A PROJECT REPORT

On

Study & Design Calculations for High Pressure Accumulators Used for
Operation of 3780 Tonnes Capacity Extrusion Press at NFC.

At

NFC, HYDERABAD

Submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology

In

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Under the esteemed guidance of

Shri N S Dubey
Manager, M(EPP & BPS)

Submitted by
Bhartiyam Sushil
(INVERTIS UNIVERSITY)
 Government of India
Department of Atomic Energy
NUCLEAR FUEL COMPLEX

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Bhartiyam Sushil has done his project work under my guidance
during the period from 17/06/2019 to 16/07/2019 on the topic entitled ‘Study and Design Calculation
for High Pressure Accumulators Used for Operation of 3780 Tonnes Capacity Extrusion Press at
NFC’ with reference to Nuclear Fuel Complex.

It is ensured that the report does not contain classified or Plant operational live data in any form.

Signature:

Hyderabad Name:

Date: Desgn. Of Guide:

Plant:
 Acknowledgement

First of all, I am extremely thankful to Dr. Dinesh Srivastava, Chairman, NFC Board & Chief
Executive, NFC for giving me this opportunity to carry out project work at Nuclear Fuel Complex.

I would like to express my sincere thanks to Shri N S Dubey, ManagerM(EPP & BPS) for accepting to
be my guide and helping me throughout my project work.

I express my sincere thanks to Shri H.R. Ravindra, GM (HR) & Shri Jawed Rasheed, Sr. Manager
(HRD, Q.Cir, QIS) for helping me throughout my training period at NFC and also conducting
awareness programme on DAE/NFC activities at HRD.

My special thanks to our professor Shri Ajitanshu Vedrtnam, HOD, Invertis University who has given
me this opportunity and his guidance.

I am grateful to our parents who have given us constant encouragement and inspiration to pursue my
graduation.

Finally I would like to thank everyone who has directly or indirectly helped me in the successful
completion of this project.
 ABSTRACT

My project at NFC comprises of Study & Design calculation for High Pressure Accumulator Used for
Operation of 3780 Tonnes Extrusion Press at NFC. During the course of project, I got to know about
the details of the Nuclear Energy and its applications, mainly into power production and the
contributions of NFC into the same. I also got to know various activities being carried out in NFC and
visited various plants to understand the working of various equipments and understand the processes.

During my project work I studied the details of various operations carried out in Extrusion and
Piercing Plant & the working of major equipments like Extrusion & Piercing Presses at plant. As the
plant has heavy machineries, high pressure emulsion is used for operation of these equipments. To
generate huge amount of forces, high pressure pumps & accumulators are being used in the plant.

This project is mainly focused on study of type of accumulators, their functions & design calculations
for the accumulator, available with the plant.

My project is mainly focused on calculating wall thickness of the accumulator present in the plant,
using available codes and standards & then comparing the same with the actual thickness of
accumulator walls. The same was carried out and it is observed that the available thickness of the
accumulators walls are on higher side of the wall thickness values obtained from the calculations,
using ASME codes.
 NUCLEAR POWER

Fig:1

● ABOUT NUCLEAR POWER:

Nuclear power is energy contained in atoms. This energy can be released as heat from a chain reaction
in a radioactive element such as uranium, thorium etc. Nuclear power stations use this heat to produce
steam, which drives turbines to generate electricity.

● IMPORTANCE OF NUCLEAR POWER:

Nuclear power is one source, if given the momentum, can generate electricity at much higher rate than
coal fired power stations. It is found that a ton of uranium-235 can yield an amount of electricity
produced by burning 25000 tons of coal.

Since no harmful gases are released by the generation of nuclear power, as compared to thermal power
plants, a considerable amount of environmental problems are diminished. This being the major
advantage has increased the importance of nuclear power to a great extent.

● ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER:

o It is well controlled.

o Economical

o Clean and safe

o Remarkable operational performance

 ● NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION:
Several hundred fuel assemblies containing thousands of small pellets of ceramic uranium oxide fuel
make up the core of a reactor. In the reactor core the U-235 isotope fissions or splits, producing a lot of
heat in a continuous process called a chain reaction. The process depends on the presence of a
moderator such as water or graphite, and is fully controlled.

Fig:2 Chain Reaction

The moderator slows down the neutrons produced by fission of the uranium nuclei so that they go on to
produce more fission. Some of the U-238 in the reactor core is turned into plutonium and about half of
this is also fissioned similarly, providing about one third of the reactor’s energy output.

The fission products remain in the ceramic fuel and undergo radioactive decay, releasing a bit more heat.
They are the main wastes from the process.
 Fig:3 Nuclear Reactor

The reactor vessel (1) is a tough steel capsule that houses the fuel rods – sealed metal cylinders
containing pellets of uranium oxide. When a neutron – a neutrally charged subatomic particle – hits a
uranium atom, the atom sometimes splits, releasing two or three more neutrons. This process converts the
nuclear energy that binds the atom together into heat energy. The fuel assemblies are arranged in such a
way that when atoms in the fuel split, the neutrons they release are likely to hit other atoms and make
them split as well. This chain reaction produces large quantities of heat. Water flows through the reactor
vessel,

The chain reaction heats it to around 300°C. The water needs to stay in liquid form for the power station
to work, so the pressurizer (2) subjects it to around 155 times atmospheric pressure, which stops it
boiling. The reactor coolant pump (3) circulates the hot pressurized water from the reactor vessel to the
steam generator (4). Here, the water flows through thousands of looped pipes before circulating back to
the reactor vessel. A second stream of water flows through the steam generator, around the outside of the
pipes. This water is under much less pressure, so the heat from the pipes boils it into steam. The steam
then passes through a series of turbines (5), causing them to spin, converting the heat energy produced in
the reactor into mechanical energy. A shaft connects the turbines to a generator, so when the turbines
spin, so does the generator. The generator uses an electromagnetic field to convert this mechanical energy
into electrical energy.

A transformer converts the electrical energy from the generator to a high voltage. The national grid uses
high voltages to transmit electricity efficiently through the power lines (6) to the homes and businesses
that need it (7). Here, other transformers reduce the voltage back down to a usable level.
 ● NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS IN INDIA:

Currently, there are 21 nuclear reactors in India. These are given as follows:

Total capacity
Power station Operator State Type Units
(MW)

Kaiga NPCIL Karnataka PHWR 220 x 4 880

Kakrapar NPCIL Gujarat PHWR 220 x 2 440

Madras NPCIL Tamil Nadu PHWR 220 x 2 440

Narora NPCIL Uttar Pradesh PHWR 220 x 2 440

100 x 1
Rajasthan NPCIL Kota Rajasthan PHWR 200 x 1 1180
220 x 4

BWR 160 x 2
Tarapur NPCIL Maharashtra 1440
PHWR 540 x 2

Kudankulam NPCIL Tamil Nadu VVER-1000 1000 x 1 1000

Total 21 5780

Flow Chart: 1

There are a few projects under construction due to growing awareness of nuclear energy has led to
the project plans of further reactor plants in the near future.
 Nuclear Fuel Complex

● HISTORY OF NFC:

NFC is the abbreviated form of Nuclear Fuel Complex. India is one of the few countries which have
achieved the capacity to design, construct, operate and commission nuclear power plants and all nuclear
fuel cycle facilities entirely through indigenous efforts. The contribution of NFC to nuclear power
scenario in India has been of greater significance.

NFC was conceived by Dr. HOMI JAHANGIR BHABHA to make India self sufficient in the nuclear
power technology using natural uranium. Located near the famous shrine of Moula Ali at Hyderabad,
NFC is spread over an area of 150 acres land. It is a unique organization in the world where reactor fuel
and other reactor core components are manufactured under one roof, starting from the ore concentrate to
the finished products…hence takes up the tag line: “ore to core under one roof”.

NFC is the industrial unit of Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) at Hyderabad and has been playing
a key role in fuel cycle and nuclear power program for peaceful use of atomic energy for the past 30
years. It is the only industry which manufactures zirconium alloy components for PHWR and BWR,
from its ore concentrate, stainless steel cladding tubes and core assemblies for liquid water cooled FBR
and uranium pellets from magnesium diuranate concentrate obtained from jaduguda.

ACTIVITIES OF NFC:

● Production of nuclear fuel bundles for Indian power reactors both pressurized heavy water
reactor (PHWR) & boiling water reactor (BWR)

● Production of Zircaloy core components like coolant tubes, Calandria tubes, flow tubes, fuel
tubes etc.

● Production of seamless stainless steel tubes.

● Production of fast breeder test reactor (FBTR) core subassemblies.

● Production of very high purity (99.999 %) materials for electronic and other industries.

The first two of NFC plants namely the zirconium oxide and sponge plants were commissioned in May
to June 1971 and subsequently, by 1974, all the plants went into production. The performance of the
complex has been continuously reviewed by internal production review committee chaired by the chief
Executive and with specialist policy level management.

Taking into account the capacities in some of the major equipment in the zircaloy fabrication plant and
the available technology the program at NFC has been progressively diversified to include a seamless
stainless steel tube plant (SSTP) and also a seamless ball bearing tube plant. Also to cope with the
increasing demand and as part of improvement in technology, equipment augmentation and process
modification have been incorporated in the operating units.

PLANTS IN NFC:

The following are the sub plants present in NFC:

● ZOP

● ZSP

● MELT SHOP

● BPS

● EPP

● ZFP

● STP

● SSTP

● SMP

● UOP

● CFFP

● Characterization lab

Each plant has been briefly discussed below:

 ZIRCONIUM OXIDE PRODUCTION (ZOP):

Flow Chart: 2

● The feed to the plant is zircon sand. It contains 5 to 6% silica and many other impurities.

● This feed is dissolved in nitric acid (HNO3) solution at 600C, maintaining the free acidity (FA)
between 4.5 to 5 N. the reactions in this dissolution are exothermic and increase the overall
temperature from 600C to about 850C. The silica sand is settled at the bottom of the tank, and
the zirconium present is converted to zirconium nitrate by the reaction with nitric acid.

o The solution from the above step is siphoned out into a series of slurry extraction units.
There are two slurry extraction units in the industry, with each unit containing 4 tanks
respectively. The solution is in dynamic flow in the first three tanks, whereas it gets
settled in the fourth tank. In this step, (TBP +KEROSENE) are added as leachant. Here,
TBP plays an active role as leachant while kerosene is added only to maintain
solubility between the feed solution and TBP.

● The free acidity should be maintained between 4.5 to 5N. If it exceeds this range, then hafnium
gets extracted along with zirconium. And if it is less than this range, then zirconium goes into
the raffinate.
● The feed contains 150-160 g/litre of zirconium oxide whereas; the raffinate contains 1-2 g/litre,
which is further extracted by other means.

● The solution obtained from the above step is dissolved in demineralised water to selectively
dissolve zirconium nitrate (ZrNO3).

● The solution obtained is then sent to the precipitation plant where zirconium is precipitated in
the form of zirconium hydroxide by the addition of ammonium hydroxide and sulphuric acid,
leaving out a solution of ammonium nitrate. H2SO4 is added to maintain the density of the
mixture.

● The pH of the mixture is maintained at 7 for the reaction to take place. The ZrOH2 is
precipitated by the application of vacuum. The rest of the NH4NO3 solution is sent to the
scrubbers for purification and subsequent uses in the fertilization.

● The precipitate obtained is heated in high temperature ovens to remove the NH4NO3 residue
and moisture present in it.

● The dried product is then calcined in order to remove H2SO4 in the form of gas, as well as
conversion of zirconium hydroxide (yellow) to zirconium oxide (white).

● This oxide product is in granulated form and is converted to powder form by grinding using
hammer mills.

● The powder obtained is sent to prepare zirconium sponge in ZSP.

 ZIRCONIUM SPONGE PRODUCTION (ZSP):

Flow Chart: 3

Oxide feed preparation:

The oxide powder is mixed with starch (acting as a binder), water and carbon (for heat generation
during coking), in a double cone mixer.The mixed feed is then briquetted and dried (removal of
moisture) in a lift – off shutter furnace.After drying, the briquettes are sent for coking to attain strength.
The starch in the briquettes is removed in this step and the briquettes become brittle.

Oxide chlorination and scrap chlorination:

The main principle of this process is:

Equipment used in chlorination process is as follows:

1. Chlorinator furnace

2. 3 graphite electrode slabs

3. Gas distributors

4. Feed hopper

5. Condensers

6. Exhaust system

7. Electrical heating system/temperature control

The operation of the furnace is given by:

1. Dead bed charging:

● Silica bricks are charged (up to 0 mm height from the graphite slab).

● 100kg of coked briquettes

● 35kg of calcined petroleum coke granules

● 125kg of coked briquettes.

The pneumatic valve and the feed hopper are then closed.

Pre heating:

● Connect the special exhaust line to the tertiary condenser.

● Flush out the chlorinator with nitrogen gas for one hour.

● Reduce the nitrogen content till the start of chlorination.

1. Chlorination:

● Stop nitrogen purging.

● Admit chlorine gas

● Check system for leaks.

 ● Continue chlorination and adjust the feed rate of the coked briquettes.

● The zirconium chloride formed in the furnace chamber enters the primary condenser through
exhaust.

● The primary condenser is connected to secondary, which in turn is connected to tertiary

condenser.

● The ZrCl2 from the primary condenser is more pure than that of the secondary, and then the
tertiary condenser.

● The ZrCl2 formed still contains chlorine and other impurities which are purified by distillation.

When comes to scrap, the zirconium scrap is charged in the furnace. A cooling water system is
established since the reactions taking place with scrap are more exothermic than that with the oxide.
The rest of the procedure is similar to that of oxide chlorination.

Kroll’s reduction:

● This consists of an electrical pit furnace with two condensers at its sides. In the pit of the
furnace, a chamber containing magnesium briquettes is placed first. Over this chamber, a
perforated plate is placed. On top of this plate, a retort is hanged in the furnace containing
ZrCl4.

● The exhaust pipes from the retort are connected to the condensers.ZrCl4 turns to vapors at
around 3310C, while magnesium melts at 6500C. So, the furnace is heated to around 5000C in
order to obtain ZrCl4 vapors which react with magnesium by passing through the perforated
plate.

● The zirconium sponge is formed (solid) at the bottom and MgCl2 (liquid) above it.

● The argon gas is pumped in order to maintain inert atmosphere as well as for controlling the
pressure.

Vacuum distillation:

This consists of a long cylindrical chamber consisting of three compartments. The bottom most
compartment is cooled with water. The middle compartment is empty and idle. In the top chamber, the
zirconium sponge is placed in layers. The furnace cover is placed over the top compartment of the
chamber. The middle compartment separates the bottom from the top, so that the heat transfer does not
take place. These compartments are separated with perforated plates. The MgCl2 trickles down to the
bottom, where it is almost immediately condensed to solid form. The zirconium sponge is then taken
out and sized.
Sizing:

The sponge is placed on the anvil of a hydraulic press and load is applied to crush it. These pieces are
then crushed and ground in a belt grinder. The classification of these granules according to their size is
done and stored separately.

Blending:
These sponge granules of various sizes are mixed and blended in certain proportions in a double cone
mixer and these are sent to melt shop for compaction.
 MELT SHOP:

Flow chart: 4
Zircaloy scraps generated at different stages of fabrication also received and recycled at melt shop.
Zircaloy scraps are first segregated, cut into sizes, cleaned and consolidated into an electrode by
plasma beam melting furnace. Cold worked products are cleaned by soap solution and hot work
products are cleaned by shot blasting and pickling operation. Sizing operation is carried out by
processes such as band saw cutting, shearing, flattening and nibbling.

The raw materials for this plant are:

1. Reactor grade Zirconium sponge (+3-16 mm size)

2. Alloying elements (Tin, Iron, Chromium, Niobium, Nickel, Copper)

3. Zirconium sponge fines (+1-3 mm size)

4. Zircaloy scrap

Hydraulic compaction:
At Melt Shop, compaction of Zirconium sponge is carried out in a hydraulic press. Zirconium sponge
of reactor grade is compacted into 160/180 mm φ rod, as per the requirement. Alloying additions are
placed at centre during compaction to obtain a homogenous ingot after melting. The various alloying
elements like Niobium, Tin, Chromium, Iron, Nickel, Copper etc are added to increase the corrosion
resistance, strength, ductility, malleability, machinability, fabricability etc.
Electron beam welding:

When the tungsten filament is heated, the free electrons jump from higher orbit to lower orbit. High
voltage of about 30kV is applied between cathode and job. This high voltage accelerates the free
electrons with random speed. Once the electrons exit the anode, they receive the maximum energy input
allowable from the operating voltage being applied to the gun. Electrons then pass down through the
electron beam column assembly and into the field of an electro- magnetic focusing coil (magnetic lens).
This focusing lens reduces the diameter of the electron beam as it continues in its passage and focuses
the stream of electrons down to a much smaller beam cross- section in the plane of job. The electrons
strike the metal surface and bombardment takes place which give up kinetic energy that gets converted
into heat energy.

The ‘gun’ portion of an electron gun assembly is generally isolated from the welding chamber
through the use of valves when desired. The electrode gun is maintained at about 10-6 Torre vacuum and
the welding chamber is maintained at about 10-2-10-3 Torre. Welding chamber vacuum varies because
of entrapped gases and elements like Mg, Cl2 during compaction which tend to come out during
welding.

The beam is created in a high vacuum of 10-3-10-5 mm Hg. High vacuum is needed so that the
filament does not burn and gases do not react with molten pool.

Consumable electrode Vacuum arc remelting:

Vacuum arc melting furnace (VAR) is used to refine a metal to high purity by treating it in
vacuum. Vacuum is created in the furnace using vacuum pumping technology. VAR steels and super
alloys as well as titanium and zirconium and its alloys are used in a great number of high integrity
applications where cleanliness, homogeneity, improved fatigue and fracture toughness of the final
product are essential.

The main components of VAR are:

● Copper crucible immersed in water cooled jacket.

● Stinger rod/ ram.

● Furnace body with a sliding vacuum seal for the movement of stringer rod.

● Cables or bus bars.

● Electrode feed system.

● Melting power supply.

● Load cells.

● Stirring coils placed around the crucible.

 ● Pumping system for vacuum creation.

A modern high production furnace is often equipped with two melting stations, at each of which
is permanently situated in a water jacket containing a removable copper ingot mould

If the electrode is to be welded to the stub in the furnace, the stub is already in position in the
clamp and the turnings , or a starter pad are not put in the bottom of the crucible lest they weld to the
electrode during the welding of the stub. A furnace arranged in situ welding of the electrode stub, will
permit the electrode to be raised clear of the crucible after welding so that the starting plate or turnings
may be emplaced at that time.

The crucible is then sealed to the furnace, which is pumped down, and melting commences by
striking an arc between the electrode tip and the starting arrangement previously mentioned which lies
on the bottom of the mould. Until an inch or so of ingot has been deposited, the current is limited to a
value which will not damage the mould bottom.

Current is then adjusted to the operating level increased by an allowance for the heat abstraction
of the base plate during the early stages of the process.

The electrode is fed in automatically, to preserve the required arc current and electrode/ingot gap.
When it is nearly consumed, current is reduced to affect some degree of ‘hot –topping’, i.e., feeding of
the shrinkage cavity developing at the top of the ingot.

When the ingot is completed, the vacuum is released and the furnace top is raised. In the case of
metals such as zirconium which is highly reactive towards oxygen, the ingot cannot be exposed to the
atmosphere until it has been cooled appreciably.

Plasma melting:

The name plasma is also used which referred to a gas, usually at low pressure (3 to 5 lt/min) which has
been ionized by stripping arc or more electrons from same or all atoms. It is therefore a mixture of
neutral particles, positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons and is an excellent conductor
of electricity.

The principle of plasma beam generation from argon gas at low pressure. A D.C potential is applied
between the hollow tantalum cathode of the gun and the work piece (anode). A frequency applied
around the hollow cathode ionizes the argon gas. The free electrons travel to work piece and the
positive ions hit the tip of the hollow tantalum cathode making it white hot and causing thermionic
emission. Distance between the cathode and the anode is rather small (approximately 200mm) unlike
the conventional high voltage accelerated, electromagnetically focused electron beams. This beam is
also called hollow cathode plasma beam or plasma electron beam. The beam current is very high. For
150kW gun, the D.C voltage will be about 50V and the beam current 3000A.
 BILLET PREPARATION SHOP(BPS):
• The ingot from melt shop is brought to BPS for deep-hole drilling. After drilling OD
machining is done. Both these operations are done simultaneously by a CNC operated
machine. The billet is then sent to EPP for extrusion.

● Also this plant contains lathe machines for mandrel polishing.

● This plant also consists of swaging operation for the size reduction of the rods coming from
EPP. These rods are used for the manufacturing of end caps used in the fuel tubes. Only 20%
of cold work can be given to these rods at a time during swaging.

● A 350 mm dia. billet is first extruded to 150mm dia. rod, which is further extruded to 24mm
diameter rod. This rod is reduced to 21 mm dia., by swaging in the first pass. This is followed
by intermediate annealing and further swaging to 19mm dia., and intermediate annealing in the
second pass, further followed by swaging to 16mm dia., in the third pass. This rod is annealed
and straightened. The rod is then cut into desired lengths using grinding wheel. These rods are
checked for defects by NDT techniques such as eddy current testing and ultrasonic testing.

● Also sheets from ZFP are used to make end plates, bearing pads and spacer pads here by
punching press. This press is a CNC operated double action press.
 EXTRUSION AND PIERCING PLANT(EPP):

Flow Chart: 5

The Extrusion and Piercing Plant comprises of:

1.3780 horizontal extrusion press

2.1200 vertical piercing press

3. 630 Ton vertical extrusion press

The billet coming from BPS is first heated to 10750C to attain beta phase of zircaloy. This enables even
distribution of the alloying elements throughout the material. The billets are then copper jacketed and
heated in the walking beam resistance furnace. These are then extruded and cooled. The cooled
products are sent to pickling section for dejacketing. If the billet is of much larger diameters like
350mm, it undergoes expansion process to increase the inner diameter, keeping the outer diameter
constant. These are then heated in the WBF and extruded. In case of 350mm rods, they are
electroplated, instead of copper jacketing. The extruded products are further processed in ZFP, STP and
SSTP.
 ZIRCONIUM FABRICATION PLANT(ZFP):

Flow chart: 6

In the zircaloy fabrication plant, the tubes obtained from extrusion, which are copper coated, are sent to
dejacketing tower where the outer copper layer is removed. Followed by this, the ingot is sent to
vertical annealing chamber, in which, preheating, soaking and cooling are conducted. Straightening, ID
sand blasting OD grinding, flash pickling and UT inspection are carried out in sequence, in the later
stages after annealing.

DEJACKETING: After extrusion, the copper clad is to be removed before subjected to further
operation. The removal of copper clad on the zircaloy material by using nitric acid is known as
Dejacketing.

ANNEALING: It is defined as the gradual heating, soaking and cooling of the metal in a controlled
atmosphere furnace to make the material soft and ductile. It is used in relieving the stresses developed
in the material during mechanical working processes performed on the material.
FLASH PICKLING: After vacuum annealing, the tubes are removed from the furnace. Then the
tubes are made to react with the atmosphere to form an oxide film on the surface of the metal. Pickling
is a chemical operation in which contamination of the metal surface, like oxide film formation or scales
which are formed at the time of heat treatment, is removed by dipping the material in pickling solution.

STRAIGHTENING: Straightening is achieved by the theory of bending. Zircaloy, after

undergoing annealing operation, contains excessive bends due to thermal stress caused by the fast
quenching of tubes. The tubes are to be straightened in order to undergo further operations like
pilgering etc.

PILGERING: It is the cold working process where compressive force is acted upon the tube by the
roller, to reduce the outer diameter and wall thickness. In this process, gradual decrease in cross
sectional area takes place.

ID SAND BLASTING: For removing of oxide film formed in the inside of the tube, this process is
done. Silica sand particles are made to bombard on the inner wall of the tube, which removes the oxide
layer, giving a smooth surface finish.

CUTTING: The tubes are cut to required lengths for easy of handling and to finish the tubes as per
the requirement of customer.

DEBURING: It is done for removing of sharp burr ends to get uniform edges for final cut tubes.

UT INSPECTION: In this, ultra violet rays are used to find out subsurface area defects of the
Zircaloy material. Full length and wall thickness of the fuel tubes or pressure tubes are to be inspected
in this inspection.
 SPECIAL TUBE PLANT(STP):
The products manufactured in STP are

● Square channel, hexagonal tubes, reactivity mechanism assembly

● Coolant tubes

● Calandria tubes

The blank from extrusion is the raw material for this plant. This blank contains a lot of defects which
are removed to the extent possible in this plant, as the products of this plant require high purity and
dimensional accuracy in their applications.

The extruded product is roller straightened. The accuracy of roller straightening machine is 1 mm/m.
It is followed by end-cutting and stress relieving operations .it is then sent for ID/OD conditioning to
correct the surface defects present on the surface of the tube produced during extrusion. The ID honing
of the tubes are done to remove surface defects from the ID of the tube. The tubes are now sent for de-
greasing to remove the oil and grease present on the surface of the tube. It is done in alkaline bath of
composition NaHCO3, NaOH, sodium gluconate, trisodium phosphate.

OD Grinding: is done to remove surface defects from the OD of the tube. It is also done to achieve
the desired cold work. Blanks in certain range of weights are acceptable and hence this operation is
done to reduce the weight of the blank.

Ultra sonic testing: is done to determine the wall thickness, longitudinal and transverse defects
present in the tube. If the defect is identified, the tube goes to the respective correcting operation.

Pilgering: This process is followed by degreasing ,roller straightening , end cutting so that the oil
and grease incorporations during pilgering is removed as well as the irregular shaped ends of the
pilgered tubes are discarded.

ID honing is done by both rotation and reciprocating motion. This is followed by OD conditioning
where selective conditioning of the outer surface defects is established.

The tubes then undergo final Ultrasonic testing where six probes are used to check the following types
of defects One probe for wall thickness, one probe for normal beam type, two probes for longitudinal
and two probes for transverse types of defects is used.

ID plug check: is done to ensure the minimum inner diameter by sending a tube with its OD equal to
the ID of the sample into the tube.

Eddy current testing: Is done to detect shallow defects present in the ID which are parallel when
nearer to the surface .the frequency used here 100 KHz and 20 KHz.
Grit blasting: Is done to remove sharp corners, pits present in the ID of the tube and also to get
uniform surface finish. The material used for grit blasting is fused alumina - 46 grit material mixed with
compressed air which is bombarded with the inner diameter of the tube.

Boroscope: Is utilized to visually examine the ID of the tube for surface cracks throughout its length.
The tubes are then sized to get the desired length and samples are also cut for mechanical and chemical
tests.

Pressure testing: Is done by applying 260 kg/cm2 of pressure for 30 sec. The pressure inside the
tube reaches to 105-110 bars in general during the working conditions. By incorporating temperature
corrective and safety corrective factor, the optimized value of 260 kg/cm2 is established.

End grinding: Is done for establishing zero clearance rolled joint and also to get the desired
dimensions.

Autoclave: Is done for two purposes:

1. To form a black lustrous adherent oxide layer in order to improve the corrosion resistance of the
material.

2. To relieve residual stresses in tubes. This process is done by heating the tube under steam atmosphere
for 36 hours at 4000C.Dimensional checks and Geometric corrections are done just before dispatch.
 SEAMLESS STAINLESS STEEL TUBE PLANT(SSTP):

Flow Chart: 7

Roller straightening:

The tubes of size 63×9 are obtained from BPS, EPP Plants. At first, the tube obtained is straightened
using 3-roller straightening machine. This machine consists of 3 sets of rolls. Generally, 19.6mm dia
tubes are straightened. The shape of the rolls used in this machine is hyperbolic in shape in order to
have maximum line of contact. The rolls are made up of high carbon & high chromium material. This
plant also consists of 2×5 roller machines. These are generally used for straightening of tubes of higher
wall thickness. It consists of 5 small rolls in the top and 2 big rolls in the bottom. The small rolls are
rolled due to the movement of the tube and the 2 bottom rolls are mechanically power driven rolls.
These rolls give multiple deflections i.e., 1, 3, 5 rolls give deflection and 2, 4 rolls are for support.
Generally, tubes of 30mm-127mm diameter are straightened in 2*5 roller straightening machine.

Pickling/degreasing:

It is used for good surface finishing. Generally, HF+HNO3 acid solution is used for pickling process.
After every work performed on tube, pickling is done in order to remove lubricant, oxide layer formed
and scales formed for good surface finish.

Pilgering: The tubes are reduced to the following dimensions on successive cycles respectively:

63×9 TO 48.26×4.5 TO 33.4×2.3 TO 19.6×1

The tube elongation in pilgering process is achieved by reduction of the outer and inner diameter, as
well as the wall thickness of the ingoing tubes. The cold pilgered tube is characterized by very small
dimensional variations and a very high hardness levels and therefore excellent machinability.

Degreasing: After pilgering, degreasing is a must in order to remove the lubricant present after cold
working. Degreasing is done by dissolution of the tube in the alkali bath which contains 5%NaOH, 5%
trisodium phosphate, 5% sodium gluconate, 5% monoethylene glycol. It is followed by vacuum
degreasing using trichloro ethylene.

Heat Treatment:

Then the tube is sent for heat treatment in LPG Annealing in order to remove the stresses developed
during cold working. During this process a lot of bends in the tube are generated which is subsequently
corrected by straightening.

The tubes undergo visual inspection, UT, ET, Hydrostatic pressure test.

Hydrostatic pressure test:

This is done for checking any leakages in the tube with the help of water pressure. It contains 2 heads in
which one is stationery and the other is movable in order to adjust the length and a metal clamp is used
to hold the tube and the entire tube is filled with water at a pressure of 180 Kg/cm2 for 10 seconds.
Pressure is calculated by using the formula:

P=2ST/d

S= (yield strength)/2

T= thickness of the tube

D= diameter of the tube

Glass bead shot peening:

Shot peening is a cold working process used to produce a compressive residual stress layer and modify
mechanical properties of metals. It entails impacting a surface with shot (round metallic, glass, or
ceramic particles) with force sufficient to create plastic deformation.
It is similar to sandblasting, except that it operates by the mechanism of plasticity rather than abrasion:
each particle functions as a ball peen hammer. In practice, this means that less material is removed by
the process, and less dust created.

Peening a surface spreads it plastically, causing changes in the mechanical properties of the surface. Its
main application is to avoid the propagation of micro cracks from a surface. Such cracks do not
propagate in a material that is under a compressive stress; shot peening can create such a stress in the
surface.
 SPECIAL MATERIAL PLANT (SMP):
High purity materials are produced in this plant. Reactor grade niobium metal granules are produced
and tantalum oxide is obtained as the by-product.

Columbide tantalum ore (CT ore which contains Nb-40-45% & Ta-20-25% in oxide form) is dissolved
in 40% HF solvent which is 22N, in Polypropylene tank because HF is highly reactive with metal. Air
operated double diaphragm pump is used to transfer HF into the tanks. The ore is then added at a very
slow rate i.e., 2-3 hours due to highly exothermic reactions.

Niobium and tantalum are dissolved completely by injecting the steam at high temperatures up to 800C
for 3 hours and after sufficient injection of steam, the steam is cut off. The mixture is allowed for
stirring. The temperature is automatically maintained due to the exothermic reactions. Then the solution
is allowed to settle and the concentrated feed is settled on top.

● 2.5N (2N H2SO4and 0.5N HF) is maintained for the extraction of tantalum.

● 11N (7NH2SO4 and 4N HF) is maintained for the extraction of niobium.

Separation of tantalum:
Solvent extraction is the method used for the separation of tantalum and niobium based on their
equivalence.

At first, 100 GPL is reduced to 50GPL by using 2N H2SO4and 0.5N HF. And to this 50% TBP (highly
viscous) +50% kerosene is added. Kerosene is added to reduce density and to maintain phase separation
between the organic and aqueous solution.

The process consists of:

● stages of extraction

● stages of scrubbing

● 2 stages of settling

● stages of stripping

After scrubbing, settling and stripping, we obtain pure extract, i.e., tantalum pure solution, and the
raffinate contains niobium. So, niobium feed solution is prepared.

NIOBIUM EXTRACTION:
Niobium pure solution is precipitated using NH3 gas. The niobium hydroxide thus formed is filtered in
nutch filter under vacuum. Then the filtrate i.e., niobium hydroxide precipitate is re pulped using
Demineralised water in order to remove the traces ofNH4S and NH4F.The solution is again filtered and
the filtrate i.e., niobium hydroxide is calcined at a temperature of 8500C in order to remove moisture
present in it .

Nb2OH Nb2O5

And then Nb2O5 is reduced by alumino thermic reduction process. The furnace is preheated at 6000C
for 10 hours. Then 10 liters of Nb2O5 is charged along with Al2O3 powder at 6000C into the liners and
KCl is added on the top as a layer, for fast ignition. Magnesium ribbon is used for initial ignition and it
is a self-sustained exothermic reduction.

3Nb2O5 + 10 Al 6Nb + 5Al2O3 ∆H =-216 kcal/mole of O2

The impurities are removed in the form of slag. Thus, Niobium Thermit which is 95% pure is obtained
which is further hydrided, in order to achieve brittleness. The hydride is then heated at high temperature
under vacuum. Again it is dehydrided under vacuum and Al2O3 is removed by electron beam welding.
Then the niobium ingot obtained undergoes consequent steps of hydriding and dehydriding. Later it is
crushed using jaw crusher and sent to melt shop for further processing.
 URANIUM OXIDE PRODUCTION(UOP):

Flow Chart: 8

Chemical plant:

This plant deals with chemical operations carried out to produce uranium oxide from MDU/SDU.

● MDU-Magnesium DiUranate

● SDU-Sodium DiUranate

The dissolution is carried out using nitric acid. It is then purified by solvent extraction using TBP and
kerosene .Extraction, scrubbing and stripping are all carried out using counter current flows in number
of stages. The pure uranyl nitrate is then converted to ammonium DiUranate, by precipitating with
ammonium hydroxide. The precipitate is filtered using pan filter. Once the ppt. is filtered, it is dried
using spray drier, where hot air is passed (Atomization unit) to dry the precipitate into powder. The
powder is then calcined at 7200C. The product obtained is U3O8.This product is then reduced to UO2,
in a reduction furnace with H2 atmosphere. The UO2 produced is not stable. Hence the outer layer is
selectively oxidized to prevent further oxidation of inner layers. This is done in a rotary furnace with an
atmosphere of (N2 + AIR). The stabilized UO2 is then sent for pelletisation process. This process takes
about 5 to 6 days.

The density of the stabilized UO2 is around 1.8 to 2 g/cc.

 Flow Chart: 9

Pelletisation plant:

UO2 pellets are prepared to load into fuel bundles. Two sizes or types of fuel bundles are prepared:

● 19-element fuel bundle

● 37-element fuel bundle

The UO2 powder obtained is compacted into pellets and further sintered.

This compaction step involves 2 sub steps.

1. Pre-compaction

2. Final compaction.

In general, the flowability of stabilized UO2 is less. To increase this parameter, pre compaction is done.
The product obtained after pre compaction is UO2granules from UO2powder.The density increases to
2.5 – 3 gm/cc. The granules are further compacted into cylindrical shape by final compaction. The
density increases to 5.7-5.9 gm/cc. The compaction technique used is pressure die double end
compaction.

This is done by CNC operated hydraulic press. Around 50% of the theoretical density is achieved. After
pre compaction, lubricant is added before final compaction. This lubricant minimizes die-wall friction
as well as inter-particle friction. The lubricant used is “TRISTAR” which is a saturated vegetable fatty
acid. It is a combination of formic and stearic acid. It is added as the wt % of 0.3% i.e., 1 kg of powder:
3gms of lubricant.

The pellets are placed in aluminum tray of 7 rows and 12 pellets in each row.

The pellets are then sintered in an electrically heated continuous furnace (containing copper
electrodes).The sintering atmosphere used is reducing atmosphere of hydrogen. The O/U ratio nears the
value of 2.The furnace used is a pusher type furnace.24 boats are loaded at a time .It is a multi zone
furnace consisting of 6 zones. The temperature in these zones varies from 450*C -1700*C. The
temperatures in the 6 zones are:

● Zone 1:450*C

● Zone 2:800*C

● Zone 3:1150*C

● Zone 4:1450*C

● Zone 5:1650*C

● Zone 6:1700*C

The first two zones are preheating zones and the remaining four are high heat zones. The furnace also
consists of 2 cooling zones in the end. The density obtained after sintering is around 10.45-10.75
gm/cc. During sintering, shrinkage of the compact occurs.

● Volumetric shrinkage- 40%

● Diametric shrinkage-19%.

Surface grinding is employed to reduce the shrinkage. Each and every pellet is then inspected for

● Chipping

● End cracking

● Pits &cracks
The good pellets are stacked i.e., rearranged and the rejects are sent to chemical plant for dissolution.
These pellets are washed with Demineralised water and then dried at 150*C for 2 hrs. The pellets are
then loaded into the zircaloy tubes.

Flow Chart: 10

Assembly plant:

Once the pellets are loaded end caps and plates are welded to form fuel bundle.
 CERAMICFUELFABRICATION PLANT(CFFP):

Flow Chart: 11

Block-A is considered as safe guarded while Block-B is considered as unsafe. This is because, the
UO2 used in Block-A is obtained from abroad and it is open to IAEA.

This assembly plant generally consists of the following parts:

● Zircaloy tubes

● End plugs

● Spacer pads

● Bearing pads

● End plates

The tubes undergo following processes as shown in the flowchart.

Initially the tubes are sized and they undergo end chappelling operation. In this process the tube walls at
the ends are tapered .it is generally carried out for any welding operation. These tubes are cleaned and
then sent for spacer and bearing pad welding. The spacer pad and bearing pad are welded
simultaneously in their respective order. These tubes are then sent for destructive testing where they are
tested for their strength 60kg force is applied to break spacer pad weld where as 80 kg force is applied
to break bearing pad weld. if the weld breaks at a force lesser then the above limits the weld is not
sound. These tubes then undergo visual and dimensional checks .the good ones are sent to graphite
coating of 3-6 microns thickness.UO2 expands 2 times more than the tube during fission .hence an hour
glass shape of the pellets take place this develops friction between tube and pellet. Graphite here acts as
lubrication. These tubes are baked under vacuum of 10-5 bar pressure .generally argon or helium is used
for inert atmosphere. The tube is baked so that the graphite coating becomes strong. The tubes are now
ready for loading. Once they are loaded, the end caps are welded to it and machined. This is done by
resistance butt welding technique by applying 12-13 KA current .in weld cap welding the cap is placed
in tungsten 80%-copper20%electrode and collet is used as another electrode, through which 0.6mm of
the tube end is ejected out to meet the cap for resistance welding. Weld checking is done randomly .it is
then followed by UT & helium leak testing. The tubes are filled with pellets and then helium followed
by end cap welding, these are checked for helium leaks. The leak rate is observed which should be <-8

H2 solubility is around 0.1 ppm in zircaloy. Hydrides in general have typical properties .they try to
move to more stress areas .They tend to move from higher temperature to lower temperature. Since
precipitation happens on basal planes, hydrides precipitate on the basal plane of hcp structure.

If the basal plane is in radial direction of the tube, it is more preferred when compared to transverse
direction. Due to these hydrides the fracture may occur along the radius of the tube in radial direction
.but in transverse direction it is pinpointed along the length. Hence radial direction is preferred.
CHARECTERIZATION LAB:
The characterization lab consists of various facilities for the determination of various properties of the
materials produced and fabricated at NFC. The lists of various facilities available in this lab are given
by:

● Optical microscope

● Scanning electron microscope

● X-Ray Diffraction

● Residual stress determination using X-Ray Diffraction

● Hardness testing

● High temperature dilatometer

● Sample preparation unit

Scanning Electron Microscope:

This microscope produces images of a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The
electrons from the beam interact with the electrons of the sample revealing the sample’s surface
topography and composition. The electron beam is generally scanned in a raster scan pattern .SEM can
achieve resolution better than 1nm.Basically, an electron gun produces an electron beam in an
evacuated column, which is focused and directed on a small spot on the target. Scanning coils allow the
beam to scan a small area on the surface of the sample. Low angle back scattered electrons interact with
the protuberances of the surface and generate secondary back scattered electrons such that it produces
an electronic signal which in turn produces an image having a depth of field up to about 300 times that
of the optical microscope.

Residual Stress Determination using x-ray diffraction:

When subjected to stress, the material experiences the strain. This strain is observed due to the change
in the distance between inter atomic planes. The final distance between the inter atomic planes can be
found out using Bragg’s equation. Using elastic properties of the material like young’s modulus, the
residual stress can be calculated.

ABOUT ZIRCONIUM:

For nuclear industry, zirconium is more precious because it has some unique properties required for
nuclear power reactors. It is used as cladding material i.e., cladding of fuel and other co-components in
the reactors. It belongs to the IVB group in the periodic table and is used as structural material for the
reactors.

OCCURANCE:
Zirconium became a significant engineering material for nuclear energy applications because it is
highly transparent to neutrons. Zirconium is commercially obtained from its principle ores named
zircon sand and baddeleyite. Zirconium mineral is always associated with hafnium to an extent of 1-3%
i.e., a strong neutron absorber. So it is eliminated from zircon, but still hafnium in nuclear grade Zr is
specified at 200 ppm.

PROPERTIES:

● It has low neutron absorption cross section. The value is 0.15 bars per atom.

● Zirconium is a very strong, malleable, ductile, lustrous silver-grey material.

● When it is in powder form the metal can spontaneously ignite in air especially at high
temperatures i.e., it is pyrophoric.

● Zirconium is a chemical element with symbol Zr and atomic number 40

● Its atomic weight is given by 91.224 amu.

● It has a melting point of 18550C and the boiling point of 44090C.

● It has an electro negativity of 1.33 on the Pauling scale.

● Its density is around 6.52gm/cc.

● Corrosion resistance of zirconium in water at elevated temperatures is better than aluminum.

● It has good mechanical properties as well as fabricability at high temperatures..

● It has high resistance to thermal distortion.

ADDITION OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS:

The addition of tin was found to resist the corrosion effect of nitrogen, carbon and other impurities.
Small addition of iron and chromium improve corrosion resistance when used under heavy water and
steam conditions. It also lowers the transformation temperature of zirconium, increases strength and
hardness of the material. The addition of nickel enhances corrosion resistance properties and reduces
the hydrogen pickup by the material.

Alloying elements must not increase the absorption of thermal neutrons.

TYPES OF ZIRCALOYS PRODUCED:

Zr- 2.5
ELEMENT ZIRCALOY-2 ZIRCALOY-4 Zr- 2.5% Nb Nb- 0.5Cu

0.17-0.42 0.17-0.72
Tin (wt%) (wt%) --

0.070-0.20 0.18-0.24 --
Iron (wt%) (wt%) --

0.05-0.15 0.07-0.13 -- --
Chromium (wt%) (wt%)
--
Nickel 0.03-0.08 (wt%) -- --

-- 2.40-2.80 2.5
Niobium -- (wt%) (wt%)

Oxygen 900-1400 900-1400 1100-1300 900-1300

Ppm ppm Ppm Ppm

0.3-0.7
Copper -- -- -- (wt%)

--
Total 0.18-0.38 0.28-0.37 --
Fe+ Cr+ Ni (wt%) (Wt%)

--
Carbon -- 40-80 Ppm --

Zr+permitted Balance Balance Balance Balance

impurities

Flow chart: 12
ABOUT EXTRUSION:

DEFINITION:

Extrusion is the process by which a block of metal is reduced in cross section by forcing it to flow
through a die orifice under high pressure.In general, extrusion is used to produce rods and hollow tubes
but irregular cross section shapes can also be produced from highly formable materials.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXTRUSION PROCESS:

● Hot and cold extrusion

● Direct and indirect extrusion

● Vertical and horizontal extrusion

● Impact extrusion

● Hydrostatic extrusion

⮚ HOT AND COLD EXTRUSION:

Just like any other metal forming process extrusion can also be classified as hot and cold extrusion
processes.

HOT EXTRUSION:

Here the temperature at which extrusion takes place is above the recovery and recrystallisation
temperature of the material. Most metals are extruded hot so as to take advantage of decrease in flow
stress or deformation resistance with increase in temperature. The upper hot working temperature is the
temperature at which hot shortness occurs, or, for pure metals, the melting point. Because of extensive
deformation produced in extrusion considerable internal heating of the metal also results. Therefore, the
upper temperature limit of working should be safely below hot shortness region. Comparatively, high
extrusion ratios can be achieved in hot working with relatively less application of extrusion pressure.
Moreover problems such as oxidation of a billet and extrusion tools, softening of die and tools and
difficulty in provision of lubricant arise in hot extrusion.

COLD EXTRUSION:

Cold extrusion is done at room temperature or near room temperature. The advantages of this over hot
extrusion are the lack of oxidation, higher strength due to cold working, closer tolerances, good surface
finish, and fast extrusion speeds if the material is subject to hot shortness. Materials that are commonly
cold extruded include: lead, tin, aluminum, copper, zirconium, titanium, molybdenum, beryllium,
vanadium, niobium, and steel. Examples of products produced by this process are: collapsible tubes, fire
extinguisher cases, shock absorber cylinders, automotive pistons, and gear blanks.

⮚ DIRECT AND INDIRECT EXTRUSION:

Based on the motion of the ram extrusion process may be classified as Direct and indirect extrusion
(also called inverted or back extrusion).

DIRECT EXTRUSION:

The metal billet is placed in a container and driven through the die by the ram. A dummy block or
pressure plate is placed at the end of the ram in contact with the billet. In this type of extrusion process
the container and the die are stationary .due to the movement of the ram followed by the billet-container
wall interface friction and billet -die wall interface friction are generated.

INDIRECT EXTRUSION:
In this process a hollow ram carries the die and the other end of the container is closed with a plate
.frequently, for indirect extrusion the ram is kept stationary and the container with the billet is caused to
move. Because there is no relative motion between the wall of the container and the billet, frictional
forces are lower than those established in direct extrusion. Hence the power required for this extrusion
process is less when compared to direct extrusion. However, practical limitations to indirect extrusion
process arise because the requirement for using the hollow ram limits the loads which can be applied in
the process.

⮚ VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL EXTRUSION:

Most extrusions are made with hydraulic presses. Hydraulic extrusion presses are classified into
horizontal and vertical presses, depending upon the direction of travel of the ram.

VERTICAL EXTRUSION PRESS:

These are generally built with capacities of 300-2000 tons. The following are the advantages of vertical
press:

✔ Easier alignment between the press ram and the tools

✔ Higher rate of production

✔ Need for less floor space than horizontal presses

✔ They produce uniform cooling of the billet in the container and thus symmetrically uniform
deformation will result.
In commercial operation the chief use for vertical press is in the production of thin wall tubing, where
uniform wall thickness and concentricity are required.

However they need considerable headroom and to make extrusions of appreciable length floor pit is
frequently necessary. Warping of bars will result and non uniform wall thickness will occur in tubes.

Fig: 4 Vertical Extrusion Press

HORIZONTAL EXTRUSION PRESS:

Presses with the capacity of 1500-5000 tons are in regular operation, while a few presses of 14000 tons
capacity have been constructed. In this press the bottom of the billet which lies in contact with the
container will cool more rapidly than the top surface, unless the extrusion container is internally heated
and therefore the deformation will be non uniform. These presses are used for most commercial
extrusion of bars and shapes.
 Fig: 5 Horizontal Extrusion Press

⮚ IMPACT EXTRUSION:

It is a process used to produce short length of all the shapes such as collapsible tooth paste tubes .it may
be either direct or indirect extrusion and it is usually performed on a high speed mechanical press. This
process is generally performed in cold condition but considerable heating results from the high speed
deformation. This type of extrusion is restricted to softer materials such as lead, tin, aluminum and
copper.

Fig: 6 Impact Extrusion

⮚ HYDROSTATIC EXTRUSION:

In hydrostatic extrusion, the billet is subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure. This does not upset the
billet to fill the bore of the container as it would in a conventional extrusion process. Hence the billet
has a large length to diameter ratio or it may have an irregular cross section. Since there is no
container-billet friction the friction forces arising in this extrusion are the same as that of indirect
extrusion. Because of the pressurized fluid used in this process lubrication is very effective and hence
the product has good surface finish and dimensional accuracy. Since the friction is nearly absent it is
possible to use dies with a very low semi cone angle which greatly minimizes the redundant
deformation.

However there is an inherent limitation to hot working in this process because of the application of
pressurized fluid.

Hence the extrusion ratios obtained are inferior to those of conventional hot extrusion process.

EXTRUSION EQUIPMENT:
● Dies

● Die head

● Container

● Liner

● Die holder

● Wedge

● Follower pad

● Hot saw

The dies and tooling used in extrusion must withstand considerable abuse from high
stresses, thermal shock and oxidation. The die stack consists of the die made for highly alloye tool
steel, which is supported by a die holder and a bolster, all of which are held in a die head. This entire
assembly is sealed against the container on a conical seating surface die pressure applied by wedge.
Since the extrusion container must withstand high pressures it is usually made in two parts. A liner is
shrunk into the more massive container to produce a compressive pre-stress in the inside surface of the
liner. The extrusion ram or stem is usually highly loaded in compression. It is protected from the hot
billet by a follower pad immediately behind the billet. Since the liner and follower pad are subjected to
many cycles of thermal shock, they will need to be replaced periodically.

The extrusion dies are of two types in general.

✔ Flat faced dies

✔ Conical faced dies

A hot saw is needed to cut off the extrusion so that the discard or butt can be removed from the die.
The equipment also includes a run out table for catching the extrusion and further cooling.

EXTRUSION DEFECTS:

1. Surface defects will be developed when there are gaps in the lubricant film as they initiate shear
zones to form subsequent surface cracks .to avoid these cracks the lubrication film must be complete
and continuous .

2. Longitudinal laminations are produced when the lubrication film is carried into the interior of the
extrusion along shear bands. Laminations of oxide can be created in the same way.

3. Chevron cracking or centre burst can occur at low extrusion ratios .this defect is related to the
influence of frictional conditions on the zone of deformation at the extrusion die .Centre bursts occur
when the friction is low at the tool billet interface.

4. Fir- tree cracking is a surface cracking ranging in severity from a badly roughened surface to
repetitive transverse cracking .it is produced by longitudinal tensile stresses generated as the extrusion
passes through the die .this form of cracking usually is inter granular and is associated with hot
shortness.

5. Because of the inhomogeneous deformation in the direct extrusion of a billet, the centre of the billet
moves faster than the periphery. As a result the dead metal zone extends down along the outer surface
of the billet. After about two-thirds of the billet is extruded, the outer surface of the billet moves
towards the centre and extrudes through the die near the axis of the rod. Since the surface of the billet
often contains an oxidized skin, this type of flow results in oxide stringers. This defect can be
considered to be an internal pipe and it is known as extrusion defect.

SPECIFICS OF EPP:

EPP stands for extrusion and piercing plant.

EQUIPMENT IN EPP:
The extrusion and piercing plant comprises of:

● 3780 T horizontal extrusion press

● 1200 T piercing press and

● 630 T vertical extrusion press

● Common pumps & accumulator station

● Horizontal and vertical induction furnaces

● Walking beam resistance furnace

● Other auxiliary equipments.

The plant is designed for extrusion of:

● Zircaloy ingots, billets to rods and tube blank.

● SS blanks- for making 2000 T / year in SSTP.

● SS billets to rods and tube blanks.

● Carbon steel and alloy steel tubes.

● Non-ferrous tubes.

PROCESSES IN EPP:

⮚ BETA QUENCHING:

Beta quenching is the phenomenon of heating the zircaloy billet to a temperature of 1040 0C to attain
beta phase, and quenching it in water medium, to maintain that phase at room temperature. This is
done for the even distribution of the alloying elements throughout the billet, since beta phase involves
the even spreading of secondary phase particles.

⮚ EXPANSION PROCESS:

The purpose of expansion is to increase the ID of the billet, which has to go for extrusion. In extrusion
if the ID of the billet to be extruded is not high then the material loss in the process of extrusion is
less, but as ID required after extrusion increase, the material removal is not economical and expansion
operation is called for increasing the ID with OD keeping constant thereby increasing length also.
Thus expansion operation is the previous stage of extrusion.

In the expansion operation, the billet has already a deep drilled hole, through which penetrates the
expanding mandrel. The mandrel in this operation has a conical nose attached to it and this nose falls
down to the nose-collecting drum, due to its weight, after the operation.

⮚ PIERCING PROCESS:

In this operation, the billet is solid and ID is created by means of piercing in a solid billet. The nose in
this case is flat and upsetting of billet is also done to avoid eccentricity errors. Mandrel in this case
doesn’t go through the billet but is stopped a small distance before the piercing is over and the
remaining part of the billet is cut with the shearing provided by the SXH. The nose here doesn’t fall
down through the bottom tooling but stays just beneath the container holding the billet. Expansion and
piercing operation can be carried out on the 1200T VPP (vertical piercing press).

⮚ COPPER JACKETING:

The billets are cover with copper sheets, both in the inner and outer diameter. The copper acts as a
lubricant and also for the prevention of oxidation of the zircaloy billet.

⮚ COPPER ELECTROPLATING:

This is only done for 350mm diameter rods. In this process, the billet is dipped in copper sulphate +
sulphuric acid electrolyte. Copper strips dipped in the electrolyte acts as anode while the billet itself
acts as cathode. When the current is passed between the anode and cathode, even deposition of the
copper particles from the anode onto the billet surface takes place. This billet is heated in the induction
furnace and then in the resistance furnace before extrusion.

⮚ RESISTANCE HEATING:
Resistance heating is a process where thermal energy is produced by passing an electrical current
through a purpose designed conductor. The resistance the conductor offers to the passage of the
current causes a reaction within it at an atomic level, thereby producing energy and releasing heat.
This reaction is subject to a scientific relationship known as Joule's first law which sees the amount of
heat generated by the process dependent on the balance between conductor resistance and current
magnitude.

This plant consists of a walking beam resistance furnace, in which the billet is heated and soaked
before extrusion.

⮚ INDUCTION HEATING:
Induction heating is a fast, efficient, precise, repeatable, non-contact method for heating metals or
other electrically-conductive materials. An induction heating system includes an induction power
supply which converts line power to an alternating current, delivers it to a work head and work coil
creating an electromagnetic field within the coil. The work piece is placed in the coil where this field
induces a current in the work piece, which generates heat in the work piece. The coil, which is water-
cooled and cool to the touch, is placed around or adjacent to the work piece. It does not touch the work
piece, and the heat is only generated by the induced current flowing in the work piece. The material of
the work piece may be a metal such as steel, copper, aluminum or brass or it can be a semiconductor
such as carbon, graphite or silicon carbide. To heat non-conductive materials such as plastics or glass,
induction can heat an electrically-conductive susceptor, typically graphite, which then transfers the
heat to the non-conducting material.

Induction heating is used in processes where temperatures are as low as 100 ºC (212 °F) and as high as
3000 °C (5432 °F). It can be used in brief heating processes that are on for less than half a second and
in heating processes that are on for months.

Induction creates an electromagnetic field in a coil to transfer energy to the work piece to be heated.
When an electrical current passes along a wire a magnetic field is created around that wire.

When the electrical current changes direction (AC) the magnetic field created collapses, and is created
in the reverse direction, as the current reverses direction. When a second wire is placed in that
alternating magnetic field an alternating current is generated in the second wire. The current in the
second wire is proportional to the current in the first wire and to the inverse of the square of the
distance between them. When we replace the wire in this model with a coil, the alternating current on
the coil creates an electromagnetic field and while the work piece to be heated is in the field, the work
piece corresponds to the second wire and an alternating current is generated in the work piece. Heat is
generated in the work piece due to the I²R losses of the work.

This plant involves a horizontal induction furnace in which the billets are heated for beta quenching as
well as expansion process.

It also consists of three vertical induction furnaces which are used for heating 350mm diameter billets
consecutively, before transferring to resistance furnace.Copper jacketed billets are not heated in this
furnace because, when copper jacketing is done, an air gap between the billet and the copper sheet is
induced. Since air is an insulator, heating in induction furnace leads to overheating of the copper layer,
while the billet does not reach its required temperature.

⮚ EXTRUSION:

The billet heated to the optimum temperature in the walking beam furnace, travels in the trolley, to the
extrusion press axis. Just before aligning at the press axis, dummy block is inserted at the back of the
billet. The extrusion press available in NFC is of 3780 tonnes capacity. It is known to be the second
largest press in Asia. The mandrel is first inserted into the billet, and then the billet is pushed into the
container with the help of the ram. Once the extrusion takes place, a hot saw is lowered to cutoff the
trailing end, as it is generally concentrated with impurities. The extruded product is then dropped into
the water tank for subsequent cooling. The entire process is completely automated.
 Study & Design Calculation for High Pressure Accumulators Used for
Operation of 3780 Tonnes Capacity Extrusion Press

Introduction:

A hydraulic accumulator is a pressure storage reservoir in which a non-compressible hydraulic fluid is

held under pressure by an external source. The external source can be a spring, a raised weight or a
compressed gas. An accumulator enables a hydraulic system to cope with extremes of demand using a
less powerful pump, to respond more quickly to a temporary demand, and to smooth out pulsations. It
is a type of energy storage device. Accumulators can take a specific amount of fluid under pressure
and store it. The fluid is then released when it’s required to perform a specific task in the hydraulic
system.

Functions of an accumulator are given below:

❖ Energy storage
❖ Compensation of leakages
❖ Compensation of temperature fluctuations
❖ Emergency operation
❖ Cushioning of pressure shocks which may occur at sudden switching of the valves
❖ Dampening vibrations

Adding an accumulator to a hydraulic system offers a number of advantages. In addition, it results in

substantial energy savings and an increased system lifespan. Applications that require a lot of power
for limited periods of time can benefit most from the use of accumulators:

❖ Possibility of smaller pumps

❖ Lower installed power
❖ Less heat produced
❖ Simple maintenance and installation
❖ Increased service lifetime
❖ Immediate availability
❖ Unlimited storage life

Type of Accumulators:
The hydraulic accumulators are of following types-

1. Gas loaded accumulator

2. Free contact gas loaded accumulator
3. Piston type gas loaded accumulator
 4. Bladder type gas loaded accumulator
5. Diaphragm type gas loaded accumulator
6. Dead load accumulator
7. Spring loaded accumulator

A compressed gas accumulator consists of a cylinder with two chambers that are either separated by
an elastic diaphragm, a bladder, a floating piston or not.

Free contact gas loaded accumulator:

This consists of a pressure vessel with a fluid port at bottom and a gas –charging port at the top. These
accumulators have high-pressure containers with a sight glass to show fluid level. They were filled
approximately half with oil and half with nitrogen gas with no separation barrier between them [2].
Before stopping the pump, a shut off valve at the accumulator discharge port was closed to prevent
fluid and gas from escaping. This type of accumulator is not used on new circuits today, but there still
are many in service. This type of accumulator requires little machining and is can be used only in
vertical position and is consequently relatively simple to manufacture. Free contact gas
loaded accumulator is show in below with its hydraulic symbol.

Fig: 7 Free contact gas loaded accumulator

Piston type gas loaded accumulator:

This type of accumulator is similar to Piston type gas loaded accumulator except that a free piston
separates the gas and fluid. It can be used vertical as well as inclined position. Any failure attends to
be gradual and is normally owing to deterioration of the piston seal and wear in the cylinder bore. It
operates and performs similarly to the bladder
type, but has some advantages in certain applications. A gas-charged piston accumulator can cost
twice as much as an equal-sized bladder type. Discharge characteristics are same as that of free-
surface type accumulator. Piston accumulators also require a higher level of fluid cleanliness than
bladder units. Piston accumulators are used for very large fluid storage requirements of up to 2,500
liters at very high pressures (up to 1,000 bar).Piston type gas loaded accumulator is shown below with
its symbol and characteristic curve.

Fig: 8 Piston type gas loaded accumulator

Bladder type gas loaded accumulator:

A bladder accumulator is the most commonly used hydro-pneumatic accumulator. The bladder is
filled with nitrogen and fitted in a welded or forged steel pressure vessel. The bladder is made of an
elastic material (elastomer), e.g. Rubber. The gas pre-charge pressure can be adapted via the gas
inlet/outlet valve on top of the bladder accumulator [3-4].
If the bladder accumulator is mounted vertically or at an angle, the gas side must always be on top.
When the pressure drops, the compressed gas in the bladder expands and pushes the stored fluid into
the hydraulic circuit. At zero pressure, the bladder may be pushed out of the pressure vessel. To
prevent this, a spring-loaded valve is provided on the fluid side. Its Discharge characteristics are same
as that of free-surface type accumulator or Piston type gas loaded accumulator. The bladder
accumulator is used when a high power output is required. Specially designed bladder accumulators
are capable of operating at maximum pressures of up to 1,000 bar.
 Fig: 9 Bladder type gas loaded accumulator

Diaphragm type gas loaded accumulator:

These accumulators have a rubber plate or diaphragm as the separating element. This element is
welded or screwed together between two spherical shells (or compartments). The compartment above
the diaphragm is filled with nitrogen. The compartment below is directly connected to the hydraulic
circuit. Diaphragm accumulators are useful if the required fluid storage capacity is low approximately
4 liters or less.
Diaphragm accumulators have most of the advantages of bladder-type units, but can handle gas
compression ratios of up to 8:1. However, they are limited to smaller volumes, and their performance
can sometimes be affected by gas permeating across the diaphragm.

Fig:10 Diaphram type gas loaded accumulator

Dead load accumulator:

The weight-loaded type is historically the oldest type of accumulator. It consists of a vertical heavy
wall steel cylinder, which incorporates a piston with packing to prevent leakage. A dead weight is
attached to the top of the piston. The gravitational force of the dead weight provides the potential
energy to the accumulator. This type of accumulator creates a constant fluid pressure throughout the
full volume output of the unit, irrespective of the rate and quantity. The main disadvantage of this
accumulator is its extremely large size and heavy weight. The main advantage of this accumulator is
discharge pressure is remain constant while in all other types of accumulator is varies with the volume
of fluid stored.

Fig:11 Dead load accumulator

Spring loaded accumulator:

A spring type accumulator is similar in operation to the gas-charged accumulator above, except that a
heavy spring (or springs) is used to provide the compressive force. According to Hooke's law the
magnitude of the force exerted by a spring is linearly proportional to its extension. Therefore as the
spring compresses, the force it exerts on the fluid is increased linearly.
 Fig:12 Spring loaded accumulator

Applications:

The main applications of hydraulic accumulators are:

❖ Pressure surge damping
❖ Emergency power source
❖ Energy saving devices

Pressure surge damping:

Sudden closure of a valve causes pressure transients or shock waves. In a water system this
phenomenon is called ‘water hammer’. Pressure generated by sudden closure of valve.

Fig:13 Pressure surge damping

Emergency power source:
Hydraulic energy can be stored in an accumulator and in the event of pump failure, drawn on to
operate an actuator or complete an operation.

Energy saving devices:

Hydraulic hybrid systems using high-pressure hydraulic accumulators have been considered as
promising solutions. The high specific power of the system allows the design of compact systems.

Calculations:

Calculation of designed pressure for existing high pressure accumulators of EPP

The Air Emulsion accumulator (4 NOS) consists of:

a) Spherical heads

b) Cylinderical vessels

Maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) calculations as per ASME Section 8

Division-2 are as given below-

A. Calculation for Spherical Head:

Serial No Description Unit Value Remarks

1 Vessel internal mm 1180 From original

diameter drawing

Equavalent
material as per
2 Vessel material -- SA-738B ASTM Section 2
A of Russian
grade 0gr2C as
per original test
certificate

As per original
3 Allowable design details
stress(S) N/m𝑚2 161 submitted by
OEM
 Allowable N/m𝑚2 168 As per SA-738B
stress(S)

4 Thickness(t) mm 143 As measured by

QA,ZF

As per class 1
5 Weld joint -- 1 fully
efficiency(E) Radiographed
weld joint vessel

Flow chart: 13

As per ASME codes, Section 8, Div 2, 2015, section 4.3.5.1

Maximum Allowable Working Pressure(MAWP)

= 2*S * E * ln {(2 * t + D)/D}

= 2 * 161 * 1 * ln {(2 * 143 + 1180)/1180} (By considering the least value of allowable stresses)

= 69.88 N/m𝑚2 = 698 bars.

B. Calculation for Cylinderical shell:

Serial No Description Unit Value Remarks

1 Vessel internal mm 1180 From original

diameter drawing

Equavalent
material as per
2 Vessel material -- SA-738B ASTM Section 2
A of Russian
grade 0gr2C as
per original test
certificate
 3 Allowable As per original
stress(S) N/m𝑚2 161 design details
submitted by
OEM

Allowable N/m𝑚2 168 As per SA-738B

stress(S)

4 Thickness(t) mm 143 As measured by

QA,ZF

As per class 1
5 Weld joint -- 1 fully
efficiency(E) Radiographed
weld joint vessel

Flow Chart: 14

As per ASME codes, Section 8, Div 2, 2015, section 4.3.5.1

Maximum Allowable Working Pressure(MAWP)

= S * E * ln {(2 * t + D)/D}

= 161 * 1 * ln {(2 * 143 + 1180)/1180} (By considering the least value of allowable stresses)

= 34.94 N/m𝑚2 = 349.4 bars ~ 349 bars

Hence maximunm allowable working pressure of the accumulator is 349 bars.

(By taking the least value of Maximum allowable working pressures of the working segments.)
Fig:14 Design of Accumulator (CAD)
Conclusion:

Hence the Pressure analysis has been done on the Spherical Head and Cylinderical shell
Accumulators, the working pressure readings for Spherical Head Accumulator were brought under the
safer and satisfactory zone & Design Calculation for High Pressure Accumulators Used for Operation
of 3780 Tonnes Capacity Extrusion Press is done.

References:

[1] ‘’Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines’’ By R.K. Bansal Laxmi Publication (p) Ltd ninth
edition 2009.
[2] “Power Hydraulics by Michael J. Pinches and Jhon G. Ashby” Automation advisory services,
faculty of technology, Sheffield city polytechnic, UK
[3] http://www.valvehydraulic.info/hydraulic-accessories/weight-loaded-type-
hydraulic accumulators.html
[4] http://www.dta.eu/hydraulics/hydraulic-accumulators
[5]Themal Engineering by R.K. Rajput Laxmi Publication (p) Ltd sixth edition 2006.
[6]Engineering Thermodynamics by P.K. Nag, The McGraw-Hill Companies Fourth Edition 2009.