T a b le 7 .1 .

C o m p a r is o n o f C o u lo m b (C ) , P la s tic ity (P ) a n d L o w e r B o u n d (L ) S o lu ti o n s f o r e a r t h p r e s s u r e s b e h i n d a v e r tic a l w a ll w ith h o r iz o n ta l s o il

s u r f a c e ( c - 0 ) ( a f t e r C h e n , 1 9 7 5 ).______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
A c tiv e , Ka P a ssiv e , Kp
0° 5° c r " P‘ Lf C‘ P* V
20 0 0 .4 9 0 0 .4 9 0 0 .4 9 0 2 .0 4 2 .0 4 2 .0 4
10 0 .4 2 6 0 .4 4 6 0 .4 5 0 2 .5 2 2 .6 4 2 .5 5
20 0 .3 5 0 0 .4 2 6 0 .4 4 0 2 .9 3 3 .5 2 3 .0 4
30 0 0 .3 3 3 0 .3 3 3 0 .3 3 0 3 .0 0 3 .0 0 3 .0 0
10 0 .2 9 0 0 .3 0 7 0 .3 2 0 3 .9 6 4 .1 5
20 0 .2 4 7 0 .2 9 7 0 .3 0 0 5 .0 6 6 .1 5
30 0 .2 9 7 0 .3 0 2 0 .3 1 0 1 0 .8 0 9 .8 0 6 .5 5
40 0 0 .2 1 7 0 .2 1 7 0 .2 2 0 4 .6 0 4 .6 0 4 .6 0
20 0 .1 9 9 0 .2 0 0 0 .2 0 0 1 1 .8 0 1 0 .1 0 9 .6 9
30 0 .2 0 1 0 .2 0 3 0 .2 0 0 2 1 .6 0 1 4 .8 0
40 0 .2 1 0 0 .2 1 4 0 .2 0 0 7 0 .9 0 2 0 .9 0 1 8 .6 0

* P la n e s u r f a c e o f fa ilu r e ; # L o g - s p ir a l f a ilu r e s u r f a c e ; t S h a p e o f f a ilu r e s u r f a c e d e t e r m i n e d b y n u m e r ic a l a n a ly s is

T a b le 7 .2 . V a lu e s o f p a s s iv e th r u s t f a c to r s f o r c o h e s io n a n d s e lf - w e ig h t ( a f te r L e e a n d H e r r in g to n , 1 9 7 2 a ).
P a <P Ncvr NcHp Kpv=2Nyvp Kpn^lN-4/r
0 90 2 2 .5 3 .1 5 5 .1 0 1 .4 0 3 .4 5
30 5 .0 0 6 .9 5 3 .3 0 5 .6 5
40 11.1 12.1 1 2 .0 1 4 .2
45 1 8 .0 1 7 .0 2 6 .0 2 6 .0
80 2 2 .5 2 .0 5 4 .6 5 0 .6 5 3 .0 0
30 3 .2 0 6 .0 5 1 .8 0 4 .9 5
40 6 .8 5 10.1 6 .5 5 11.0
45 1 0 .9 1 4 .0 1 3 .2 1 8 .8
70 2 2 .5 1.15 4 .1 0 0 .1 5 2 .7 5
30 1.85 5 .3 0 0 .7 5 4 .2 5
40 4 .0 5 8 .6 0 3 .2 0 8 .8 0
45 6 .0 0 1 1.3 6 .5 5 1 4 .2
-2 0 90 2 2 .5 2 .3 5 3 .2 0 0 .6 0 1 .3 5
30 3 .4 0 4 .1 0 1 .3 0 2 .2 5
40 6 .1 5 6 .1 0 3 .9 5 4 .7 0
45 9 .0 0 8 .0 0 7 .5 0 7 .5 0
80 2 2 .5 1 .6 0 2 .8 5 0 .2 5 1 .1 5
30 2 .3 0 3 .5 0 0 .7 0 1 .9 0
40 3 .9 5 5 .1 0 2 .1 0 3 .6 0
45 5 .5 0 6 .4 0 3 .8 0 5 .4 0
70 2 2 .5 1.05 2 .4 5 0 .0 5 1 .1 0
30 1.45 3 .0 0 0 .3 0 1 .55
40 2 .3 5 4 .1 5 1.00 2 .8 0
45 3 .2 0 5 .1 0 1 .8 5 4 .0 0
20 90 2 2 .5 4 .1 5 7 .8 5 2 .3 0 5 .6 0
30 7 .6 5 1 1 .4 5 6 .4 5 1 1 .2 0
40 20 .1 2 2 .8 2 9 .6 3 5 .0
80 2 2 .5 2 .5 0 7 .0 0 1 .2 0 5 .2 0
30 4 .0 5 1 0 .0 5 3 .6 0 9 .6 0
40 1 2 .2 1 9 .5 1 5 .8 2 7 .4
70 2 2 .5 1.25 6 .3 0 0 .2 5 4 .8 0
30 2 .6 0 8 .8 5 1 .5 0 8 .5 0
40 6 .8 0 16.1 8 .0 0 2 1 .7

situ earth pressures to their active limits. Typically, passive pres­ 7.3.2 Computer methods
sures are factored down to provide both a margin of safety and A significant number of computer programs are available com­
as a means of restricting displacements. Earth pressures are nor­ mercially to assist with the design o f retaining structures. These
mally assessed using published tables, graphical techniques or vary from programs that simply assist in computing earth pres­
analytical expressions often programmed in a computer spread­ sures for simple to quite complex soil profiles, that automate
sheet. analyses using the lim it equilibrium technique, to those that at­
Numerous manuals have been produced to assist designers, tempt to take into account the interaction of the soil with the re­
especially where approaches based on the lim it equilibrium taining structure.
techniques are to be used in the design. Examples include those The more sophisticated computer models assume either a
developed in Europe (Padfield and Mair, 1984; Clayton et al., W inkler or a continuum soil model in an attempt to deal ade­
1993), USA (e.g., US Army Corps of Engineers, 1994; quately with the issue of structure-soil interaction. In the W in­
N AV F AC - DM 7, 1982), and Hong Kong (GCO, 1982). Com­ kler approach the soil is modelled as a series of discrete, usually
plicating issues such as lateral pressures acting on retaining unconnected and linear, horizontal springs. However, most pro­
structures due to external surface load and compaction of back­ grams adopting this approach w ill allow the user to impose ac­
fill can also be taken into account in these design procedures, tive or passive limits on the pressures applied to the wall. The
e.g., see Clayton et al. (1993). wall is represented as by a series of structural beam or beam-
column elements. For an excavated wall an estimate of the in
situ stress state is also required and the analysis commences with

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