
Pressure drop, mbar -
Fluid level, % < 85 (max. dew point, no mist)
VOC, mg/m03 < 500
H2S, NH3, amines, mercaptans, ppm < 50
Dust Preferably dust removal
MD-MV20090007 -125-
Variants
Some suppliers place a catalyst (active coal) or a second set of lamps with a different
wavelength after the first photo oxidation phase to reach the highest possible removal rate.
This extra phase also serves to break down the remaining ozone into oxygen.

Expected lifespan of UV-lamps is about 8,000 hours and it should be replaced after this
period.
Monitoring
Odour measurements require a specific approach. For details we refer to the NeR

Specific pros
- compact and modular system
- close to no start up time
- operation at low temperature
- low energy consumption rate
- noise free
Specific cons
- not suitable for high concentrations of pollutants
Additives
Only when a catalyst is included.
Cross Media Effects

The outgoing gas could contain remaining ozone. Under normal conditions however ozone
is quickly decomposed to oxygen. Besides UV lamps, no waste is created.
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR/1000 m03/h 5,000 – 7,000
Operational costs, EUR/kg VOC removed 3 – 25
IPersonnel -
nHelp and additives, EUR/1000 m03/h UV-lamps: 0.06 – 0.2 (life span about 8,000
f hours)
Possibly catalyst (active coal): 0.06 – 0.12
o
Energy consumption rate, kW/1000 m03/h 0.3 – 1.5 lamp power
rCost-determining parameters Lamps, catalyst
mBenefits None
a
tion sources
MD-MV20090007 -126-
4.10 Chemical reduction
MD-MV20090007 -127-
Selective non-catalytic reduction / SNCR
Brief description
Description
With selective non-catalytic reduction, NOx is removed by injection a reducing reagent into
the incoming gas. Often ammonia is used as the reagent. The optimal temperature for this
injection is there where the gas has a temperature between the 930 – 980 °C.
Temperature, reagent/reactant ratio and residence time are the most important
parameters for the efficiency.
Schematic diagram
Flue gas
Ammoniac
or Urea
Furnace
Air
Applicability
SNCR is applied for the reduction of NOx emissions during release in processes in:
- Chemical industry
- Power plants/large combustion plants (biomass, coal, oil, gas)
- Cement industry
- Metal industry
- Greenhouse horticulture
Components
mg/m03
Nox 40 – 80 60 - 70 3
1
hour averages.
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h < 200,000
Temperature, °C 800 – 1,100
Ingoing concentration NOX, g/m03 Wide range
NH3/NOX-ratio < 1.2
MD-MV20090007 -128-
Variants
The SCR can be seen as a variant of the SNCR. See the fact sheet on SCR.

The adjustment (retrofitting) of a SNCR installation is relatively easy because only injection
units and a storage tank for the reagents have to be installed.
Monitoring
The performance of the SCR systems can be determined in two different ways: first, by
measuring the NOx levels before and after treatment and second, by measuring the
ammonia and (excess) oxygen levels of the treated gas. For details we refer to the NeR,

Specific pros
- Under optimal conditions, a high reduction of NOx is possible
- Gas with a high dust concentration can also be treated
- Relatively easy installation (also when retrofitting)
- Low investment costs compared to other NOx removing techniques
- Low energy consumption rate
- Requires little space
Specific cons
- High temperatures required, and the optimal reaction temperature is in a precise range
- Not suited for sources with a low NOx level
- The fly ash contains ammonia
- Beyond operational reach, ammonia is emitted or the NOx emissions are increased
- Nitrous oxide (N2O) might be formed as a by-product
Additives
- Reacting agents: a 25% solution of ammonia or urea
- Steam: for the evaporation of the ammonia/urea before it is injected
Cross Media Effects

- Possible aerosol forming of ammonium chloride and ammonium sulfate.
- Potential NH3 emissions as a result of non-optimal process.
- Nitrous oxide (N2O) might be formed as a by-product.
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR/1000 m03/h 2,500 – 10,000
Operational costs -
Personnel, EUR/year 20,000
Help and additives, EUR/ton 150 - 200
up to 570 kg NH3-solution per ton of removed NOx
Energy consumption, kWh/1000 m03/h Only energy consumption is for the dosing of ammonia or
urea
Cost-determining parameters Consumption of ammonia or ureum, uncontrolled NOx-
concentrations, preffered reduction, thermal efficiency,
retrofitting
Benefits None, besides benefits from NOx emission trade
Information sources
2. Guide on air cleaning techniques, VITO 2004/IMS/r/066.
3. IPPC BREF Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment, 2003
4. US EPA, Air Pollution Control Technology Factsheet SNCR, EPA-452/F-03-031
5. Cementa AB, Sweden, Paper, date unknown
MD-MV20090007 -129-
Selective catalytic reduction / SCR
Brief description
Description
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) aims at reducing the emission of NOx. The incoming gas
is enriched with an addition of NH3 or urea and led over a catalyst converting the NOx into
N2 and H2O. Temperatures are between 200 oC and 500 oC, depending on the type of
catalyst.
Schematic diagram
Ammonia
or urea
Cleaned
gas
Dust
filter
Catalytic
bed
Furnace
Air
Applicability
SCR is applied to abate NOx emissions from processes like:
- waste incineration
- chemical industry
- power plants/large combustion plants
- metal industry
- greenhouse farming
Components
Removed Removal Remaining emission, Validation
components efficiency1, % mg/m03 number
NOx 90 – 94 40 - 50 3
possible aerosol forming of
ammonium chloride and ammonium
sulfate2.
1
hour averages.
2
When SO2 is present, the ammonia is formed into ammonium sulfate. The ammonium sulfate
might clog the catalyst and is emitted as a aerosol that is hard to remove.
MD-MV20090007 -130-
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h < 1,000,000
Temperature, °C 200 - 500 (depending on the catalyst), fluctuations
of about 90 °C are acceptable.
Pressure drop, mbar < 10
Fluid level -
Dust, g/m03 Some
Ingoing concentration NOX, g/m03 < 3 (including diesel motors)
NH3/NOX- mol ratio < 1.1
Variants
- SCR installations placed directly behind the boiler; a so-called “high-dust” sequence.
This is possible if the outgoing gas has very little to no dust that could cause the
catalyst to be poisened. This configuration is also applied at coal fired power plants
with dust concentrations up to 10 g/m03.
- Serially placed SCR installations behind dust filters with scrubbers; a so-called “low-
dust” sequence. With this technique it is necessary to clean the incoming gas before it
enters the catalyst chamber. It is necessary to reheat the waste gas to the reaction
temperature.
- In the DESONOX process, the dust-free gas is mixed with ammonia and led across a
catalyst at 450 ºC to remove the NOx after which it led over a catalyst to convert the
SO2 into SO3, which reacts with sulfuric acid.

The catalyst has a lifespan ranging between the 5 and 10 years under normal operational
conditions. This can be expanded with clean incoming gas. The catalyst cannot be
regenerated but is often recycled by the manufacturer. The adjustment (“Retrofitting”) of
an existing installation to install the SCR may require large modifications and therefore lead
to extra high costs (in comparison with a new construction).
Monitoring
The performance of the SCR systems can be determined by measuring the NOx levels
before and after the treatment and by measuring the ammonia and oxygen levels of the
treated gas. The temperature and pressure drop should be routinely checked. For details
we refer to the NeR, paragraph 3.7 and Annex 4.7.

Specific pros
- Higher NOx reduction efficiency than SNCR and low-NOx burners
- Low and relatively broad temperature range application possible
- Also applicable for sources with low NOx-concentrations
- Less ammonia slip than SNCR, because of lower dust levels
- Relatively easy installation, no modifications to the incinerators are necessary
Specific cons
- At relatively high SO3 levels, the process has to be executed at a high temperature to
prevent condensation
- Costs of the catalyst (potential clogging, poisoning and possible erosion of the catalyst by
fly ashes.
- Relatively high investment costs compared to the SNCR and low-NOx burners
- In a “high-dust” sequence the fly ashes are loaded with NH3
- In a “low-dust” sequence the reheating of the waste gasses is required
- Requires a relatively large amount of space
Additives
- Reductants: a 25% solution of ammonia or urea
- In some cases, steam: to evaporate the reductants before they are injected
- Catalyst: among other, V2O5 (vanadium pentoxide) and/or TiO2 (titanium dioxide).
MD-MV20090007 -131-
Cross Media Effects
- Potential NH3 emissions as a result of non-optimal process execution (NH3 silt)
- Spent catalyst
- Nitrous oxide (N2O) may be formed as a by-product
- In “high-dust” sequences the fly ashes are loaded with NH3.
Financial aspects
1
Investment costs, EUR/1,000 m03/h 10,000 – 83,0001 (very dependent on the application)
8 Retrofit may lead to 100% higher costs.
3Operational costs, EUR/ton NOX 500 – 5,000
,removed
0Personnel, EUR/year 20,000
0Help and additives
0 NH3-solution/ton of removed NOX, kg 370 - 450
Catalyst, EUR/ton 11,000
Energy
E consumption, kWh/1000 m03/h For the heating of smoke gasses in a “low-dust”
U installation
RElectricity costs, EUR/1000 m03/h Low
/Cost-determining parameters Use of catalyst and reagents
1Benefits None
1) 83 000 m03/h for a waste-combustion furnace with a capacity of 80,000 tons per year.
Information sources
3. IPPC BREF Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment, 2003
4. US EPA, Air Pollution Control Technology Factsheet SCR, EPA-452/F-03-032
5. Haldor Topsoe (Lyngby), news article 25-07-2008; increase in SCR DeNOX catalyst
prices
6. Supplier information: Hanwell Codinox, RAI Amsterdam, October 2008
MD-MV20090007 -132-
Non-selective catalytic reduction / NSCR
Brief description
Description
Non-selective catalytic reduction (NSCR) converts the chemicals CO, NOx and VOC into
CO2, N2 and/or H2O through use of a catalyst. Because the non-combusted VOC is used as
the reacting agent this technique requires no extra reagent injections (but ammonia and
urea are also used sometimes). However, the gasses should not contain more than 0.5%
oxygen. The used catalysts are often constructed out of platinum.
Schematic diagram
Air & fuel
Ratio Air
& fuel
Catalyst
Off gas Clean gas
Applicability
NSCR is primarily applied in the car industry. It also applied in places where the
incineration is stoichiometric such as stationary engines for energy generation or drive (not
for diesel engines because of the amount of oxygen present). It may also be applied with
the production of inert gasses and in the chemical sector, like nitric acid production.
Because of the low efficiency, stoichiometric engines in stationary applications are not
applied often yet.
Components
Removed Removal efficiency1, % Remaining emission, Validation number
2
components mg/m03
NOX 90 – 98 50 3
1
hour averages.
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h < 34,000
Temperature, 0C 375 – 825
Pressure, bar <8
Pressure drop
Fluid level No information
Dust
Oxygen, % 0.2 – 0.7
NOX, mg/m03 4,000 – 8,000
CO, mg/m03 3,000 – 6,000
VOC, ppm 1,000 – 2,000
MD-MV20090007 -133-
Variants
Some suppliers use natural gas as a reducer for the NOx. This way the acceptable oxygen
concentration can be increased up to 2%.

The catalyst has to be replaced periodically. A lifespan of 2-3 years is generally
guaranteed.
Monitoring
The performance of the NSCR systems can be determined by measuring the NOx, VOC and
CO levels before and after treatment. For details we refer to the NeR paragraph 3.7 and
Annex 4.7.

Specific pros
- No extra reducing agent required
Specific cons
- Engine must be controlled based on the oxygen level
- Limited applicability
Additives
The catalyst has to be replaced periodically
Cross Media Effects

Application of NSCR may result in higher CO-levels because of the requirement of a rich
mixture in the engine, so the CO is available for the catalyst to remove NOx. At high CO
levels an oxidation catalyst could be placed in series behind the catalyst to convert the CO
into CO2.
Financial aspects
1
Investment costs, EUR 15,000 – 250,000, strongly dependent on the engine
size (80 – 8,000 hp)
BOperational costs, EUR 69,000 – 244,000, strongly dependent on the engine
a size (80 – 8.000 hp)1
sPersonnel, days/year None
eHelp and additives Catalyst2
3
dEnergy consumption, kWh/1000 m0 /h Excessive use of fuel because of the higher pressure
drop of the catalyst (0–5% depending on the design)
o The capacity of the motor decreases with 1 – 2%.
3
nElectricity costs, EUR/1000 m0 /h -
Cost-determining parameters Engine size, flow
8Benefits None
,000 hours per year including maintenance and debiting.
2
The catalyst has to be replaced periodically. The used catalyst is sometimes sold.
Information sources
2. Johnson Mattey, Emission Control Technologies, NSCR Catalysts, 2008
3. Dutch Emission guideline air, NeR paragraph 3.7 and Annex 4.7, 2003
4. Supplier information: Hanwell Codinox, RAI Amsterdam, October 2008.
MD-MV20090007 -134-
4.11 Other techniques
MD-MV20090007 -135-
Membrane filtration / Solvent recuperation / Air separation
with membranes
Description
Description
Membrane filtration uses the difference in the selective permeability of chemicals (some
chemicals pass the membrane more easily than others). The incoming gas is compressed
and sent through a membrane. The membrane stops the air and lets the compounds that
have to be removed pass through. The untreated air is at overpressure. The other side of
the membrane is at underpressure. Because of the pressure difference, some components
penetrate the membrane. As a result one gets a low and a high concentrated gas stream.
It is often necessary to treat the remaining stream to guarantee a sufficiently low emission
concentration.
Schematic diagram
Membrane filtration
Separator Cleaned gas
Gas flow in
Heat exchange
Applicability
Broad range of application in the production or recuperation of (industrial) gasses in the:
- Chemical industry
- Petrochemical industry
- Pharmaceutical industry
- Refineries
Components
Removed Removal efficiency1, % Remaining emission, Validation number
components mg/m03
VOC < 99.9 150 - 300 1
1
MD-MV20090007 -136-
Preconditions
Flow, m03/h < 3,000
Temperature Environmental temperature, dependent on the membrane material
Pressure, bar About 3.5; up to 100 with inorganic membranes
Pressure, bar 1 - 10
Dust Very low concentration, dust pollutes the membrane
VOC High concentrations can be treated
Variants
The configuration of the membrane is dependent on the supplier: this varies from flat
membranes to hollow fiber membranes. There is also the choice between organic and
inorganic membranes. The choices between these different systems are dependent on the
gas qualities (temperature, pressure, permeability, etcetera).

The installation is dimensioned based on the flow, concentration type of gasses, type of
membrane (surface pressure) and required degree of regaining of component. Simple
mechanical principle and little maintenance required.
While designing of the LEL-values have to be taken into account to prevent the risk of
explosion.
Monitoring
The efficiency of the membrane filter can be determined by measuring the concentrations
of chemicals before and after the membrane. Volatile organic compounds (VOC) can be
measured as total carbon by a flame-ionization detector.
For safety reasons (explosion risk) the VOC-oxygen ration should be checked.

Specific pros
- Reuse of raw materials possible
- Easy to use (low maintenance, ease of operation)
- No waste produced in the process.
Specific cons
- Membrane filtration is just a concentration technique and should be followed by a second
cleaning stage
- Risk of explosion.
Additives
The membrane will have to be replaced periodically, although it theoretically has an
unlimited lifespan. The guarantee on the lifespan of membranes is often 5 years.
Cross Media Effects

The technique is often used to recover a component in a concentrated stream. The
remaining emission often has to be treated. However, in some cases the solvent
concentration can be reduced to below the norm with membrane separation.
Financial aspects
Investment costs, EUR 345,000 for a system of 200 m03/h
Operational costs, EUR/1000 m03/h < 50
Personnel, days per year 4
Energy consumption, kWh/1000 m03/h 250 – 300 (including ventilator)
Cost-determining parameters Flow, technical lifespan of membrane, required degree of
regain, required final concentration
Benefits Eventual regained product
MD-MV20090007 -137-
Information source
3. IPPC BREF, Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment, February 2003
MD-MV20090007 -138-
Vapor recovery unit / VRU
Brief description
Description
The term vapor recovery unit (VRU) is a collective term for techniques for the recovering
VOC vapor. The separate techniques are already described in the different fact sheets. In
this fact sheet an overview of the techniques is presented.
VRUs are primarily applied for the recovering hydrocarbons of storage and handling of
(highly) flammable products in the oil and gas industry. The most commonly applied
techniques are;
- Absorption; the VOC are dissolved into an absorption fluid like water or glycol (see fact
sheets absorption)
- Adsorption; the VOC are adsorbed by solid materials like active coal or zeolites (see
fact sheets adsorption)
- Gas separation with membranes; because of the pressure difference only the VOC
penetrate the membrane. The result is a component-free gas stream and one saturated
with components (see fact sheets membrane filtration)
- Condensation; by cooling the gas stream the VOC can condensate and be separated as
a fluid (see fact sheets condensation)
- Hybrid systems; VOC are removed by a combination of the techniques described above
in order to reach a higher efficiency rate, for example condensation followed by
absorption.
MD-MV20090007 -139-
5 Additional research on specific techniques
5.1 Techniques
Introduction
For a number of techniques further research has been done. For this the suppliers where
specifically approached. This is done to get a better understanding of the technique, the
delivery pack and the specific applications of the techniques and the sectors where the
suppliers are active.
The techniques chosen have drawn attention, because of the components that are to be
removed, for example fine dust and acidifying components such as Nox, or because of
developments in recent years.
Much of the information that is relevant to the fact sheets is also incorporated into the fact
sheets. The part of the information that cannot be incorporated into the fact sheets easily
is incorporated per technique into the paragraphs below.
Dust filters
Fabric filter
The fabric filter is a proven, renowned and widely spread technology within the industry for
the removal of dust and dust-bound chemicals such as metals. However, there are current
technologies that make a broader range of application possible. There is now also the
standard possibility of coating fabric filters with PTFE (Teflon) and thus making use of the
good qualities of Teflon (like a coating in frying pans). Beside that there is the possibility of
coating fabrics to make them oil and water resistant. The right choice of fabric will always
depend on the specific process from where the air has to be cleaned because this
determines the qualities of the pollution. The choice of coating a fabric or choosing a
different type of fiber depends on the specific process parameters. In the food industry
coated fabrics are applied with intention of using the coating to make the fibers as smooth
as possible. This serves to prevent sticky products (food remains) to remain in the filter,
for hygienic purposes and to prevent the forming of moulds.
Within the Dutch metal industry, there is an ongoing search for an improved application of
the fabric filter. By applying a fabric filter after a sinter factory the emission of heavy
minerals and dust from the installation can be reduced. These systems are already being
applied in Austria and Germany. These techniques do not differ from the principles and
techniques described in the fact sheets. Different types of fabric have been examined on a
wide scale. 3
Ceramic-metal filters and multi-cyclones

A number of suppliers have removed the ceramic filters from their supply because of the
low demand. Currently people often use fiber filters because it is often more economical to
reduce the process temperatures and to use the more conventional techniques.
Sometimes the pollution, at variable loads, can be a problem for cleaning and performance
of a ceramic filter. Some suppliers prefer to use multi-cyclones in unfavorable situations,
because their performance is regarded as highly robust. On top of this very small fractions
can be removes by a series of multiple cyclones.
3
Bakker, PNH Studierapport nieuwe reinigingstechnologie rookgassen Sinterfabriek, september 2008.
MD-MV20090007 -140-
Filtering installations equipped with sintered, metal filtering media
Automatically cleanable dust removal filters equipped with sintered metal filtering media
are applicable in processes where conventional, synthetic filtering materials can not be
applied due to the high operational temperature (> 300 ºC). Which construction materials
are suited is dependent on the composition of the process gas it is exposed to. The most
common materials are RVS304, RVS316, Inconel, Hastellov and Fecrallov.
The benefits of sintered metal filtering media include:
- Applicable at temperatures up to 1000ºC

- Suitable for processes where thermal and mechanical fluctuations occur
- High degree of chemical resistance
- Emission reduction of < 1 mg/m03 can be achieved
- Easily cleaned with compressed air, nitrogen or process gas (depending on the
composition)
- Low pressure drop because of filtering material’s high porosity
- High degree of reliability and very long lifespan
Sintered metal filtering media are relatively costly compared to synthetic filtering
materials; however because of the specific qualities sintered metal filtering elements are
primarily applied for heavy industrial installations in refineries and petrochemical plants,
where safety and reliability are essential.
A specific application of sintered metal filtering media is the filtering of fine catalyst dust
particles that are emitted through stacks at refineries. A catalyst is used in FCC units (Fluid
Catalytic Cracking), a conversion unit that transforms oil into valuable products such as
gasoline and light olefins. Many refineries are equipped with a waste gas treatment system
based on cyclones. However, local emission limit values for catalyst dust in the refineries
getting stricter and stricter. Refineries around the world are to adjust their so-called FCC
stack to the local environmental ELV’s. For this application, many sintered metal filtering
systems have been installed that have been operating successfully for a long time and are
designed to have a lifespan of 4 to 5 years, excluding unplanned stops.
Electro-filter
An electro-filter can achieve low emissions of fine dust. However, the demand for electro-
filters has decreased over the last years. Because the emission norms for fine dust continue
to grow stricter and because the electro-filter, in some situations, for example during
malfunctions, is an open drain. To prevent this, a filter will have to be installed behind the
electro-filter. According to the suppliers it is more practical to only install a dedicated
filtering system in such a case. Electro-filters are often specifically designed and installed
and are still optimized years later for the specific operational conditions of that moment.
Rotating particle separator (RPS)

The RPS has been applied in many different situations, with claimed good efficiency rate at
low investment costs. The efficiency rate is almost at the same level as that of the ESP but
the costs are significantly lower. There is currently no supplier, only a licensee. The
information on the RPS is incorporated into the fact sheets as a variant of the cyclone.
Active coal filter

Applications and market
The chemical sector is a broad topical market with many different kinds of emissions. At
this moment questions are being raised from the styrene processing industry. Specific
solutions to questions are being delivered with the existing active coal technologies (see
fact sheet active coal). The market for air emissions is also very diverse and varies from
applications in the large volume chemical industry to odour emissions at bakeries and
desulfurizing gas fired engines at WWT plants and the agriculture.
Designs / Executions
For the smaller applications there are many sales of plate-shaped units (Norithene) and
rental of 2m3 units. Another application form of active coal is the concentric cylinder,
wherein the untreated gas enters through the core of the cylinder and flows through the
MD-MV20090007 -141-
coal bed in outer ring. The supplier takes care of the design and construction, like a
supplier of dosing apparatus for active coal injection does. Sometimes the active coal is
recycled. In the ‘air treatment’ market, especially the application of smaller units, 90% of
the used active coal is not recycled.
Active coal is also used in vapor recovery systems (see the fact sheet on remaining
techniques), for example to recover volatile organic compounds when handling gasoline.
This technique has been applied for more than ten years.
In the USA, stricter laws direct the developments in the application of active coal towards a
decrease of mercury emissions from power plants.
Improvements of technique and developments

The developments are generally slow and cannot be considered revolutionary. Important
developments primarily focus on the improvements in the areas of impregnation (chemical
treatment to ensure the selectivity of adsorption to the coal), reaction kinetics (reaction
speed of the coal) or custom made products.
Efficiency rates and emissions

Efficiency rates vary depending on the demand and application between the 70 and >99%.
An example is the removal of methyl ethyl keton (MEK) in the oil and gas industries
(>99%). Higher efficiencies can also be acquired if necessary, like the mercury removal at
LNG production (99.99%).
Costs
The investment costs are more or less 6,000 EURO per mo3. The operational costs are very
specific to the situation (coal load, flow, ingoing concentration, component, retrofitting
situation, etc.) but a range for the costs can be given. For recycled coal 1000 euro per ton
can be taken into account, and 1500 euro per ton of non-recycled coal.
Biological filter
No large innovations were applied to the biological filters in recent years. The most
important change is that the range of application has been expanded.
Applications and market

One can differentiate between mesophile and thermophile applications. Mesophile systems
operate between 15 – 50°C and thermophile systems work between 50 – 60°C.
Thermophile applications are more sensitive to temperature fluctuations. If the
temperature peaks above 60°C, the biological activity will quickly diminish (pasteurization
of the bed). With mesophile applications, changes in temperature are less of a problem.
The performance will diminish for a short period, but the filter will recover. Synthetic
packing are said to not be applied much in the market anymore.
Points of improvement
The technique can be improved further by decreasing starting up times and by a better
fixation of the sulfur compounds in the beds.
Biotrickling
Sectors and availability
Biotrickling is a beneficial alternative for incinerators if the VOC emissions are low and
discontinuous. Incinerators are often more favorable if the concentration of VOC in the
gasses is higher than 1 -2 g/m03. For a good performance of the installation, the design has
to be custom made for the operational conditions, nutrient solvents and range of
application. The range of application and the efficiency rate are strongly dependent on the
specific component that is to be removed.

When applying with VOC, the water drainage is minimal. For H2S removal the water
drainage is bigger to prevent acidification. A watery sulfuric acid is released as waste
product.
MD-MV20090007 -142-
Efficiencies
The efficiency rates of the biotrickling filters (or bio-towers) strongly vary depending on the
type of hydrocarbon, odour (70%) or sulfuric compounds (ranging from 15% for dimethyl
sulfide up to 90% for hydrogen sulphide). For references and additional information we
refer to the corresponding fact sheet.
SCR
The improvement and development of these techniques is slow and cannot be considered
revolutionary. However, improvements have occurred concerning the lifespan of the
catalyst and the reduction of NH3 slip by making adjustments in the fields of the measuring
and controlling technique and the application of specific type of catalyst (red catalyst,
ammonia killer).
The efficiency rates are somewhat optimized and vary from 90 - 94%. Typical emissions for
NOx in heating installations are 40 mg/m03 .
25% ammonium solvent or a maximum of 40% urea solvent is used. For safety reasons,
urea is preferred since the safety regulations can be rather costly.
The range of application has broadened in the last ten years and has directed itself onto
the developments in the area of applications of biogas.
Oxicator
This technique is based on the catalytic oxidation of VOC with the catalyst being heated by
microwaves. By using microwaves the system is very energy efficient. Information on this
is incorporated into the fact sheet on catalytic incinerators as a variant.
5.2 Field-testing of emissions
The emission numbers that are mentioned in the fact sheets are primarily based on data
from literature. These have been randomly checked by inquiring field data from some
provinces and companies and comparing this to the information found in the fact sheets.
An overview of this data, the techniques, emissions and types of companies, can be found
in Annex 1.
Approximately half of the tested emission values are within the range of the emission limits
described per technique in the fact sheets. Another part of the emission values from the
measuring reports are hard to compare with the emission values found in the fact sheets,
for example because the situation (potentially combined with the polluted component) is
too specific. The last part of the examined emissions is outside the range (up to 100%) of
emissions found in the fact sheet. This can be the case when different units are used for
the emissions in the permit. For this reason we advice to apply the emission values given in
the fact sheet with caution. The reported emissions are meant to be indicative, are strongly
dependent on the field situation and are meant as a target for what is feasible.
MD-MV20090007 -143-
6 Cost effectiveness
In a large number of situations for which an environmental permit is applied, the cost
effectiveness of the air emission abatement technique is considered. To give an indication
of the levels of cost effectiveness, exemplary calculations have been made for five
techniques. The (fictional) calculations have been made with realistic values from field
data. Assumptions have been made where no data were available Table 6.1 presents a
summary of the cost effectiveness calculations. The information in the table is meant as an
indication of the cost effectiveness of different techniques in situations such as those that
could occur in the field.
Annex 2 includes a more extensive overview of the data and (basic) assumptions that were
used in the cost effectiveness calculations of the five techniques. The calculations are based
on the method described in the Netherlands Emission Guidelines for Air, NeR 4.13.
Table 6.1 Examples of cost effectiveness of air emission abatement techniques 1
Technique component Flow, Operational Capital Efficiency, Avoided Cost

m3/h investment, costs 2, % emissions, effectiveness,
1,000 EUR 1,000 EUR Ton EUR/kg
Gas SO2 100,000 468 106 99 99 6
scrubber
Active coal Styrene 4,000 28.5 5 98 2 17
filter
SCR NOx 60,000 37 191 90 32 7
E-filter Dust 20,000 70 286 99.9 200 2
Biological VOC 80,000 88 85 90 18 9
filter
1)
The results are of course dependent on the chosen situation and the assumptions that were made.
2)
These are the fixed investment costs multiplied by the annuity factor (NeR 4.13).
MD-MV20090007 -144-
7 Recommendations for future research
The study to actualize the fact sheets has not delivered all desired information. It is
desirable to add the missing information on the techniques in the fact sheets as time goes
by.
An overview of the missing information is given in table 7.1
Table 7.1. Overview of the missing information
Fact sheet Partial or missing information

Rotational scrubber Pressure, pressure drop
Two-phase dust filter Fluid level, removal efficiency
Absolute filter Emissions of very small particles
Mist filter Pressure
Wet ESP filter Emissions
Condenser Emissions
Zeolite filter Emissions, different preconditions
Polymer adsorption Flow, pressure, design and maintenance, emissions
Biological scrubber Emission data
Flare VOC-emission (efficiency is known)
Ionization Design and maintenance
NSCR Pressure drop, permeability of fluid and dust
It is obvious from the table that additional information is especially needed on emissions
and preconditions of process conditions like acceptable pressure and dust level.
MD-MV20090007 -145-
8 Index
Absolute filter 43 Cyclone 18 Ozone injection 122

Absorber 82 Deep bed filter 46 Photo oxidation 125
Absorption 81 Demister 46 Plasma cleaning 122
Acid gas scrubber 85 Dry E-Filter 48 Polymer adsorption 72
Acid scrubber 85 Dry electrostatic precipitator 48 Rotational scrubber 26
Active coal filtering 65 Dry electrostatic precipitator 48 SCR 130
Active oxygen injection 122 Dry ESP 48 Scrubber 82
Adsorption (general) 62 Dry lime injection 75 Scrubbing (general) 23
Adsorption 61 Dry lime-sorption 75 Scrubbing 22
Adsorption of active coal 65 Dust cyclone 18 Selective catalytic reduction 130
Aerosol filter 46 Dynamic scrubber 26 Selective non-catalytic reduction 128
Air scrubber 82 Electro filter 48 Semi-dry lime adsorption 78
Air separation with membranes 136 Electro-filter 51 Semi-dry lime injection 78
Alkaline gas scrubber 88 Electrostatic precipitator 48 Semi-wet lime sorption 78
Bag filter 33 ESP 48 Settling chamber 15
Bio-bed 95 Fabric filter 33 SNCR 128
Bio-bed filter 95 Filtering dust separator 33 Solvent recuperation 136
Biodenox 99 Filtering dust-separator 37 Spray-dry adsorption 78
Biofiltration 95 Filtration 32 Spraying tower 26
Biological cleaning 94 Fixed bed lime-sorption 75 Surface filter 43/
Biological filter 95 Flare 117 Thermal incinerator 109
Biological scrubber (general) 102 Gas scrubber (general) 82 Thermal oxidation 108
Bioscrubber 102 Gas scrubber alkaline-oxidative 91 Thermal oxidation 109
Bioscrubber 102 Gravitation 14 Thermocat 113
Biotrickling 99 Gravitational separator 15 Tube filter 33
BTF 99 Heat exchanger 55 Two-stage dust filter 40
Candle filter 37 Hefite filter 69 UV-oxidation 125
Cartridge filter 43 HEPA-filter 43 Vapor recovery unit 139
Cascade adsorption 75 High temperature filter 37 Venturi-scrubber 29
Catalytic incinerator 113 Incinerator 109 Venturi-scrubber 29
Catalytic oxidation 113 Ionization 122 Vortex separation 18
Catox 113 Lavafilter 99 VRU 139
Ceramic filter 37 MBTF 105 Wet cyclone 18
Ceramic filter 37 Membrane filtration 136 Wet dust remover 23
Chemical reduction 127 Micro filter 43 Wet dust scrubber 23
Coal filter 65 Moving bed trickling filter 105 Wet E-filter 51
Cold oxidation 121 Multi-cyclone 18 Wet Electrostatic precipitator 51
Compost filter 95 Non-selective catalytic reduction 133 Wet electrostatic precipitator 52
Condensation 54 NSCR 133 Wet ESP 51
Condenser 55 OCC 55 Whirl scrubber 29
Cooled condensation 58 Odour control condensation 55 Zeolite filter (adsorption) 69
Cryocondensation 58 Other techniques 135 Zeolite filter 69
MD-MV20090007 -146-
9 Annexes
Annex 1. Field emission data
Annex 2. Cost effectiveness calculations
Annex 3. List of suppliers that provided information
MD-MV20090007 -147-
Annex 1 Field emission data
MD-MV20090007 -148-
Annex 2 Illustrative calculations of cost effectiveness
variable investments fixed investments gas flow characteristic costs efficiency concentration out concentration in difference reduced
1. alkalische scrubber energie loog fixed operationeel purchase added annuiteit nm3/hour EUR/1.000 Nm3/hour mg/nm3 mg/nm3 kg KE
variant 1 8800 440000 19500 0 500000 150000 105950 100000 5000 99 10 1000 990 99000 5,800505
SO2 reduction kWh/year*euro/kWh euro/year 0,03 euro/year 0,3 0,163 euro/kg
0,11 euro/kWh ton/year*euro/ton 3-5 % day/jr*euro/day 30 - 250%
220 euro/ton 0,3 - 2,5
3000 ton year
variant 2 8800 440000 45000 0 500000 1000000 244500 100000 5000 99 10 1000 990 99000 7,457576
SO2 reduction kWh/year*euro/kWh euro/year 0,03 euro/year 2 0,163 euro/kg
0,11 euro/kWh ton/year*euro/ton day/jr*euro/day retrofit situation
220 euro/ton
3000 ton year
variant 3 8800 380000 19500 0 500000 150000 105950 100000 5000 99 10 1000 990 99000 5,194444
SO2 reduction kWh/year*euro/kWh euro/year 0,03 euro/year 0,3 0,163 euro/kg
0,11 euro/kWh ton/year*euro/ton day/jr*euro/day
190 euro/ton
3000 ton year
2. Active Coal filter variable investments fixed investments gas flow characteristic costs efficiency concentration out concentration in difference reduced
reduction of VOS energie actief kool fixed of > operationeel purchase added annuiteit nm3/hour EUR/1.000 Nm3/hour mg/nm3 mg/nm3 kg KE
styreen 25 26525,33333 0 2000 24000 7200 5085,6 4000 6000 98 10 500 490 1960 17,16119
kWh/year*euro/kWh 1400 euro/ton 0 euro/year 0,3 0,163 euro/kg
0,11 euro/kWh 8 hour/day 30% belading day/jr*euro/day
van kool 1800 kg
26525,33333
3. SCR variable investments fixed investments gas flow characteristic costs efficiency concentration out concentration in difference reduced
reduction NOx energie ammoniak fixed operationeel purchase added annuiteit nm3/hour EUR/1.000 Nm3/hour mg/nm3 mg/nm3 kg KE
50 1798,2 35100 0 900000 270000 190710 60000 15000 90 60 600 540 32400 7,026488
kWh/year*euro/kWh 150 0,03 euro/year 0,3 0,163 euro/kg
0,11 euro/kWh 150 euro/ton NH3 day/jr*euro/day
370
370 kg NH3/ton NOx
4. E-filter variable investments fixed investments gas flow characteristic costs efficiency concentration out concentration in difference reduced
reduction of dust energie reststoffen fixed operationeel purchase added annuiteit nm3/hour EUR/1.000 Nm3/hour mg/nm3 mg/nm3 kg KE
47850 19990 0 2000 2000000 600000 286000 100000 20000 99,95 1 2000 1999 199900 1,78009
0,5 100 0 euro/year 0,3 0,11 euro/kg
0,5 kWh/ 1000nm3/h 100 euro/ton day/jr*euro/day 25 year afschrijving
0,11 euro/kWh
8760 h/year
8700
5. Bio-filter variable investments fixed investments gas flow characteristic costs efficiency concentration out concentration in difference reduced
reduction VOS nuts filtermateriaal fixed operationeel purchase added annuiteit nm3/hour EUR/1.000 Nm3/hour mg/nm3 mg/nm3 kg KE
75000 10000 0 3200 400000 120000 84760 80000 5000 90 25 250 225 18000 9,608889
0 euro/year 0,3 0,163 euro/kg
day/jr*euro/day 25 year afschrijving
MD-MV20090007 -149-
Annex 3 List of suppliers who provided information
Operating principle Factsheets / supplier BIENFAIT AIRTECHNIC HMVT Linde Pure Air Norit DMT Wateco Uniqfill Askove Freshfilter KWB Circlair DHV Esher Dahlman Codinox Mesys BV
Gas Solutions
Separation by gravity Settling chamber x x x

Cyclone x x x x
Dust scrubbing Spraying tower x x x x x x
Venturi scrubber x x x x x
Dust scrubber general x x x x x x x
Filters Electrostatic filter (dry)
Electrostatic filter (wet)
2-traps dust filter x x x
Fabric filter x x x x x x
Ceramic filter x
Absolute filter x x x x
Demister x x x x x x x
Membrane filtration x x x
Condensation Condensor x x x
Cryocondensation x
Adsorption Adsorption General x x x
Adsorption Active Coal x x x x x x x x
Adsorption Zeolites x x
Dry injection CaO
Semi-Dry injection CaO x
Absorptie Gas scrubber general x x x x x x x x
Acid scrubber x x x x x x x
Alkaline scrubber x x x x x x
Alkaline oxidative scrubber x x x x x
Biological treatment Biofilter x x x x x x
Biotricklingfilter x x x x
Bio-scrubber
MBTR x
Thermal oxidation Thermal incinerator x x
Catalytic oxidation x x
Torch x x
Oxidation Ionisation x x x
Chemical reduction SNCR
SCR x
NSCR x
MD-MV20090007 -150-
10 Colophon
Infomil/Manual on air emission abatement techniques
Client: InfoMil
Project: Fact sheets on air emission abatement techniques
File: B8176
Report size: 152 pages
Author(s): Erwin Schenk, Juriaan Mieog, Dennis Evers (DHV)
Contribution:
Internal regulation: C. Cronenberg
Project leader: Erwin Schenk
Project manager:
Date: February 2009
Name/initials:
DHV B.V.
Ruimte en Mobiliteit
Laan 1914 nr. 35
3818 EX Amersfoort
Postbus 1132
3800 BC Amersfoort
T (033) 468 20 00
F (033) 468 28 01
E info@dhv.nl
www.dhv.nl
MD-MV20090007 -151-
MD-MV20090007 -152-

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Fact sheets on air emission

2 Research lay-out and results ....................................................................... 6

3 Use of the fact sheets .................................................................................. 8

4 Fact sheets ................................................................................................ 14

4.1 Gravitation .............................................................................................14

4.2 Scrubbing ..............................................................................................22

4.3 Filtration ................................................................................................32

4.7 Biological cleaning...................................................................................94

4.9 Cold oxidation.......................................................................................121

4.10 Chemical reduction................................................................................127

4.11 Other techniques...................................................................................135

5 Additional research on specific techniques .............................................. 140

6 Cost effectiveness.................................................................................... 144

7 Recommendations for future research ..................................................... 145

8 Index ....................................................................................................... 146

9 Annexes ................................................................................................... 147

10 Colophon .............................................................................................. 151

a) Literature study (including LUSS and BREFs);

Figure 1. Research project renewal fact sheets

1st updated sheets

3.6. Report &

3.1 Selection and application of air emission abatement

In order to make a first selection of air emission abatement techniques, an overview-table

Working Name Removed components Parameters

Ceramic 80 – 300 – Stickiness

Environmental pros and cons

3.3 Sub-division of techniques

In chapter 4 the techniques are divided as follows:

Gravitation (paragraph 4.1)

Dust scrubbers (paragraph 4.2)

Filtration (paragraph 4.3)

Condensation (paragraph 4.4.)

Adsorption (paragraph 4.5)

Absorption (paragraph 4.6)

Thermal oxidation (paragraph 4.8)

Cold oxidation (paragraph 4.9)

Chemical reduction (paragraph 4.10)

Remaining techniques (paragraph 4.11)

Gas flow in Clean gas

Installation: design and maintenance

Environmental pros and cons

Cross Media Effects

Broad range of application in the following sectors:

Installation: design and maintenance

The efficiency is increased by:

The efficiency is decreased by an increase in:

Environmental pros and cons

Cross Media Effects

Water & dust

Removed Removal efficiency1, % Remaining Validation number

Installation: design and maintenance

Environmental pros and cons

Cross Media Effects

Water & dust

Broad range of application including the following sectors:

Installation: design and maintenance

Environmental pros and cons

Cross Media Effects

Dust and waste

Installation: design and maintenance

Environmental pros and cons

Cross Media Effects