THOMAS HERZOG

ROLAND KRIPPNER
WERNER LANG

Facade Construction

MANUAL
Edition ∂

SECOND EDITION
 THOMAS HERZOG
ROLAND KRIPPNER
WERNER LANG

Facade Construction

MANUAL
Edition ∂

SECOND EDITION
Authors

Thomas Herzog Student research assistants:

Prof. Dr. (Univ. Rome) Dr. h.c. Dipl.-Ing. Architect BDA
Technical University of Munich, Department of Architecture,
Chair of Building Technology (until 2006)
TUM Emeritus of Excellence
Roland Krippner
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Architect BDA
Technische Hochschule Nürnberg Georg Simon Ohm,
Department of Architecture, Field of Construction and Technology
Werner Lang
Prof. Dr.-Ing., M. Arch. II (UCLA) Architect
Technical University of Munich,
Department of Civil, Geo and Environmental Engineering and
Department of Architecture,
Chair of Energy Efficient and Sustainable Design and Building
Expert consultant:
Dr. Tilmann E. Kuhn
Simon Axmann, Lilly Brauner, Annika Ludwig, Verena Schmidt,
Fabiola Tchamko, Ka Xu
Authors of the 2004 edition:
Dr.-Ing. Winfried Heusler (Aspects of building physics and
planning advice)
Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Michael Volz (Timber)
Expert consultants for the 2004 edition:
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Gerhard Hausladen, Dipl.-Ing. Stefan Heeß,
Dr.-Ing. M. Sc. Reiner Letsch, Dr. Volker Wittwer
Research assistants (Chair of Building Technology) for the 2004
edition under the guidance of Prof. Thomas Herzog:
Peter Bonfig (Surfaces – structural principles),
Jan Cremers (External and internal conditions; Metal),
András Reith (Natural stone; Clay),
Annegret Rieger (Timber),
Daniel Westenberger (Edges, openings; Manipulators)

Research assistant: Student research assistants for the 2004 edition:

Andreas Kacinari (Organisational support) Tina Baierl, Sebastian Fiedler, Elisabeth Walch, Xaver Wankerl

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Editors of the 2004 edition: www.detail-online.com
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2004, first German and first English edition
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4
Contents

Imprint 4
Table of contents 5
Foreword 6

Shell, wall, facade – an essay 8

Part A The fundamentals 16

1 External and internal conditions 18

2 General basics of construction 26
2.1 Surfaces – structural principles 26
2.2 Edges, openings 38
2.3 Modular coordination 46
3 Aspects of building physics and 52
planning advice

Part B Structures built with specific materials 62

1 Natural stone 64
2 Clay 86
3 Concrete 106
4 Timber 130
5 Metal 158
6 Glass 188
7 Plastics 216

Part C Special topics 236

1 Multilayer glass facades 238

2 Manipulators 266
3 Solar energy 294
4 Integrated facades 322
5 Refurbishing existing facades 328
6 Green facades 336

Appendix

Authors 342
Image credits 343
Literature 346
Statutory regulations, directives and standards 348
Index 350

5
 Foreword
30 years after the publication of our first con-
struction handbook, this is the first in the series
to deal with facades.
Over the centuries, architects’ design ser-
vices have often concentrated on developing
impressive section drawings of buildings,
which frequently became objects of heated
controversy over questions of style chosen as
well as a medium for conveying new artistic
positions.
There is now an increasing focus once more
on facades due to the growing importance
taken on by exterior walls in the context of
energy consumption issues and options for
making use of environmental energy. In add-
ition to this focus, and usually contrasting with
it, are efforts at self-promotion and “identifi-
cation with the address” for those clients for
whom the “packaging” of their buildings, which
often have quite banal interiors, has long since
become a substitute for quality architecture.
The booming Asian megacities show this quite
clearly.
The sequence of this book’s chapters takes
an expedient approach to designing and
developing facade structures. Aspects that
apply generally to the exterior walls of build-
ings, involving demands made on them, their
principal functionality and structural design,
have been separated from descriptions of the
special features of individual cases. The book
represents more than just a collection of differ-
ent buildings in various locations and contexts,
of different types and technologies. Rather,
specific features have been classified and
described based on the various materials used
in their walls or cladding.
The first part deals with demands made on
facades from the inside, which derive from
the building’s usage type. Buildings face very
different local climatic conditions, depending
on the region in which they are located. Out of
this confrontation arise the functional demands
on an exterior wall. These are formulated as
a remit that is initially open to a range of pos-
sible solutions, so implementation details are
not described in this section. The book’s most
important statements are made in the form of
6
images, diagrams and schematic illustrations
showing the morphology of surfaces and
openings.
A building’s envelope interacts directly with its
other subsystems: its support structure, the
partitioning of rooms and technical building
equipment. Various interdependencies exist
or must be defined so that each structural sys-
tem can be geometrically coordinated in the
space. Dimensional and modular conditions
and proportions must be defined for the build-
ing as a whole to be developed. Combining
these aspects results in the parameters for
material implementation based on the materials
and construction methods to be chosen. If the
materials and technologies used to manufac-
ture them are important in defining further spe-
cific features, then certain physical, material,
installation-related and aesthetic details must
also be coordinated.
The second part of this book’s structure is
based on this context. Here the chapters have
been kept separate from examples and pre-
cede them. Each begins with a brief summary
of the history of civilisation’s use of the material
and its specific features. Here we do not limit
the area of materials applications to building
construction, simply because as civilisation
has developed, technology has often emerged
in different ways and interactions with mater-
ials and initial applications have often emerged
from very different areas. Stone, ceramics and
metal, for example, are so significant that whole
cultural eras have been named after them.
Today too, much technical innovation comes
from the construction industry, especially in
modern facade construction, through a transfer
of technologies from different sectors, such
as forming technologies, surface treatments
and robotics. These chapters are followed
by a section showing a selection of built ex-
amples focusing on materials, which provides
insights into the range of possibilities available
and is designed to inspire readers to further
develop their own ideas. This is done by way
of drawings of main facade details with explan-
ations provided in keys because this is the
medium usually used for conveying information
to architects.
We selected new projects with facades that
interestingly embody the building as a whole,
as well as “classics” that still set standards
because of their architectural quality as well
as a range of details that may be of practical
value for architects and engineers working on
older buildings.
Projects are shown here not as whole build-
ings, rather our descriptions focus on their
facades, which is why contributors other than
architects, such as specialist engineers, are
rarely mentioned in project descriptions,
unless they played a major role in creating
the facade.
Readers will also notice that in describing
construction details we have at times diverged
from solutions or technical rules customary in
Germany, as is justifiable in a book full of inter-
national examples. Those who would like more
details on a project described are referred to
the more detailed bibliographical references,
which are indicated with a “º”.
It may be regarded as valuable to depict a
building as a large technical object, not as
a complicated system, possibly unmanage-
able and consisting of many kinds of com-
ponents, but succinctly, simply, equally power-
fully and sensitively designed. Developments
in recent decades and enormously increased
demands on building envelopes however, have
led to the emergence of multilayer structures,
each layer of which has specific functions.
This is now a frequent feature of modern struc-
tures made of almost all materials, so struc-
tures made of specific materials and special
facade construction topics are dealt with in
separate chapters.
A centuries-old principle of modifying and
individually influencing the permeability of
facade openings, whether for reasons of the
building’s energy balance, interior climate,
lighting conditions or safety, is dealt with under
the chapter heading of “Manipulators”, which
takes on a new topicality and covers a wide
range of different types.
We also take the view that the prevalence
of multilayer and double facades in recent
decades requires special mention and dis-
cussion because there is still great uncertainty
regarding their design and planning. Planners
often simply follow fashionable trends instead
of making good use of the main advantages
of such structures. Basic errors are often made
because there is not enough awareness of
structural and energy technology interconnec-
tions or of individual variants available for pos-
sible use in construction.
The integration of directly and indirectly oper-
ating solar systems in building envelopes is
still uncharted territory for many and success-
ful combinations of practical value, technical-
physical function, design and construction
solutions are still the exception rather than the
rule, even though the first pioneering applica-
tions were implemented decades ago.
Munich, spring 2004
Thomas Herzog
For this second edition, Part B on “Structures
built with specific materials” and the “Special
topics” chapter have been revised and
expanded to include examples from the past
decade.
New to this edition are three sections that do
not deal mainly with specific materials but
cover issues that have become increasingly
important and need to be examined separately.
The main reason for this are bioclimatic factors
requiring special architectural solutions for the
structural subsystem “facade” involving design
in accordance with functional, technical and
aesthetic criteria: refurbishment, the integration
of annexed technical structural systems and
the greening of exterior walls.
It was therefore natural to develop a separate
third section of the book covering these six
areas. After a general description of remit
and operating principles, it depicts a range
of different solutions and renderings and vari-
ous examples of built structures that represent
the current state-of-the-art.
Further developments are bound to follow, if
only for reasons of efficiency, profitability and
a commitment to sophisticated design. It is to
be hoped that architects enthusiastic about the
design of structural systems and components,
people whose profession relies on an ability
to comprehend the “technical organism” of a
building as a whole, right down to the smallest
detail, will continue to make cogent contribu-
tions to a broad “culture of construction” as a
social imperative.
The authors would like to thank all the people,
institutions, architects, photographers and
companies that have supported our work with
their skilful contributions and everyone who
worked on the new edition.
Munich, summer 2016
Thomas Herzog, Roland Krippner, Werner Lang
7
 Shell, wall, facade

Shell, wall, facade – This book on facades focuses on their func-

an essay tional and technical aspects. Some obser-
vations will, however, first be made that go
beyond these aspects and embed this very
complex and culturally specific topic, which
also directly affects perceptions of architecture,
in a broader context.

A protective shell

Building envelopes offer protection from the

weather and enemies and a place to store pro-
visions, and were the first and most important
reason for building. Unlike structures such as
bridges, towers, dams or cranes, buildings
contain rooms, whose creation and use are an 2
essential element of human civilisation and one
closely related to the exigencies of climate.

This is demonstrated by the fact that the effort

involved in construction is much less in regions
where the outdoor climate conditions are gen-
erally those that people find comfortable. The
more divergent the outdoor climate and indoor
climatic requirements are, the greater the tech-
nical effort required to meet the requirements of
people living inside structures.

Over the course of human development, people

have spent long periods searching for conven-
ient pre-existing spaces for themselves and
their animals, sites such as caves, grottoes
in cliffs and rocks or very dense masses of
vegetation, protected places that would offer
suitable conditions for survival (Fig. 2).

When people settled, they began to create 3

such spaces artificially, using materials they
found and various construction processes. 1 Sucevita Monastery (RO) 16th century
They built roofs and exterior walls, and the 2 Cave dwelling
3 Exterior wall made of local natural stone, Auvergne (FR)
exteriors of built spaces became important
in providing protection from the weather and
fulfilling various other functions (Fig. 3).

The hollow spaces existing in nature, sur- A building’s exterior surface was now also a
rounded by masses of stone or earth, were counterpart to its inner surface, long used as
now reduced to relatively thin-walled structures an important communication medium (e.g. for
built by people. Buildings, with an inside and cave paintings). From now on it would also be
an outside. a medium for images reflecting profane and
sacred social structures and conveying hier-
The term “exterior wall” designates in its con- archies of values and claims to power.
stituents its position, namely “exterior”, and the
character of this structural “subsystem”, that
of a wall. During the history of construction –
at least until and into the 20th century – walls
have not only enclosed space, but also been
an important part of the support structure
that transfers its net load, own weight and the
weight of roofs and wind forces imposed on
them through the stiffening effect of the solid
structure into the foundations. The word “wall”,
especially the term “exterior wall”, is associated
with a stable, robust, usually heavy, perhaps
even forbidding element, which separates the
private from the public and determines a build-
ing’s exterior character.

9
Shell, wall, facade

Materials and construction

The space created between exterior walls now

had to meet all the demands and functions of
use and comfort. To do this, local conditions
and users’ requirements had to be precisely
recorded, influenceable and achievable
through appropriate construction methods.

Technical solutions emerge in the context of

materials, construction, joining, manufacturing
processes, as well as result from demands that
arise from gravity and other exterior and interior
physical influences and factors. Building shells
reflect the development of technologies in a
region and with them a significant aspect of the
local culture.

A decision to use a specific material may be

based not only on demands coming from
inside or outside, but also on rules governing
the process of constructing a building enve-
lope that must be observed. It is not only indi-
vidual user requirements that determine a
facade’s formation; they must also be consid-
ered in the context of issues of joining, con-
struction and of technical implementation
within the overall structural system, material
principles and geometric order (Fig. 4). Here
the professional skill of architects in their role
as “master builders” is essential because
only they know all the connections and various
interdependencies within and between an
4 architectural composition and the logic of
construction.

Form

Exterior walls are often called “facades” in

common speech, so apart from their basic
functions of protection from the weather
and shaping of the indoor climate, another
aspect comes to the fore: our perception of a
building based on its “face”, which is derived
in a roundabout way from the French word
“facade” and the Latin “facies”. What we mean
here is something built, something that “looks
out” into its environment, the first and most
important semantic message we perceive [1].

Surfaces created by people have always also

5 before writing became available as an abstract
4 Farmhouse museum, Amerang (DE)
5 Majolica frieze on the “Ospedale del Ceppo”,
Pistoia (IT)
6 Alhambra, Granada (ES)
7 Cathedral of San Martino, Lucca (IT) 12th –15th century
8 Casa Batlló, Barcelona (ES) 1906, Antoni Gaudí
been information media, showing images of
things governing our social life, transcendent
and religious projections, objectives and
reports: the veneration of deities, the hunt or
ritual, combat, nuptials, prey and death, long
form of communication (Fig. 5). The pictorial
qualities of exterior surfaces are like those of
interior surfaces in terms of their graphic fea-
tures, structures, colours, engravings and
reliefs, mixtures of information from writing,
image and material effect. The entire spectrum
became visible in pictorial form over the course
of history – “the frisson of creation and the hor-
ror of death” [2].

10
 Shell, wall, facade

It was humankind that first created buildings

with their own differentiated form, three-dimen-
sional objects that can be perceived from out-
side as a whole or as a composite of various
individual items. Compared with simple wall
surfaces, these had other features such as
spatial proportions and volume in relation to
their surroundings.

Built walls began to be differentiated as their

construction became increasingly refined, with
openings in them undergoing a similar pro-
cess. Here too, the function and technical solu-
tion of framing them in a wall with a lintel and
arch of the same or other material initially pre-
dominated. Requirements such as letting the
maximum amount of light in through the small-
est possible aperture by angling reveals at the
sides inside and out, light refraction, screening
those inside from view, regulating ventilation
through external or set-in elements by varying
their types and shapes, as well as artistic
sophistication all became essential elements
of architecture’s overall impact (Fig. 6).

As for walls, local materials were also often

used to equip openings with fixed or moveable
elements. In some cases, veritable treasures
with very elaborately designed faces and sur-
faces were created. The composition of multi-
layered front facades, such as those created
for the cathedrals in Lucca and Ferrara, gives
rise to a magnificent interplay of wall and open-
ing by alternating spatial depth and a plastic 6
moulding of all details (Fig. 7).

Additional effects were created on and around

the facade by overlapping or penetration and
alternating displays of objects, resulting in vary-
ing or alternating brightness and light and
shade effects across the structure’s overall vol-
ume and all its parts. Stereometric orders were
abandoned in favour of a free development of
forms, and there was a change from rounded
surfaces curved in the same direction as or
conversely to planar areas, which can be hori-
zontal, vertical or tilted, folded or formed with
other subdivisions (Fig. 8).

7 8

11
Shell, wall, facade

The sociocultural environment

Local conditions, the type of society living in a

specific region, its history, ethnography and
view of the world, the local climate, which can
differ across short distances, and the availabil-
ity of local resources have all had a central
influence on the design of building exteriors.

These issues influence regional or local cul-

tures at the heart of what characterises soci-
eties, stabilises them, orients them and forms
a basis for civic conventions. Coexistence
requires cultural covenants. Buildings’ appear-
ances position them as contemporary docu-
ments for the long term [3]. In this sense, it is
9 clear that buildings’ exteriors have a special
meaning that extends well beyond an individual
building’s effect, when we think of the dimen-
sions of street frontages, squares or quarters,
where exterior walls taken together define the
public space.

The characteristics of facades’ material

effects, colours, proportions, volumes and
pictographic information signal both the func-
tion that these things have and the importance
attributed to them. There is, however, a risk
that through arbitrary applications or disasso-
ciation buildings can take on a new semantic
significance, one that can alienate them from
their essence and cause them to lose their
“integrity” – whether due to excessive tolerance
of arrogant self-promotion or as a result of set-
ting the wrong goals.

This does not rule out purely fashionable

fittings in temporary situations, like those in art
forms that rely on the passing of time or time
limits, such as plays, opera, ballet or film. But
if such features are allowed to define architec-
ture, they can destabilise its aesthetic identity
and any orientation towards wider cultural cre-
10 dentials can be lost.

Nor can a building’s appearance be evaluated

within the confines of a closed canon because
that would mean that culture only prevails when
it is frozen and no longer further developing. It
is a feature of cultural processes that designers
work creatively with existing traditions (Fig. 12).

An awareness of the importance of a building’s

exterior and its effect in public space should
be seen as an essential aspect, relying on com-
munication in a community. Having a building
built involves communicating your views to
those outside, signalling your own identity and
how it defines a degree of intentional affiliation
or classification in an existing spatial and struc-
tural context. An architect is usually involved in
further developing this context [4].

Many examples show how much during the

Renaissance, with humanism flourishing and
an appreciation of the independently minded
individual growing, the effect of exterior walls
11

12

as “display walls” was emphasised (e.g.
Fig. 10). This emphasis was further height-
ened in the baroque era, which created
facades oriented towards streets or squares
that, in contrast to buildings’ other exteriors,
became huge sophisticated backdrops with
elaborate designs, using costly materials and
important artistic media, almost detached
from the building as a whole. More than tech-
nical or utilitarian aspects, a facade played a
central role in showcasing architectural effect.
An exterior wall became an image medium
incorporating reliefs, sculpture, painting,
mosaic and text. Walls’ primarily functional
parts became objects of the highest decora-
tive moulding (Fig. 9).
The integration of new design media and com-
munications technologies have made “media
facades” possible worldwide. Despite display-
ing new kinds of graphic and colour effects in
transparent and translucent glass and mem-
brane surfaces, these facades follow in the foot-
steps of earlier building envelopes as image
media. An example in London (Fig. 11), where
two originally similar structures face each other
across the street, shows how this change can
lead to contrasts, even denaturation. Once
daylight’s competing brightness dims suffi-
ciently and artificial light can dominate, elec-
tronically controlled LEDs and videos are the
defining aesthetic factors of the information
conveyed on these buildings’ exteriors and
their architectural effects (Fig. 13).
The materials used in these buildings’ historic
forerunners and their graphic or sculptural
design entirely determined a facade’s effect,
intensifying our perception of the building
itself. Its own, original elements were the rea-
son for this. The situation is different when a
non-representational semantic message is
conveyed by a neutral medium like a computer
Shell, wall, facade
programme or projection technology that is
not of the designer’s own making. Variable
software allows for complete independence in
terms of the content shown and largely also in
terms of the form of presentation.
Facades with a very intensive effect created by
constant change are the main attraction of this
kind of urban space. The kind of continuous
change due to the constant integration of
new forms of technology is apparent on Times
Square in New York – just one of countless
examples. It creates a completely new, inten-
sive cultural reference that other media make
more effective, causing the aesthetic signifi-
cance of the building’s facade to fade into the
background (Fig. 13). 12
9 Painted facade, Trento (IT)
10 San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice (IT) 1610, Andrea
Palladio
Ageing 11 Piccadilly Circus, London (GB)
12 Old – new, transition in detail
13 Times Square, New York (US)
If we assume that a building enters into archi-
tectural history once it is completed, the issue
of its ageing immediately arises, especially
as it affects its external appearance, the build- they can change greatly, and may even
ing envelope, the part most exposed to the become more beautiful, which is referred to
weather. It is exposed for a long time to a as patination (Fig. 19). They do not lose their
range of encroachments which eventually serviceability or technical fitness (because
cause not only technically and functionally parts decay or sections become too thin due
relevant changes but also changes in its to corrosion, for example).
appearance.
The creative and technical design and plan-
Some facades decay, deteriorate and become ning of facades therefore also involves ensur-
“shabby”, ageing badly because of their con- ing that they will maintain their quality as they
struction and materials. Others do not seem to age and not lose value. Society’s willingness to
age at all, which is due to the same technical accept such aesthetic changes and rate them
criteria. Panes of glass, for example, some of highly for use in architectural monuments and
which have been installed in buildings for cen- valuable items is made clear when materials
turies, may develop a slightly damaged sur- are known outside their natural context, as is
face, but their material and aesthetic character- the case for stone, copper and bronze. The
istics may change little. Some materials age most typical example may, however, be wood,
acceptably within a short time, even though which people know countless types of from
13
13
Shell, wall, facade
childhood wherever it grows, and are aware
that its appearance is never in a permanent
state, as the example of an extension by
Peter Zumthor in Versam shows convincingly
(Fig. 20).
Outlook
If we ask ourselves now in the second decade
of the new century what further developments
can be expected in the facades of existing
and new buildings that define public space
and attract attention to their relation to existing
buildings in various ways, we will find plenty of
examples indicating answers.
14
Surprising effects created by unusual dimen-
sions and/or a high-contrast, intensive long-
distance effect, for example, often testify to
planners’ and builders’ ambitions for a building
with an outstanding, dominant effect, com-
pared with the moderate “volume” of the archi-
tecture of other buildings in the urban environ-
ment (Fig. 15).
An expansion in design possibilities by break-
ing up building envelopes into polygonal
instead of orthogonal elements of the usual
kind has emerged where the choice of small
structural elements, such as bricks, had hith-
erto allowed a high degree of freedom for orna-
mental design or where basic technical condi-
15 tions made it inadvisable to divide surfaces
using straight edges, in membrane structures,
for example. It has become possible, however,
to use CAD/CAM to divide surfaces in diverse,
playfully individual ways, whose arrangement,
interconnections and measurements are then
precisely geometrically defined for manufac-
ture and positioning. The buildings on Constitu-
tion Plaza in Melbourne were early precursors
of this technique. Examples of buildings built
after them, such as the Bergeron Center for
Engineering Excellence at the York University
campus in Toronto, illustrate use of these new
options (Fig. 17).
Self-regulating, polyvalent systems that can
be specifically used with new daylight tech-
16
nologies to reflect, refract and direct light to
give roofs and facades a varied shared “skin”,
expand design options while dispensing with
kinematics for regulation, for example, man-
aging high levels of direct solar radiation in
summer. At the same time, they allow diffuse
light to penetrate and light rooms and enable
users to see in and out (Fig. 16). Providing
ventilation that is not flow-dependent in a
building envelope can also expand the range
of design possibilities.
Hopefully, the ever increasing need for thermal
insulation will someday cease to be respon-
sible for technical and aesthetic impairment.
The purpose of a dormer window was tradition-
ally to let in light and air, yet adding insulation
17
14
to this kind of small window with a 0.2 m2 glass
surface, which for decades precisely fitted
into a roof surface as a minor single element,
has now turned it into an aesthetically absurd,
disproportionate lump (Fig. 14).
Photovoltaic systems products, which are
becoming increasingly efficient, cost-effective,
colourful and varied in structure, will spread
worldwide on a large scale. What is uncertain
is what other innovations will emerge out of
the science and technology of opaque, semi-
transparent and fully transparent materials,
whether in the area of generating and storing
energy, providing shade by adapting a build-
ing’s geometry to the sun’s course, or in sys-
tems with modifiable properties or different
conditions impacting the separating “building
skin” in the form of outdoor or indoor climates.
Highly efficient insulating materials built into
light, slender, moving parts that are easy to
handle, in the opening sections of facades, for
example, and insulating vacuum glazing, long
extensively produced in Asia, will reveal their
structural and physical potential and range of
applications in various structures.
What is certain is that any construction or
conversion of buildings that has to meet
required comfort standards must do so simply
and efficiently, based as far as possible on
local climatic conditions. A building envelope
can provide not only protective functions
against unpleasant weather, but can also acti-
vate potential to create desirable bioclimatic
effects inside the building in a way that allows
for large-scale application in urban space. Only
then can we expect a positive impact on the
causes of climate change and new opportun-
ities. If such basic elements do not remain the
exception only for special customised build-
ings, but are instead applied worldwide in
regional architecture and appropriate design
and planning, they could become part of a
solution for confronting potentially ominous,
negative global developments.
Notes:
[1] That this is not always seen as a positive effect is
shown by expressions like “it’s all a facade”, meaning
that a person or thing’s real quality is not what it
seems on the outside.
[2] Jochen Wagner, Evangelische Akademie Tutzing,
TV broadcast 02/2004
[3] This psychologically stabilises both the individual and
society. The built environment is an important “pros-
pect” for feelings of belonging, a sense of home and
of individual identity.
[4] In his essay “Zukunft bauen” Manfred Sack wrote,
“... every facade, and more, every structure, is a
public issue and the Devil take the architect who
takes it lightly. A facade belongs to everybody; only
what’s behind it is the business of those who have
to live with it. So it is clear that a facade cannot be
allowed to be a cosmetic feature. A city that is re-
garded as beautiful is, contrary to the assumptions
of some, a social, general and political remit”. From
Sack, Manfred, “Verlockungen der Architektur”.
Lucerne 2003
 Shell, wall, facade

18 19

14 Insulated dormer
15 Königsallee (Kö-Bogen) Düsseldorf (DE) 2013,
Daniel Libeskind
16 Cité du design, Saint-Étienne (FR) 2009, LIN Finn
Geipel and Giulia Andi
17 Bergeron Center for Engineering Excellence, Toronto
(CA) 2015, ZAS Architects
18 Facade covered in climbing plants
19 Patinated bronze bay window, Boston (US)
20 Weathered wooden facade, Versam (CH) 1994, Peter
Zumthor
20

15
16

Sketch for the Schocken department store, Stuttgart (DE)
1929, Erich Mendelsohn
Part A The fundamentals
Whatever specific and very different facade
designs may result from particular technologies
and materials, there are also general rules and
interdependencies that arise out of a building’s
basic functions, the type of loads and stresses
imposed on it, the logic of its structure and
the way it fits together, its geometric order,
options for using prefabricated elements and
physical effects.
These rules and interdependencies are over-
arching principles of general and fundamental
significance, so we present them here before
describing some completed buildings in detail.
17
 Outside Facade Inside

Site-specific conditions Requirements

Solar radiation levels Comfortable temperature / humidity levels

Air temperature Large fluctuations Minimal fluctuations Quantity and quality of light (lighting environment)
Humidity in external climate in internal climate Exchange of air / inflow of fresh air and tolerable
Precipitation conditions conditions air speeds
Wind Comfortable acoustic environment

Local sources of noise Provision of views of the outside

Pollution from fumes and dust Separating the private from the public
Mechanical loads Mechanical protection
Electromagnetic radiation Protection against fire
Limiting the impact of toxic pollutants
Urban planning / design environment
Local resources
Sociocultural context

Functions offering protection from

constant and changeable conditions
(enhancing or reducing their impact)

Insulating /dampening
Sealing / blocking
Filtering
Storing (energy)
Controlling
Mechanical protection

Control functions

Controlling / regulating
Reacting /changing

Supplementary, direct-acting Supplementary, direct-acting

measures measures

Thermal insulation Protection from glare

Sun shading Screening from view (e.g. curtains)
(e.g. shutters, awnings, Refraction and reflection of
brise-soleils, louvres etc.) daylight etc.

Measures influencing Activation of interior structural elements

the microclimate such as (floors, walls, ceilings) for storing energy,
vegetation, bodies of water heating, cooling and time-delayed release
of stored energy

Supplementary building technologies Integrated facades Supplementary building technologies

Projecting collectors Integrated air and water collectors Convection heaters / radiators
Photovoltaic systems Solar walls Artificial lighting
Underground air ducts, geothermal probes Media cable routing /distribution Air-conditioning technologies
etc. Heat recovery (central/decentral) etc.

A 1.1
 External and internal conditions

A 1 External and internal The facade forms a separating and filtering

conditions layer between inside and out, between nature What are the prevailing site-specific external conditions?
and people’s dwelling spaces. Seen in a his- What are the requirements for internal conditions?
torical context, a desire for protection from an
inimical outside world and the rigours of the
weather was humanity’s primary reason for
enclosing interior spaces against the outside.
What are the resulting functions and tasks required
Various other demands were subsequently
of the facade?
added to these protective functions: interior
light, an adequate exchange of air and the
ability to see out while demarcating the private
sphere from public space etc. Special technolo-
gies make it possible to regulate openings, Can these demands be met by supplementary,
allowing control and regulating functions to direct-acting measures?
be added to the list of protective functions.
Based on the direction from which a facade is
viewed, all these demands can be classified
into two groups and can be subdivided into
Will additional building technology be required
countless individual aspects: site-specific to meet these demands?
external conditions and demands on internal Would the integration of elements into the
conditions. A comprehensive understanding of facade optimise the overall system?
these fundamentals and of their interdependen-
cies and interactions form a basis for decisions
in planning and building a facade.
A 1.2

Demands on facades from inside and out

Planners cannot usually influence external
conditions, so they are essential criteria in find-
ing and selecting land to build on. Every site
offers specific, unique external conditions that
require careful analysis because they vary in
type and intensity depending on their district,
region, country and continent. The immediate
surroundings and microclimate can also have
a significant influence. As well as the specific
local climate with its specific statistically identi-
fied quantities and distributions of precipitation
(rain, snow and hail), a nearby noisy industrial
area that emits a strong smell, for example,
may necessitate special measures for the plan-
ning and building of a facade.
In contrast, demands on internal conditions
are not predetermined, but are decided on in
the planning phase, based on a catalogue of
requirements, which is drawn up in the context
of planned usage. Precise knowledge of these
key criteria is critically important in successful
planning as they have an immediate influence
on structural solutions and determine the
amounts of energy and materials required for
construction and operation in the long term.
As well as demands on the interior climate,
which are largely defined under the heading
of “comfort” (see Fig. 1.12, p. 22), extensive
measures arising out of various other qualita-
tive requirements, such as a desire for a high-
quality design or greater protection against
break-ins, may have to be met.
These conditions and demands, shown in
graphic form in Fig. A 1.1, determine a facade’s
protective and control functions. The former
offer protection from the intensity of external
influences, especially from the weather. The lat-
ter measure out their required and acceptable
A 1.1 Requirements on facades from inside and out;
protective, control and communication functions;
supplementary passive measures and building
technologies
A 1.2 Key questions /procedures for identifying marginal
conditions and requirements
levels for the interior climate with the goal of
achieving “thermal comfort”.
If a facade is considered as a person’s “third
skin” (after their bodily skin and clothing), the
analogy of planning goals becomes clear.
Each of these functional layers must reduce
the range of fluctuations of external climate
conditions impacting the inner body to ensure
a constant body temperature of about 37 °C.
Climatic conditions may also dictate require-
ments that cannot be assigned to one side or
the other but result from differences between
inside and out, such as those caused by
differences in temperature, moisture and pres-
sure, which impose mechanical stresses on
facade materials and structural details. Such
stresses must be able to be absorbed by suit-
able measures (e.g. expansion joints, flexible
connections etc.).

19
External and internal conditions

Facades’ performance potential

12 h
A facade should be able to meet the require-
11 h 13 h ments resulting from the climate as much
60°
as possible. Adopting this approach can
ne
Ju
minimise or avoid the need for additional
10 h ay Ju 14 h
M ly measures, such as further technical equip-
ment, to control the interior climate. Know-
50° ledge of the relevant basic physical principles
ril Au
9h Ap g. 15 h involved is indispensable in achieving this
planning goal.
8h ch 16 h
Mar Sep
t. Supplementary direct-acting measures can
7h 17 h support such functions on both sides of the
Febr. Oct.
25° facade. Other structural elements inside the
18 h building can also be “activated” to do this,
6h Jan. Nov.
19 h by storing energy in walls and ceilings, for
5h Dec. 10° example.
Open areas of water outside or in interstices
90° 45° 0° 45° 90° can be used for cooling (by evaporation) or
dehumidification (if there is a sufficient differ-
East South-east South South-west West ence between the temperature of the water and
of the air in the room), and appropriate meas-
A 1.3
ures can make use of energy generated during
peak periods. Solar radiation, from which build-
ings need protection, can be turned into elec-
tricity by means of photovoltaic modules or
[Wh/m2d] South [Wh/m2d] 90°
absorbed by collectors and used to heat water.
5000 5000 High outdoor temperatures, wind and rain
30° can also be made use of (see “Solar energy”,
0°
p. 294ff.).
tal

4000 4000
Remaining requirements that cannot be ad-
izon

equately met through structural measures must

Hor

60°
3000 3000 be met by technical systems providing tem-
90° perature control, lighting, air purification, a
sufficient exchange of air or humidification or
2000 2000
W

N dehumidification. Such supplementary tech-

/N
NE W
W S
E/

nical measures always require additional energy

/S

1000 1000 as well as costly and complex transport of

SE

media and maintenance. If technical equipment

0 0
of this kind is directly integrated into a facade,
J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J it is referred to as an “integrated facade” (see
p. 322ff.). Equipment housed not in the build-
A 1.4 A 1.5
ing’s technical centre but in the facade, at
the point where it is required, is referred to
as “facade-integrated decentralised building
Summer Spring/Autumn
technology” [1].
S
Total radiation [W/m2]

800 E W 800
Apart from external factors, other conditions
S E W
600 600 imposed by the overall structural context
must be taken into account, including the
400 400
coordination of dimensions (see “Modular
200 200 coordination”, p. 46ff.), structural interdepend-
encies, necessary tolerances and installation
0 0
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 sequences – topics that will be dealt with in
Hours of sunlight [h] Hours of sunlight [h] subsequent chapters.

Winter
S
Total radiation [W/m2]

800 External conditions: solar radiation

600
The sun is one of the most central and essential
A 1.3 Diagram of the sun’s course (50° N) 400 E W of all site-specific external conditions. It is our
A 1.4 Solar radiation hitting south-facing surfaces greatest direct and indirect energy source and
pitched at various angles 200
makes all life possible.
A 1.5 Solar radiation hitting vertical surfaces facing vari-
ous directions
0 The amount of energy that it sends to the Earth
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
A 1.6 Total solar radiation hitting wall surfaces pitched at Hours of sunlight [h]
is about 10,000 times what humanity’s global
various angles on sunny days at different seasons energy requirements were in 2010 (an average
A 1.6

20
 External and internal conditions

kWh/m2 Global solar radiation/per annum (energy)

1,353 W of energy hits every square metre 5
of the Earth’s outer atmosphere). For human
Available solar radiation
purposes, this is an infinite, cost-free and
4 Direct solar
environmentally friendly source of energy.
radiation
To make use of solar energy in a building, it
is essential to consider the intensity and dur- 3
ation of the radiation on its surface, depending
on its facade’s orientation and inclination. In
2
planning facades, the following related fac-
tors and interdependencies must also be taken Heating Diffuse solar radiation
into account if solar radiation is to be made requirements 1
use of:
• The course of the sun, depending on the
location and time of day and year J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
• Solar radiation levels, depending on the Winter Summer Winter Winter Summer Winter
surface’s orientation and inclination, loca-
tion, time of day and year and weather A 1.7 A 1.8
• Various kinds of solar radiation (diffuse, 70 °C
direct and different wavelengths) and 65 ° 1
their quantitative ratio depending on the 1 Black (high gloss)
60 ° 2
weather, direction, location and time of
day and year 55 ° 2 Dark blue
3
• Interactions with surfaces and materials 50 ° 3 Brick red
• Relation to heating requirements based on
45 ° 4 4 Ivory
planned usage
40 ° 5 Opaque white
5
Figures A 1.3 – A 1.11 show a selection of the 35 ° 6 Outside air
main factors involved
30 °

The following solar radiation figures can be 25 ° 6

used as a basis for Germany [2]: 20 °

15 ° Hours of exposure
1,300 –1,900 hours of sunlight / year to sun of a south-
750 –1,250 hours of sunlight / heating limit 10 ° west-facing facade
15 °C 5° Amount of heat = 330 cal/cm2
500 – 950 hours of sunlight / heating limit
0° 22.06.1963 23.06.1963
12 °C
400 – 775 hours of sunlight / heating limit
A 1.9
10 °C

The proportion of diffuse radiation of all radi-

ation accruing over a year is approximately:

South-facing facade 30 %
East and west-facing facade 60 %
North-facing facade 90 % E S
(Difference from 100 %: direct solar radiation)

Solar radiation can also be hazardous for

people (overheating, premature skin ageing,
skin cancer), who may need suitable protec-
tion from it.

N W
Thermal comfort
A 1.11
The various demands on internal climatic con-
ditions can be summed up by the term “thermal
comfort”. A 1.7 Heating demands / duration of sunshine
(schematic diagram)
Among the main factors influencing these
A 1.8 Daily average intensity of solar radiation in
demands that are connected with the facade, central Germany (50° N)
are (Fig. A 1.12): A 1.10 A 1.9 Temperatures measured on a sunny day on the
• Temperature of the air in the space (a) over 1,175 1,025 –1,050 surfaces of south-facing facades of different
• Relative humidity in the space (b) 1,150 –1,175 1,000 –1,025 colours
1,125 –1,150 975 –1,000 A 1.10 Local distribution of annual global radiation
• Surface temperature of structural compo- [kWh/m2] in Germany
1,100 –1,125 950 – 975
nents adjoining the space (c) 1,075 –1,100 under 950 A 1.11 Projection diagram principle of the sun’s
• Air flows reaching the body (d) 1,050 –1,075 course

21
External and internal conditions

30 A 1.12 Factors influencing thermal comfort

Average temperature of surfaces

enclosing the space [°C]
Uncomfortably a Interior air temperature
28 warm
Still comfortable b Interior relative humidity
26 c Surface temperature

25
c d Flows of air around the body

C
24 A 1.13 Interior /surface temperature

24
Comfort zone, depending on interior air temperature
22 Comfort- and average (fairly constant) temperature of sur-
c +

23
able faces enclosing a space (based on Frank, 1975)
d 20
– A 1.14 Interior temperature /relative humidity

22
18 Comfort zone, depending on interior tempera-
a b

21
d ture and relative humidity (based on Leusden /
16 Freymark, 1951)

20
d
c 14

19
c
12
Uncomfortably cold

18
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Interior air temperature [°C]
A 1.12 A 1.13 These measurable parameters, which can vary
depending on region, habits, clothing, activity
and individual perception, define thermal com-
100 50
fort. The ranges in which figures for individual
Relative humidity [%]

Movement of air around the body [cm/s]

influencing factors should be are called “com-

90
Uncomfortably fort zones” (Fig. A 1.13 –15). There are no bind-
80 humid 40 ing target figures for any of these factors, and
70
they are all mutually interdependent. Perceived
Uncomfortable room temperature consists of approximately
60 30 equal parts of the temperature of air in the
Comfort-
50 able room and the average radiation temperature
40
of the surfaces enclosing the room.
20
30 Still comfortable The idea of comfort is now increasingly being
20 10 interpreted as involving more than just climatic
Uncomfortably dry Comfort- requirements and has come to include
10 able Uncom-
fortable • Lighting environment and visual comfort:
0 0
quantity and quality of light and brightness
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
contrasts (protection from glare),
Interior air temperature [°C] Interior air temperature [°C]
• Hygienic comfort (low levels of pollutants
A 1.14 A 1.15 and smells),
• Acoustic comfort (noise), and
• Electromagnetic tolerability.

Psychological factors (e.g. materials, colours)

Heat flow Radiative transfer Vapour pressure
and cultural aspects are also connected
with these factors and should be taken into
–K +K – + Pascal
account.
Reflection Transmission

Fundamental physical principles

Absorption
A 1.16 Knowledge of basic structural and physical
principles, such as heat flow, water vapour
pressure and radiation transport, is essential to
an understanding of the functions of facades.
Heat transmission (Fig. A 1.16).
1.2
[kWh/m3K]

– + Water
1.0 Heat transfer
Thermal energy flows basically from a warmer
Radiation Granite
0.8 (more energy-rich) side to a colder side.
– + Concrete
There are three basic principles of heat transfer
0.6 Sand-lime brick Aluminium (Fig. A 1.17):
Conduction Rubble fill Floor screed
0.4 • Thermal conduction
– + Aerated concrete Sand, dry • Thermal radiation
0.2 • Thermal convection
Convection Lightweight brick
0
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 A thermal transmittance coefficient (U-value)
Gross density [kg/m3] [W/m2K] can be calculated for planar structural
components.
A 1.17 A 1.18

22
 External and internal conditions

A 1.15 Interior temperature / movement of air A 1.19 Warm air is lighter and rises. +
Comfort zone, depending on interior temperature A 1.20 Wind pressure and suction in flows around a
–
and movement of air (based on Rietschel-Raiss) building
Scope of application for Figs. A 1.13 –15: A 1.21 If a facade is permeable to radiation, the layer of
• Relative humidity from 30 to 70 % air in its interstices can heat up, causing the air to
• Movement of air from 0 to 20 cm/s rise (“chimney or stack effect”).
• Largely constant temperature of all surfaces A 1.22 Geometric solutions for modifying air flows
enclosing a space of 19.5 to 23 °C A 1.23 Wind: annual average regional frequencies and +
A 1.16 Fundamental structural and physical principles directions in and around Munich –
(selection) Wind speed:
A 1.17 Basic principles of heat transmission a Up to 3 m/s
A 1.18 Heat storage capacity of selected construction b More than 3 m/s A 1.19
materials by volume

Strong suction Strong suction

WINDWARD - LEEWARD -

Dynamic
pressure + Suction

Dynamic
pressure

Suction
Thermal conductivity and heat storage capacity tial role in facade planning (Fig. A 1.19 – 22). + -
Thermal conductivity and heat storage capacity In planning and building a facade, the goal -
are properties of specific materials and gener- should be to ventilate the building naturally as Strong suction
ally increase with bulk density, although the far as possible, thereby minimising the risk of
heat storage capacity of water compared with “sick building syndrome” developing [3]. In -
other construction materials is a clear excep- doing so, the following problems that natural Strong -
suction Strong suction
tion (Fig. A 1.18). ventilation can cause must be avoided:
• Increased heating requirements Dynamic
pressure +
Relative humidity • Interior temperatures too high in summer
Air can absorb water vapour until it reaches its • Draughts inside Pressure
saturation point. This depends on the tempera- • Interior air too dry in winter Strong - Suction
suction
ture, which is why it is called “relative” humidity. • Inadequate ventilation in very calm weather
Humid air is slightly lighter than dry air at the A 1.20
same temperature. The more air heats up (absorbs energy), the
more its gas molecules move (Fig. A 1.19); air
Water vapour pressure pressure increases, air becomes less dense
Water vapour moves from a side with higher and lighter by volume and it rises. In a closed
vapour pressure (partial pressure) to a side space this causes different air temperatures,
with lower pressure. If the temperature falls with a layer of warmer air above and cooler air
below the dew point, condensation can occur below.
(with a risk of condensate accumulating and Bodies obstruct airflows, causing the airflow
mould forming). to divide and move around them (Fig. A 1.20).
A 1.21
This causes vortices and increases atmos-
Radiation transfer pheric pressure in front of buildings and a
Radiation hitting a structural element is re- relatively lower pressure behind them (suction).
flected, absorbed or transmitted (Fig. A 1.16, It should be noted that wind direction can fluc-
middle). tuate greatly (Fig. A 1.23) and that such effects
A material’s thermal radiation properties depend can change very quickly.
mainly on its surface properties, especially its Close to the ground, interactions with (rough)
colour (Fig. A 1.9, p. 21). surfaces and physical obstacles mean that
wind speeds are generally lower, but they
increase as buildings grow in height so wind
Wind, thermals and natural ventilation: pressure and suction are stronger at higher A 1.22
basic principles elevations.
When radiation energy penetrates a transpar- N
Streams of air in the atmosphere (wind), ent or translucent surface and hits a struc- 20
interacting openings outside and inside, and tural component that is separated from the 15
thermal effects in adjoining layers of air are surface by a layer of air, it absorbs the energy
phenomena at work in every building and are and heats up. Some of this thermal energy is 10
a
another external condition that must be taken released into the air in the cavity, causing the
5
into account. Wind situations can vary greatly air to heat up, rise (Fig. A 1.21) and circulate.
in strength and direction depending on the This effect is intensified if the air can escape W
0
E
weather and location (Fig. A 1.23), so only above and flow in from below. 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20
statistical values can be used as a basis in Planners can use air flowing around a build- 5
planning. ing to produce additional negative pressure
10
Streams of air that occur due to geometric (Fig. A 1.22) by creating and positioning
properties of bodies in special wind situations bodies with appropriate geometries to inten- b
15
can be investigated in wind tunnel trials and sify a chimney or stack effect or more quickly
dynamic, highly complex flow simulations. discharge warm air from spaces at lower 20
Fundamental thermal principles play an essen- levels. S
A 1.23

23
External and internal conditions
Sound transmission: basic principles
Sound is another external condition impacting
facades and a requirement for interiors (sound-
proofing) because noise can come from either
side of a facade.
A 1.24 Soundproofing requires particularly careful plan-
ning and construction as sound can be trans-
mitted through the smallest acoustical bridge.
Sound waves spread out roughly spherically
from sources of sound through the medium of
air (airborne sound, Fig. A 1.24) and are more
or less reflected by all the space-enclosing sur-
faces and objects in the space. The smoother
and harder a surface is, the less dampened
A 1.25
and more complete the reflection of the sound
will be.
When a structural component made of solid
material is made to vibrate, by mechanical influ-
ences (steps on a floor), for example, sound
waves spread through its mass, which is referred
A 1.26
to as structure-borne noise (Fig. A 1.25). If air-
borne sound causes a solid object to vibrate,
structure-borne noise spreads through the object
(Fig. A 1.26). This can also cause the layer of
air on the other side to vibrate and transmit the
sound waves in the form of airborne sound.
Sound waves can travel very long distances by
means of structure-borne noise transmission
(Fig. A 1.27). Wherever a building’s “solid”
structural components are connected, sound
can be transmitted through them and right
through the building by means of a phenom-
enon called “flanking transmission” or “flanking
A 1.27 sound transfer”.
One possible strategy for minimising airborne
noise transmission is to increase an object’s
mass (Fig. A 1.28), making it as heavy and inert
as possible by using a very dense material that
airborne sound waves can vibrate only slightly,
for example.
Another measure that can reduce airborne
noise transmission is extremely efficient sealing
(Fig. A 1.29), which can prevent airborne noise
from spreading directly through gaps, joints,
chinks and cracks.
Airborne noise transmission can also be muf-
fled by a double-layered structure with an insu-
lated space between the layers (Fig. A 1.30).
A 1.28 This is particularly efficient if the two layers are
of different thickness and weight and so have
different natural resonant frequencies. The
effectiveness of such measures should not
be compromised by using rigid connections
between the two layers (mass – spring – mass
principle). Further structural-physical aspects
of soundproofing are dealt with in the chapter
A 1.29 on “Aspects of building physics and planning
advice” (p. 52ff.).
Constructional implementation
Interactions between structural components,
which arise during constructional implementa-
A 1.30 tion from resulting functional requirements and
24
basic underlying structural-physical principles,
are directly connected with the external and
internal conditions outlined above.
Energy can get into buildings through a struc-
tural component that is permeable to radiation
by means of transmission (Fig. A 1.31). When
energy hits the surfaces inside a space, some
of it is transferred to the material through
absorption and from there transported further
by means of thermal conduction (Fig. A 1.32).
Some of this energy is also “stored”, depending
on the material’s heat storage capacity. This
potential is called thermal storage mass.
The energy is then more or less slowly returned
into the space (depending on the material’s
specific thermal conductivity and other factors)
by means of thermal radiation (Fig. A 1.33).
By choosing structural components with appro-
priate materials and dimensions, planners can
make use of this effect to offset peaks in tem-
peratures without requiring more energy input
(for heating or cooling).
Regulated or controlled ventilation can use
convection to transport energy between inside
and out (Fig. A 1.34), and it can work in both
directions. The skilful use of thermal effects
(Figs. A 1.19, 21 and 22, p. 23) may even mean
that mechanical ventilation can be dispensed
with entirely.
The greenhouse effect
When high-energy, short-wave solar radiation
hits surfaces inside a space, a substantial
share of its energy is released into the interior
in the form of diffuse long-wave radiation in
the infrared range (Fig. A 1.35, left), thereby
heating the air and surfaces in the space. The
very low permeability to long-wave radiation of
transparent and translucent facade surfaces
(e.g. glass, translucent insulating layers or
insulating multi-pane glazing, perhaps with an
inert gas filling and additional coatings that
enhance their effectiveness) prevents the radi-
ation from escaping and keeps it “enclosed”
in the space. This is referred to as the "green-
house effect". If this effect is desired, its inten-
sity can be greatly influenced by modifying the
orientation of surfaces permeable to radiation
to the source of radiation (usually by orienting
surfaces towards the sun) and thus also the
radiation’s angle of entrance (Fig. A 1.36). The
flatter the angle at which radiation strikes a
surface is, the more the radiation is reflected
and the more of it is kept outside (Fig. A 1.35).
If radiation hits a surface at a 90° angle,
the surface reflects only a minimal proportion
of it. Like the proportion of absorption, the
precise extent of reflection depends on
the specific material and can be modified
by additional measures, e.g. coatings (see
“Glass”, p. 188ff.).
Openings and angle of incidence
The amount of radiation entering through an
opening of the same size and with the same
orientation can vary greatly depending on the
radiation’s angle of entrance (Fig. A 1.36). This
 External and internal conditions

effect can play a crucial role in the planning of

openings and sun protection systems, depend-
ing on changes in the sun’s position through
the different seasons (see “Edges, openings”,
p. 38ff.).

Consequences for floor plans / zoning A 1.31 A 1.32

Demands on a facade can be influenced by
arranging spaces in the floor plan based on the
principle of a “thermal onion”, which involves
surrounding spaces that need higher tempera-
tures with areas where lower temperatures are
desirable (Fig. A 1.37). Such “buffer zones” can
usually effectively reduce heating and cooling
requirements.

If the course of the sun is used to generate

solar heat by means of the greenhouse effect, A 1.33 A 1.34
it can be useful to “capture” solar radiation in a
projecting zone (Fig. A 1.38) and store the heat
by designing interior surfaces accordingly.
Very little solar energy will be gained from the
northern side of a building in Central Europe, Effectiveness
so this side must be insulated accordingly.
Structures configured in this way can easily Greenhouse effect Perpendicular Flat
overheat in summer, so they will also require
adequate shading and ventilation.

Notes:
[1] Hartwig, Helge: Zentral – Dezentral. Fassadeninte- T
grierte dezentrale Gebäudetechnik. In: gi – Gesund- R A
heits-Ingenieur, 125. Jg. 05/2004, p. 227– 234
[2] The number of hours of sunlight per year is for the A 1.35
reference period of 1981– 2010. From the German
Meteorological Service’s (Deutscher Wetterdienst)
Climate Data Center (CDC).
Hours of sunlight / heating limit were calculated
here using data records from the WESTE weather
data portal of the German Meteorological Service
(Deutscher Wetterdienst).
[3] For more on the term “sick building syndrome” see June March / Sept. Dec.
also Dompke, Mario et al. (ed.): Sick Building Syn-
drome II. Documentation on a workshop in Holz-
kirchen, 1996, by the Fraunhofer Institute for Building
Physics and Bundesindustrieverband Heizungs-,
Klima-, Sanitärtechnik e. V. (German Industrial Asso-
ciation for Heating, Air conditioning and Sanitary
Engineering) Bonn 1996

A 1.24 Source of sound

A 1.25 Excitation of mass by mechanical influences South South South
A 1.26 Excitation of mass by airborne sound, transmis-
sion through materials (structure-borne sound)
A 1.27 Transmission of sound through structural compo- A 1.36
nents over long distances (also called “sound
transfer”)
A 1.28 Strategy 1 against airborne sound transmission:
mass
A 1.29 Strategy 2: efficient joint sealing
A 1.30 Strategy 3: mass – spring – mass principle Example:
A 1.31 Transmission -10 °C outside
A 1.32 Heating – heat transfer E
A 1.33 Thermal storage mass – thermal radiation +19 °C
A 1.34 Convection – distribution – regulation +14 to -10 °C
A 1.35 Greenhouse effect – utilisation + 22 °C Heat
storage
A 1.36 Angle of incidence of solar radiation / openings Interim
A 1.37 “Thermal onion” – division of a floor plan into temperature zone
zones according to temperature
A 1.38 Building orientation – heat storage – thermal
insulation A 1.37 A 1.38

25
 Surfaces – structural principles

A 2.1 Surfaces – Facades are usually vertical, planar structures

structural principles positioned between interior and exterior envir-
onments. Regardless of the materials they are
made of, facade surfaces share diverse gen-
eral features and common technical solutions,
which will be described below. A knowledge
of these features and principles will be helpful
during the design process. A design principle
can imply fundamental solutions for carrying
out a specific construction task for predefined A 2.1.3
functions [1], using physical, chemical and
geometric effects and combining their inter-
actions to create an effective structure [2].

The facade’s structure will be examined

• In the plane of the facade (Fig. A 2.1.2) and
• Perpendicular to the plane of the facade A 2.1.2
(Fig. A 2.1.3).

Depending on the required functions and

demands, specific performance profiles that
can vary across the surface must be assigned
to facades. The technical and material imple-
mentation of such profiles may require sev-
eral functional and construction levels per-
pendicular to the plane of the facade. Add-
itional structures that are not part of the space-
enclosing envelope (such as horizontal sun
protection devices, light refraction systems,
maintenance walkways etc.) may also be
necessary. The overall goal should be a
structure whose individual components work
together efficiently.
A 2.1.1 Studio building, Munich (DE) 1993,
Thomas Herzog with Peter Bonfig
A 2.1.2 Structure within the plane of the facade
A 2.1.3 Structure perpendicular to the plane of the
facade
A 2.1.4 Functional criteria for facades
A 2.1.5 Structural criteria for facades
Permeability – air Closed
Partly permeable
Open

Classification of design solutions [3] Permeability – light Opaque

Translucent
Functional criteria Semi-transparent
Performance profiles as targets for facade Transparent
surfaces are defined beyond general pro- Open
tective functions such as insulation and seal- None
Energy gains
ing; permeability to air, light and radiation
Heat
(Fig. A 2.1.4) are also of particular importance. Power
Their degree of permeability determines the
character of the enveloping surface, its prac- Modifiability Not modifiable
tical value and the quality of interiors. It also Mechanical
greatly influences a building’s energy balance. Phys. structural
Chem. substantial
Among the important criteria to consider in
making decisions are the extent to which Manual direct / indirect
Regulation
facade surfaces can react to changing condi- Self-regulating
tions and whether they are modifiable and can With control circuit
even be self-regulating. A 2.1.4

Permeability to air
Part of the support Non-load-bearing
Natural ventilation strategies require modifiable structure
and adjustable permeability to air. The need to Load-bearing
discharge surplus heat, water vapour and hot, Single-layer
Layered structure
toxic gases in the event of fire can also make a
Multilayer
certain level of permeability necessary.
Shell structure Single-shell
Permeability to light Multi-shell
The quality and quantity of its permeability to
light and radiation determine a space’s natural Rear ventilation Not rear-ventilated
lighting and atmospheric character, allow people Rear-ventilated
inside to see out and those outside to see in
and thermal energy to enter or be emitted. Prefabrication Low
It can be useful to take advantage of phenom High
A 2.1.5

27
Surfaces – structural principles
ena specific to human perception when plan-
ning perforated, semi-transparent surfaces,
such as sun and glare protection devices. Sur-
faces with a very low proportion of small per-
forations set close together enable an observer
looking towards a brighter lighting environment
to see through them because our brain “adds”
what is missing to form an overall picture. To
an observer looking towards a darker lighting
environment, however, such surfaces appear
opaque because the eye cannot adapt to the
reduced luminance of the small holes.
Energy generation
Surfaces permeable to solar radiation make it
possible to directly generate energy by heating
structural components, such as floors and
walls, inside buildings. Using special technical
equipment (e.g. a transparent thermal insula-
tion absorbing wall, solar thermal or photovol-
taic systems) heat or electricity for operating a
building can also be produced in the facade
structure (see “Solar energy”, p. 294ff.).
Modifiability
Modifying the position or properties of struc-
tural components can enable a facade surface
to react to changing external conditions, e.g.:
• By mechanically moving facade elements
(positioning slats and louvres, opening shut-
ters etc.)
• By triggering electrical, thermosensitive or
photosensitive processes or reversible modi-
fications in materials’ properties that change
their permeability to rays of light. These
are either changes of a physical, structural
nature – changes in aggregate state or a
different orientation of crystal structures – or
changes in chemical substances – changing
chemical compounds [4].
Regulation
Modifiability requires regulation. Changing
conditions can be tracked:
• By manual or mechanical activation, direct
or indirect, e.g. the touch of a button
• By self-regulating, e.g. thermosensitive
processes that modify thermotropic glass’s
permeability to light
• Based on the principle of feedback control
system technologies using sensors and
microprocessor-controlled servomotors
Fundamental design criteria
Resolving important fundamental design deci-
sions is the best way to prepare for structural
and material implementation (Fig. A 2.1.5, p. 27).
Connection with the support structure
Non-load-bearing facades do not bear loads
or fulfil other functions of the support structure
in ensuring the building’s structural stability.
Layer and shell structures
Layers made up of different materials, thick-
nesses and structures can be optimised to fulfil
specific sub-tasks and, based on structural-
28
flat, flat, flat, vertical +
vertical angled horizontal
physical and constructive principles, put
together to form a functional unit – the facade.
Countless possible combinations with appro-
priate performance profiles are available. Indi-
vidual functional layers can vary in thickness
from tiny fractions of millimetres (Low-E coat-
ings on thermal insulating glazing) up to a few
metres (layers of air behind multilayer glass
facades). The right sequence of layers is cru-
cial for efficient functioning and preventing
structural damage. Less significant or subor-
dinate functional layers can be classified
as layers or strata for the purposes of load-
bearing. Shells, in contrast, can take on static
loads and are freestanding (cf. p. 36) [5].
Rear ventilation
Rear-ventilated facades have one or more
layers of air that use thermal lift forces to
effectively discharge condensation and /or
heat. Such structural systems are by definition
always multilayered.
Prefabrication
The planned degree of prefabrication signifi-
cantly impacts construction principles, type
of element management, the absolute size of
individual structural components and condi-
tions in which the facade can be assembled
and perhaps dismantled.
Structure in the plane of the facade
Types of surfaces
When establishing the exterior geometry
of a building, the inherent principles of the
envelope enclosing it must be taken into
consideration.
Every facade consists of several flat or curved
surface elements that intersect or touch each
curved, curved, double-
vertical horizontal curved
A 2.1.6
other or roof surfaces along specific lines
(edges). How these surfaces are formed and
arranged in space, whether vertical, inclined
or almost horizontal, has a decisive influence
on a facade’s design and construction details
(Fig. A 2.1.6). Cut edges and especially cor-
ners at which the three surfaces meet require
special treatment and care.
The spatial planning of surfaces is determined
by various factors that rarely arise alone, but
are usually combined and have different
weighting, such as:
• The geometry of floor plans and elevations
in the building
• Usage aspects (e.g. the creation of niches
for open spaces screened from view)
• Planning of the shell support structure itself
(e.g. folded structure)
• Thermal insulation aspects (e.g. minimising
the ratio of enveloping surface to volume)
• Structural aspects (e.g. channelling of
water)
• Specific material aspects
• Design intentions
Evaluating different types of surfaces
Vertical surfaces
Channelling water over vertical surfaces is
unproblematic, while folds and projections
increase the external surface and inside
edges must be dealt with by means of con-
struction methods and geometry. Surfaces
that meet at sharp angles can cause problems
in manufacture and usage. In constructing
vertical edges, it can be advantageous if they
follow the direction in which facade water
flows. Folded surfaces can be built as folded
structures that form part of the load-bearing
structure.
Figure A 2.1.7 shows 37 different geomet-
ric configurations in which facade surfaces

19
5 7
14
20
6 8
15
23 1
2 37
33 3 31
24
35
25 34 12
4
27 13
29
26
21
11
28
16
meet or intersect with floors or roofs at edges
and in corners. Each of these marked points
requires its own detailing in construction and
implementation. Points at which more than
three different surfaces meet (such as no. 29),
are almost impossible to manage effectively
in construction and design. If different slopes
or curves also play a role, the number of geo-
metric and construction examples increases
significantly [6].
Inclined surfaces
Every surface that tilts away from a vertical
position, especially projections and recesses
in steeply sloping surfaces, involves additional
loads, stresses and aspects. They make it
harder to channel water, while snow and ice
formation causes further loads and stresses.
Extensive horizontal surfaces must be treated
like roofs and drained in a controlled manner,
their surface is increased and sealing and insu-
lating layers can project, resulting in structural
weak points where they bend.
Every window reveal, bay window and loggia
involves vertical and horizontal projections and
inside and outside edges and corners.
Curved surfaces
Water runs easily off curved surfaces that are
not perpendicular. Curves cannot usually be
built continuously but typically consist of a
series of polygons due to the basic geometry
of materials and semi-finished products.
Double-curved surfaces
Double-curved surfaces are not necessarily
connected to shell support structures or
membrane structures. Such geometric forms
are often created as translation surfaces,
which can be built with even, individual poly-
gonal areas.
Standing facade Suspended facade
Wind suction
Wind pressures
36
22 (Other
horizontal
17
forces)
18
30
f2 f1 f2 f1
A 2.1.8
32
A 2.1.6 Typical types of surfaces that can be combined
10 to form countless forms
9 A 2.1.7 Examples of various joining details for perpen-
dicular, orthogonal facade systems
A 2.1.8 Schematic diagrams of standing/suspended
A 2.1.7 facades
Principles of load bearing
Loads impacting facades
A facade must safely withstand loads and
transfer them to the support structure (primary
support structure) (Fig. A 2.1.8). All facade
structures, including non-load-bearing ones,
must be planned and built to a scale that en-
ables them to function as secondary support
structures that can manage the following loads:
• Vertical loads: the structure’s own weight,
special loads (e.g. sun protection devices,
plants, temporary scaffolding), traffic loads
(e.g. live loads), snow and ice loads (these
must be calculated for every planting or
greening of a facade)
• Horizontal loads: Wind loads (there is gener-
ally an 8:5 ratio of pressure to suction, suc-
tion loads may be higher around edge
areas), traffic loads (e.g. impact loads)
• Loads resulting from constraining forces
caused by changes in volume due to vari-
ations in temperature or humidity
Facade surface loads are usually transferred
into the support structure’s floors, walls and
supports. Vertical and horizontal loads can
be borne and transferred separately into differ-
ent structural components within the support
structure.
Standing and suspended facades
A fundamental difference in load-bearing
behaviour arises out of the question of whether
a facade “hangs” or “stands”, whether planar
or linear structural components have to be
designed to cope with tensile forces and bend-
ing or with compressive forces and bending
as well as buckling (stability problems).
Suspended facades, where the dead weight
imposed on the facade’s structural compo-
nents is transferred into the support structure
(e.g. into floor slabs), has become the estab-
Surfaces – structural principles
lished method of building facades all over
the world because of its basic advantages.
• The structural component is in a stable
position immediately after it is hung (in
contrast to the less stable position of a
standing structural component), which is
of considerable importance for safety on
the building site, especially in the construc-
tion of tall buildings.
• A structural component’s own weight func-
tions as a tensile force along its long axis
and the prestressing that this produces
has a “stabilising” effect (reduces buckling
loads), avoiding an adverse superimposition
of buckling forces resulting from compressive
forces and bending.
Suspended facades are more appropriate for
surfaces with long spans, although they do
not reduce deformations perpendicular to the
plane of the facade to any significant extent.
Anchor and sliding points
If the facade and support structure are separ-
ate systems, they are subject to different tem-
perature fluctuations and loads as well as the
resulting changes in form, which makes it ne-
cessary to join them using unrestrained coupling
with anchor and sliding points. Relative move-
ments must be able to be absorbed in both
directions (positive and negative tolerances).
The interfaces between the two subsystems
are sites where various trades, construction
methods and structural tolerances usually
meet, which is why fastenings must be ade-
quately adjustable in all directions.
Connections between structural components
in facades that expand longitudinally to differ-
ent extents (for loading, thermal and hygric
reasons) must also be designed to be uncon-
strained so as to prevent damage.
29
Surfaces – structural principles
Principles
Bending + normal forces
Slab only
Slab +
bending beam
Support structures
It is an inherent feature of space-enclosing
shells that planar structural components are
the central elements of all facades. Depend-
ing on their support structure (Figs. A 2.1.9
and 2.1.10) facades are exposed to only nor-
mal forces (tensile and /or compressive forces)
in their plane or to bending perpendicular to
their plane. Planar elements can have linear
load-bearing components such as truss sys-
tems, bending beams etc. attached to them,
or these components can be integrated higher
up in the structural hierarchy than the planar
elements. Elements can be also combined
to form hierarchically structured systems with
primary and secondary load-bearing com-
ponents.
Planar and linear elements function either as
structural units (e.g. T-beams, trussed slabs)
or are separate, which can make planar
structural components easier to remove and
replace.
The logic of such structures is based not only
on an efficient use of materials for bearing
loads in the completed structure; prefabrica-
tion and installation issues are also involved.
Transport and installation processes can cause
other loads and stresses, which must also be
managed.
It is often not permissible bending stresses, but
restraining deflection and bending under loads
– especially in glass structures – that is crucial
in design.
Gravity walls
In walls whose structure cannot transfer tensile
forces, the resulting vertical and horizontal
forces must lie at the core of the wall’s base
area to ensure that the structure remains stable
and to prevent the formation of gaping joints.
Horizontal forces neutralise the pressure from
vertical loads. Here it can be advantageous
for the structural component to bear not just
its own weight but also vertical loads from
roof and floor slabs, i.e. be part of the primary
support structure (= load-bearing facade).
Masonry exterior walls usually comply with this
principle.
30
Slab + Slab + three-
rear truss dimensional truss
Slab + edge Slab + Slab + Slab +
reinforcement cable ties cable mesh grid shell
Slabs
A “slab” is a planar load-bearing element that
transfers horizontal loads through bending
loads (in one or two directions) perpendicular
to its plane. Bending resistance and stability
(with superimposed compressive forces) are
determined mainly by the structural compo-
nent’s depth (i.e. the component’s effective
thickness perpendicular to plane of the facade).
A component’s cross section, with materials
concentrated at its edges, must be appropri-
ately adapted to bear the loads imposed on it.
Continuous spans can have the effect of redu-
cing the bending moment. A simultaneous im-
position of horizontal and vertical loads always
causes a superimposition of bending moment
and normal forces. Vertical forces can also be
transferred through bending in the plane of a
structural component, transferring forces hori-
zontally to the sides.
Slabs + trussing
Architects can use trussing to form a force-fit
structural unit with slabs to increase compo-
nents’ structural depth and also save materials.
Trussing can be fixed to one or two sides. The
slabs are additionally subjected to compres-
sive forces in their planes. Connecting com-
pression and tension members produces point
loads, so potential problems caused by pier-
cing have to be taken into account. Trussing
does not cause any additional support forces
that the primary support structure would have
to absorb.
Slabs + bending beams
Linear support structures subjected to bend-
ing, and possibly compressive forces as well,
limit the spans of planar structural components.
The beams accumulate the point and/or line
loads of planar structural components (slabs)
and transfer them as single loads by means of
bending to structural components higher in the
load-bearing hierarchy.
If only wind loads are imposed, bending loads
are uniaxial, but in both directions (wind suc-
tion and pressure). Superimposition of com-
pressive forces and bending intensifies stability
problems and there is a danger of buckling,
Folded plate Rigid shell
Shell made of Membrane, Pneumatic
polygonal surfaces single layer structure
A 2.1.9
especially in the direction of a section’s weaker
axis. Individual bending beams can be put
together using links free of constraining forces
to form extensive, curved or polygonal tra-
verse support structures (e.g. post and beam
facades). Manufacture, transport and installa-
tion considerations may limit the size of frame
structures, although they can be combined
with other structures or with each other to form
prefabricated modular facades.
Slabs + linear structures, exposed only to
normal forces
Linear support structures include:
• Planar and three-dimensional trusses: struc-
tures made up of compression and tension
members, suitable for broad spans
• Cable trusses and nets: These prestressed
structures can only absorb tensile forces and
are only advisable if the building’s support
structure can absorb the powerful tensile
forces required for pretensioning without
costly and complex additional measures.
These delicate-looking structures are espe-
cially ideal for surfaces designed to look very
transparent.
• Grid shells
Folded plate structures, shells, membranes
Planar load-bearing structures that are only
able to absorb tensile and/or compressive
loads and stresses in their plane are especially
suitable for absorbing evenly distributed planar
loads. These systems are also designed to
absorb bending loads when subjected to alter-
nating planar loads and/or point loads. Appro-
priate prestressing ensures that membranes
that can only absorb tensile loads and stresses
will deform only slightly, even when they are
subjected to alternating loads.
Structures of planar facade components
Planar structural components can be classified
into structures that can be built using different
materials and are often combined. The variants
shown in Figure A 2.1.11 do not represent an
entire facade structure, but only the construc-
tion methods used to make layers or shells. A
solid material slab designed to absorb bending
 Surfaces – structural principles

Loads in the structural Load-bearing A 2.1.9 Load-bearing structures for facades

component structure principles A 2.1.10 Loads in planar facade structural
components subject to vertical and
Mainly only normal forces horizontal loads
Gravity (weight) A 2.1.11 Overview of planar facade structural
Compression only components
principle

Compression + tension Folded plate

Compression +
perhaps tension
Tension only
Bending and normal forces
Bending +
compressive forces
Bending + tensile forces
Shell
Continuous (solid material)
Pneumatic structure a Basic material
Membrane structure b Mix of materials, composite materials
c Composite materials reinforced /
fibre-reinforced a b c
Standing slab
Suspended slab

A 2.1.10
Structures containing a high proportion of air
d Porous, foamed
forces might be either the entire system of a e Spherical structure
storey-high, single-shell or single-layer struc- f Three-dimensional grid/network d e f
ture or a small-scale element in exterior wall
cladding. Among the criteria to be taken into
account in selecting a suitable principle are:
• Load-bearing capacity, depending on struc-
tural requirements (Fig. A 2.1.10) Structures with cavities
• The overall structural context: the compo- g Cavities, chambers (point by point, linear)
nent’s size, workability, connection options, h Offset cavities
joints, deformations, changes in length, i Multi-web double sheets g h i
degree of prefabrication, resistance to mois-
ture and frost etc.
• Structural physical properties: specific Layered structures, friction-bonded and /or
interlocking
weight, thermal conductivity, thermal storage j Irregular units, friction-bonded
capacity, resistance to moisture vapour diffu- (e.g. with mortar)
sion, translucence etc. k Regular units, friction-bonded and interlocking
• Visual effect l Regular units, friction-bonded (e.g. with
adhesive) j k l

Continuous structures
In this context, a continuous structure is a solid
section with an anisotropic or isotropic form.
These planar structural components are pre-
fabricated in factories or on site in formwork Layered structures, material-bonded
m Linear units
with joints between individual production
n Planar units
steps. The structural components’ size and o Linear and planar units m n o
form depend on their materials and manufac-
ture. They can be built to have specific load-
bearing properties as reinforced (with metal
rods, glass fibres, natural fibres, synthetic
fibres etc.) composite materials designed to Sandwich structures
p With a closed-cell core
absorb tensile and/or compressive forces. This q Open, cellular core structure
principle is also at work in solid material slabs (honeycomb, webs etc.)
designed to absorb bending forces and mem- r With a profiled core structure p q r
branes made of composite material that can
absorb only tensile forces.
Ribs / frames and slabs
Structures containing large proportions of air s Ribs with planks on both sides form a
or cavities structural unit
Various manufacturing technologies can t Frames with planks on both sides form
increase the amount of air in structural compo- a structural unit
u Frames and isolated infill s t u
nents with the following goals:
• Reduction of weight and material
• Decrease in thermal conductivity (= improv-
ing thermal insulation)
• Creation of cavities for installations
Profiled structures
If the material can be concentrated at the com- v Single profile
ponents’ edges, their ability to absorb bending w Trapezoidal profile
x Corrugations v w x
loads will probably only be slightly less than
A 2.1.11

31
Surfaces – structural principles
that of solid sections. Substantially thinning out
material in these areas will subject edge zones
to tensile and compressive loads and expose
webs to shear forces.
Layered structures with frictional and/or positive
form-fit bonding
Layering small-format, irregular units without
a binding agent is a traditional construction
method which is still used in building fa-
cings. Enclosing units in metal mesh (gabions)
section by section greatly increases their
stability.
Coordinated modular units of regular shape
and size can be joined with frictional and /
or positive form-fit bonds to form larger struc-
tural components. Building structures in
small modular steps can make them easier
to modify.
Layered structures with fused bonding
Rod-shaped, planar or three-dimensional
structures (e.g. honeycombs, lattices) can be
fused together (using mortar or adhesive, for
example) to form larger planar components.
One special form of this technique is sandwich
construction.
“Sandwich structures”
Bonding thin-walled surface layers resistant to
tensile and compressive forces together with
a shear-resistant core (usually in a very open
or porous structure) produces a structural unit
that is highly resistant to bending and makes
economical use of materials. Structures with
well-insulated intermediate layers are generally
suitable for producing light, opaque facade
panels.
Panels with ribs or frames
Ribs/frames combined with planar panels and
infill can mutually stabilise each other to pro-
duce planar structural components with very
good load-bearing capacity that also make
economical use of materials. Cavities can be
filled with insulating materials.
Profiled components
This principle can be used to produce very
rigid units with a minimal use of materials. A
U-shaped or Z-shaped element is a profiled
component, and they can be put together
to form larger planar units. Profiled compo-
nents can be made of various materials
resistant to tensile and compressive forces
by means of sheet metal and solid forming,
extrusion or casting techniques (such as ex-
trusion moulding).
Joining facade components
Almost every facade is an assembly of individ-
ual structural components, and thereby creates
a range of different joints that break through
layers and shells (e.g. weatherproof envelope)
and often form potential weak points, which
have to be sealed as best as possible. In other
cases, joints remain open so that
32
• Vapour pressure can be released Damp Rain / facade water
• Air can flow in or escape (for rear ventilation) Capillary water
Water vapour / condensation
• Any accumulated facade water or condensa- Ice formation, snow
tion can run off
• Relative movements are tolerated Air /wind pressure Airtightness / windtightness
• Light can penetrate Reduction of wind pressure /
The very diverse “seams” between structural suction
components require particular care and atten- Ventilation openings
tion because many aspects relevant to con-
Sound Airborne sound
struction can concentrate here (Fig. A 2.1.12). Structure-borne sound
As well as functional and technical factors,
joints can help to structure individual compo- Light Lighting
nents and entire facades (inside and out) and UV-resistant joining material
emphasise geometric and structural orders.
Transfer of forces Element – Element
Substructure – Element
Joints in exterior facade surfaces are com-
pletely exposed to weather. The higher a Compensation Manufacturing tolerances
building is, the greater the wind forces acting for tolerances Installation tolerances
on it. At building edges, flows are concen- Movement tolerances
trated and wind speeds higher. Rainfall can
add to facade run-off water and accumulate Assembly Adjustability, fixing
Sequences
as it flows down the building. The positioning Independence from weather
of joints in the direction in which precipitation
and facade water runs off, which is determined Maintenance Necessity
by gravity and wind, is an important factor in Options /access
their loading. Joints parallel to the flow direc-
tion of facade water (vertical joints) are usually Disassembly Removability
Recycling
subject to lower loads than those that do not Reusability
follow run-off direction. Changes in the volumes
and lengths of adjoining structural components Joint pattern Overlapping
due to loads, temperature fluctuations and Shadow gap
moisture absorption or release also impose Undercut
Profiled
loads on all kinds of joints. This is most evident Change of materials
in prefabricated modular facades, but wet- Colour
on-wet construction methods also do not form
A 2.1.12
rigid structures.
Butt joints
Principles of joint sealing A butt joint between two structural components
Joint sealing is designed to curb or prevent without any sealing element is the oldest form
a mix of air and water (fluid) entering into a of contact seal (in Fig. A 2.1.13 not shown).
joint. Sealing elements at the edges of facade The uneven surfaces mean that the gap can
components are never completely seamless, be reduced but not entirely closed, not even
so the sealing effect is always only relative. with elastic or plastic materials and the applica-
Only bonded materials create a complete seal. tion of force.
If a joint cannot be sufficiently closed with a
sealing element in its plane, other strategies Overlapping
will be required. Seals that use several layers Overlapping is the simplest, oldest and most
and various sealing elements (multilayer effective sealing principle and is still used
sealing systems) have proven their worth in in many sealing systems. Overlapped elem-
this context. ents must follow the flow direction of facade
Joint sealing relies on a few basic principles water.
that can be implemented in a wide range of
ways (Fig. A 2.1.13). In choosing a sealing Figure A 2.1.14 shows examples of reliable
system, the extent to which and direction in facade water run-off over a horizontal joint with-
which structural components will move or are out sealing elements based on overlapping
expected to move is crucial [7]. principles. Some versions allow for horizontal
movement between structural components
Contactless sealing systems (e.g. for opening sashes).
Structural components are deliberately kept
at a specific distance from each other and Bonded material seals
their edges formed to impede flows due to Bonded material seals are connections made
turbulence in the joint. This principle allows with grouting or adhesive bonding or by
for large relative movements and is appropri- welding, soldering, brazing or milling and
ate for the first layer in a multilayer sealing can provide a complete seal in some cases.
system. The joint in a labyrinth seal is bent They can generally not withstand relative
and folded in keeping with the overlapping movements or can do so only to a limited
principle. extent.
 Surfaces – structural principles

Basic principles Examples (basic principles) Combinations Examples

Contact-free +
Open /contact-free Gap sealing Labyrinth seal Labyrinth seal overlapping Angled seal Staggered Labyrinth seal
labyrinth seal

Overlapping Rebate Tongue With contact Material-bonded Scarf Finger joint Sealing compound
with or without and groove pressure and
contact pressure cover profile

Material-bonded +
overlapping +
Material-bonded Bond Solder or braze Weld sealing element Bellows H-profile Sealing compound
membrane

Overlapping + Tongue and groove + Porous profile + Chamber profile

Sealing element Sealing Porous profile Chamber profile
sealing element(s) + sealing compound
without external compound
contact pressure

Bellows Lipped profile Brush seal + Sealing + Grooved gasket + Lipped profile
membrane compound

Sealing element Flat seal Profile gasket Grooved gasket Other Joint tape Fir tree gasket + Labyrinth seal
with external seam sheet as brush seal
contact pressure A 2.1.13

Sealing compounds Lipped profile A 2.1.12 Aspects of joint formation

Sealing compounds are suitable for uneven
surfaces. Their sealing effect is based on an
adhesive bond between the sealing element
and sides of the joint. Rigid sealing compounds
can produce load-bearing, friction-locking
connections. Sealing compounds with plastic
or elastic deformation properties can absorb
slight relative movements. Mistakes made in
using these compounds often only become
apparent some time after completion.
Porous and hollow-chamber profiles
Porous and hollow-chamber profiles are larger
than the joint’s maximum volume before they
are installed and in a prestressed state when
compressed. They can absorb slight relative
movements across the joint axis, yet measures
must be taken to prevent shifting if they are
to withstand movements along the joint axis.
The greater internal prestressing of hollow-
chamber profiles makes them more suitable
for frequently alternating loads and larger
movements in joint areas than porous profiles.
Bellows membranes
Bellows membranes can absorb large relative
movements both across and along the joint
axis. They can be inserted between adjoining
structural components in various ways, such
as a press-fit or adhesion.
A lipped profile is an elastically deformable A 2.1.13 Principles of joint sealing
A 2.1.14 Examples of horizontal joints for draining off
element with one or more sealing lips that
facade water, left: outside
internal spring forces press onto a structural
component’s edges. They can absorb large
translational movements parallel to a joint axis.
Profiles with specific forms may also be able
to absorb movement across a joint axis to a
limited extent.
Sealing elements that use contact pressure
The application of external force can be used
to tightly fit a sealing element’s surfaces to
the edges of structural components. The con-
tact pressure of profiled seals operates on
small areas of the elements’ surfaces. Water is
stopped from penetrating into cavities through
capillary action, and wind pressure due to tur-
bulence is reduced. Such joints can only barely
withstand relative movements, and it is import-
ant that the sealing element stays in place.
Combinations
The basic principles outlined above can be
combined to form more complex, very effect-
ive, usually multilayer sealing systems. A
seal’s impermeability is always relative, so
supplementary measures (e.g. glass rebate
ventilation/drainage) should be taken to com-
pensate for a possible complete or partial
failure of sealing systems.
A 2.1.14

33
Surfaces – structural principles
The principle of double sealing is that a first
external seal prevents water on the surface
from penetrating and a second seal, perhaps
with a hollow-chamber profile, stops air from
flowing through. Turbulence in the interstice
(e.g. in labyrinth form) reduces wind pressure
and any water that has penetrated can run off.
Installation sequences
Two general principles govern the installation
and dismantling of joints based on overlapping
principles:
• Individual elements can only be installed in
a certain strict order and must be disman-
tled in precisely the opposite order. Individ-
ual elements in such a chain can only be
exchanged with some restrictions and sub-
sequent damage (e.g. of sealing elements or
rebates). Special solutions may be required
for joining and sealing reused or refitted
structural components (e.g. in Fig. A 2.1.13,
p. 33 “tongue and groove” and “grooved”
components).
• There is no fixed sequence for installing and
dismantling individual structural compo-
nents. Elements in the same system can be
replaced (e.g. in Fig. A 2.1.13, p. 33 “gap
ring”, “cover profile” and “sealing compound”
joints). This is especially recommended if
there is a risk of damage (e.g. in the plinth
zone) and an element has to be replaced.
From monolithic to multilayer / multi-shell
Homogeneous shell structures made primarily
of just one material (often referred to as mono-
lithic) are unlikely to meet the current increased
thermal insulation demands made on building
envelopes.
Planners can precisely adapt a facade’s
performance profile to meet certain require-
ments by creating differentiated structures
that assign individual functions to different
layers with a specific material and structure.
Making layers or shells modifiable allows the
building envelope’s properties to adapt to
periodically changing external conditions.
Individual layers and shells can be subse-
quently added or replaced, making it possible
to adapt the building envelope to differing
requirements during its use. This means that
an outer weatherproof shell designed to be a
“wearing course layer” can be renewed after
a period of use without the underlying struc-
ture having to be changed. This principle can
also be useful in subsequent retrofitting for
renovating and optimising existing exterior wall
structures.
Assigning individual functions to layers and
shells may, however, also have disadvantages
depending on quality of the materials and con-
struction methods chosen:
• Creation of lots of interfaces between differ-
ent materials and structural components with
the risk of material incompatibilities
• Increased number of joints and therefore of
potential weak points
34
• Creation of uncontrolled cavities
• Attachment problems: penetration of water-
bearing or insulating layers, creation of
bending moment in the anchoring of facing
shells
• Greater cost and effort involved in manu-
facture
• Greater maintenance cost and effort
• Building a wall may involve several trades
and responsibilities, which can increase the
cost and effort involved in coordinating them
and result in overlapping liabilities
• Problems in separating and thus disposing
of individual layers
The following tendencies are currently pre-
dominant:
• Increasing performance of functional
layers
• Reducing the space required for layers (e.g.
vacuum insulation) through to miniaturising
of functional structures (e.g. prismatic light
deflection systems less than 0.1 mm high)
• Surface coatings using nanotechnology
• Combination of several functions in a single
polyvalent layer
The functions of layers and shells
The following functions (often also combined)
can be allocated to individual layers or shells,
e.g.:
• Visual effects, information media
• Mechanical protection
• Protection from driving rain
• Windproofing
• Blocking /restricting of vapour permeability
• Light refraction and diffusion
• Reflection of light radiation and thermal
radiation
• Absorption of thermal radiation
• Reflection of electromagnetic radiation
• Absorption of sound
• Reflection of sound
• Heat storage
• Reduction of heat transition
• Transfer of loads
• Discharge of heat
• Absorption and release of water vapour
• Conversion of solar energy into thermal or
electrical energy
Other layers may be formed based on struc-
tural requirements, e.g.:
• Release of water vapour
• Discharge of condensation or surface
water
• Balancing out unevenness
• Layers for material-bonded joints (adhesive
layers)
• Measures for stabilising layers (e.g. prevent-
ing thermal insulation layers from swelling)
• Substructures for connecting layers and
shells
• Separating layers that are required because
of materials incompatibilities
• Sliding layers allowing for unrestrained
movement
Typical structures and how they work
Figure A 2.1.15 shows a selection of schematic
representations of structures classified accord-
ing to functional and structural criteria (see also
“Classification of design solutions”, p. 27f.).
The number and thickness of the layers and
shells vary greatly. They can be divided into
solid and lightweight structures and are suit-
able for temperate climate zones.
Protection from driving rain
Moisture-absorbing materials require protec-
tion from frost, and any moisture that may pene-
trate must be able to periodically completely
evaporate. Facade water can be drained off
through various layers. Some facade water will
run off down the back of the cladding of venti-
lated weatherproof shells with open joints. This
reduces the risk of soiling since less dirt is
deposited on horizontal surfaces because it
is regularly washed off.
Windproofing
Facades usually need to be windproof. The
inner facade layer of a multilayer facade must
be windproof, as must joints with other struc-
tural components.
Thermal insulation
Material layers that trap a large proportion of
stationary air guarantee good insulating prop-
erties. Open-pored insulating materials that
can absorb moisture and water through capil-
lary action, which greatly impairs their func-
tioning, must be effectively protected from
moisture.
Water vapour diffusion
The water vapour diffusion resistance of layers
must generally diminish from the inside to the
outside to prevent condensation from forming
in a structural component (and avoid steam
traps). Condensation that collects in wall struc-
tures during the heating period must be able to
evaporate completely in warmer seasons.
Rear ventilation
Effective rear ventilation of a facing shell
requires a distance of at least 20 mm between
cladding and shell and adequate ventilation
openings of at least 50 cm2 for every metre of
wall length [8] to efficiently release moisture
(infiltrated facade water and/or condensation)
and heat (in summer). Layers of stationary air
(no rear ventilation) have an additional insula-
tion effect.
Heat storage
Inside layers with good heat storage capacity
can be activated to help regulate the interior
climate.
Sun shading
Sun shading devices that reduce the input
of energy through layers that are permeable
to solar radiation are most effective mounted
outside. Their rear ventilation counteracts the
 Surfaces – structural principles

Not permeable Not permeable Not permeable Not permeable Not permeable
Not modifiable Not modifiable Not modifiable Not modifiable Energy producing
Modifiable

Load-bearing or non-load- Load-bearing or non-load- Load-bearing or non-load- Load-bearing or non-load- Load-bearing or non-load-
bearing bearing bearing bearing bearing
Single-layer Multilayer Multilayer Multilayer Multilayer
Single-shell Single-shell Double-layer Double-shell Triple-shell
Not rear-ventilated Not rear-ventilated Not rear-ventilated Rear-ventilated Rear-ventilated (outermost shell)

Material structure determines
performance; can only be ad-
justed by changing the wall
thickness; any moisture that has
penetrated must be able to peri-
odically completely evaporate
Improved insulation due to the
insulation layer; inner and outer
wear and protective layer; heat
storage capacity can be used
to heat the interior
Robust external shell provides
physical protection for the insu-
lation layer and against driving
rain; outer and inner shells may
be partly connected, but do not
form a structural unit
Facing shell can be exchanged;
mounting may not be allowed
to impede rising airflows; con-
densation and any penetrating
moisture are safely extracted;
ventilation openings required
Rear-ventilated shell made of
light-deflecting louvres; trans-
lucent shell with transparent
insulation in front of a solid ab-
sorber; overall structure opaque;
energy production modifiable
and can be regulated with con-
trol circuit technology

Not permeable Not permeable Permeable (light) Permeable (light) Permeable (light)
Not modifiable Not modifiable Not modifiable Not modifiable Modifiable and regulated

Load-bearing or non-load- Load-bearing or non-load- Non-load-bearing Non-load-bearing Non-load-bearing

bearing bearing Single-layer Single-layer Multilayer
Multilayer Multilayer Single-shell Double-shell Single-shell
Single-shell Double-layer Rear-ventilated or not rear-
Not rear-ventilated Rear-ventilated ventilated

Lightweight structure; inner and
outer layer usually joined to form
a structural unit; vapour trap pre-
vented by a barrier on the inside;
as stud wall also part of the load-
bearing structure; sandwich
structures are a special case
External, rear-ventilated wear
and protective layer; diffusion
resistance declines towards
the outside; separate wind
protection layer; inner lining
is a separate layer
The structure itself is not energy-
producing, even though it is
permeable to solar energy,
which is absorbed by structural
components in the interior; no
insulation
Low level of insulation because
air circulates in the cavity
(heat losses due to convection);
shells do not form structural
unit; risk of condensation form-
ing in the cavity
Functional unit made of several
translucent or light-refracting
layers, with reflecting layers if
required; permeability to light
can be modified

Permeable (to light) Permeable (light) Permeable (light and air) Permeable (light) Permeable (light)
Modifiable Modifiable Modifiable Not modifiable Not modifiable

Non-load-bearing Non-load-bearing Non-load-bearing Non-load-bearing Non-load-bearing

Multilayer
Single-shell
Functional unit made of several
translucent layers; improved
insulating due to thermal insula-
tion; permeability to light can
be modified and is self-regulat-
ing, with thermotropic glass,
for example
Multilayer
Double-shell
Rear-ventilated
Good thermal insulation due to
two stationary layers of air / inert
gas and possibly reflective coat-
ing (Low-E); adjustable or fixed
louvres as rear-ventilated facing
shell
Multilayer
Four-shell
Rear-ventilated
Double facade, outer and inner
glazing; openable, air cavity
between shells has controlled
ventilation, louvres and glare
protection on the inside; separ-
ate shell for regulating per-
meability to light
Multilayer
Single-shell
Pneumatic structure with trans-
lucent layers that form a single
structural unit, depending on
the system, i.e. a single-shell
structure
Single or multilayer
Double-shell
Membranes as two structurally
separate shells; layer of air or
controlled ventilation for extract-
ing water vapour and heat;
but there are heat losses due
to convection

Opaque material Translucent Opaque thermal Translucent Light-refracting

structure material structure insulation thermal insulation system
A 2.1.15 Structures /assemblies of
layers and shells perpendicu-
Rear ventilation Windproofing Vapour barrier Reflection of Light refraction, lar to the plane of the facade,
radiation glare protection left: outside

35
Surfaces – structural principles

a b c
A 2.1.16

F Vertical loads

C = T = M/h

T
h

C
heating of surfaces that would otherwise radi-
ate heat into the interior. Such functional layers
e
have the characteristics of shells.
M=Fxe
Connecting layers and shells
A 2.1.17 Layers and shells must be put together to form
a structural unit, the facade. Functional and
Geometry Point-by-point structural physical aspects are more important
Linear in determining the sequence of their installation
Planar than construction issues are. A functional layer
will be exposed to various loads depending
Detachability Detachable on its position in the structure. Some planar
Not detachable structural components, due to their material
properties and/or thicknesses, are not or only
Method Interlocking bond somewhat able to absorb and transfer forces
Friction-locked,
load-bearing bond (e.g. thin foils, soft fibrous insulation, fills, layers
Material bond of air etc.). Clear load-bearing hierarchies that
establish which structural components bear
Loads and stresses Compression which planar structural element are therefore
Tension required.
Bending
Shear
Torsion A facade’s functional layers are identified as
layers or shells depending on the degree of
Movability Not sliding their structural autonomy. Layers are not or
Sliding in one direction only somewhat load-bearing and /or parts of
Sliding in two directions a superordinate structural unit, such as struc-
turally-irrelevant foils and coatings, layers
Adjustability Not adjustable of air, insulation, layers of plaster, individual
In one direction panes in multi-pane insulating glazing and
In two directions individual membranes in a pneumatic struc-
In three directions ture. Shells are largely load-bearing structures
A 2.1.18 ranging from partly up to entirely three-dimen-
sional and/or structurally autonomous. A shell
can consist of several layers, such as the inner
and outer skin of a double facade, structural
components separated by air layers (e.g. rear
ventilation) or non-load-bearing layers of insu-
lation.
A facade structure (e.g. post and beam) either
a b c joins several shells that are high up in the load-
bearing structural hierarchy or joins them as
the substructure (e.g. to brackets) of a struc-
turally subordinate component (e.g. a facing
shell) to a component higher up in the load-
bearing structural hierarchy. In the latter case
the vertical loads of the subordinate shell due
to the distance e (= lever arm effect) cause a
bending moment, which must be absorbed
d e f
by the substructure or shell that is higher in the
A 2.1.19
load-bearing structural hierarchy. Figure
A 2.1.17 shows that increasing the distance h
between attachment points can greatly reduce
the compressive and tensile forces that have
to be transferred. This does not affect shear
loads, although wind suction also subjects
attachments to tensile forces.
Anchorings or attachments for facing shells
often penetrate thick layers of insulation, creat-
ing a powerful lever arm effect. Connecting
elements made of materials like metals that
conduct heat well can become “thermal bridges”
on which condensation can accumulate, requir-
ing the metals used to be rustproof. Not even
galvanised zinc-coated steel connections
are permissible here [9]. Insulating material
must be tightly packed around connecting
elements to ensure that such structural weak
points are not further weakened. It is also
advisable to minimise cross sections through
which heat can escape. Another strategy is to
use plastic spacers to create a thermal separ-
ation between the connecting element or con-
nection. Drip edges over connecting elements
perpendicular to the structure prevent facade
water, melt water, dew or condensation from
getting into insulating layers or other layers or
shells by means of adhesion.
Connecting layers is less problematic than
connecting shells because layers are gener-
ally closer together. Attachments should impair
or penetrate functional layers (e.g. weather-
proof shells, sealing layers, windproofing,
moisture barriers, thermal insulation) as little
as possible so as not to impair their effective-
ness and to keep the risk of structural-physical
problems and resulting damage to the building
to a minimum.
Uncontrolled cavities and continuous penetra-
tive joints should always be avoided (so joints
should be staggered). Layers of air between
shells should generally be ventilated and
drained. Horizontal substructures must not
be allowed to constrict necessary ventilation
cavities. Air cavities must be permanently
protected from small animals (insects, small
rodents) by means of gratings, perforated
sheets or nets.

36

A 2.1.16 Spatial and structural aspects resulting from the
addition of functional layers:
a At a distance, not joined
b At a distance, joined via a substructure
c No gap, directly joined, no substructure
A 2.1.17 Interplay of forces involved in attaching facing
shells
A 2.1.18 Criteria for attaching layers and shells
A 2.1.19 Attachments of planar structural components
a Planar
b Linear, perpendicular
c Linear, horizontal
d Linear, circumferential
e Point by point
f Point by point
A 2.1.20 Examples of substructures for facing shells
(top: vertical section, bottom: horizontal
section)
Direct contact of functional layers with each
other or between connecting elements must
be prevented if there is a risk of material incom-
patibilities from corrosion (galvanic or contact
corrosion). This type of corrosion can also
occur in metals not in direct contact if there
is a risk of water acting as a medium.
Attachment strategies
There are various ways of connecting layers
to each other or shells to substructures (and
vice versa). The following must be taken into
account:
• Secure transfer of all loads
• Constraint-free supports for structural com-
ponents with anchor and sliding points
• Stipulation of installation sequences and
possible subsequent replaceability
• Identification of interfaces between different
trades and firms
• The adjustability of connecting structural
components made by different trades and
those manufactured with differing tolerances
Attaching facing shells
Facing shells and rear-ventilated cladding are
attached by means of substructures (leaving
space for insulation and /or rear ventilation) to
planar structural components higher in the load-
bearing structural hierarchy. For taller build-
ings, suspended (top-supported) installation
is preferable to standing (bottom-supported)
installation. Several types of substructures are
available (see Fig. A 2.1.20):
a Posts
b Beams
c and d Vertical and horizontal load-bearing
elements, rear ventilation and draining must
not be impaired by horizontal load-bearing
elements; variant d is problematic in this
respect
e Substructure made of tension /compression
members and diagonal suspension to
absorb vertical loads, or combinations with
other linear load-bearing elements (vertical
or horizontal)
f Brackets clamped into the load-bearing shell;
combinations with other linear load-bearing
elements (vertical or horizontal) are another
possible solution
a b c d
Which principle is appropriate in a particular
case depends on the following factors:
• Size and weight of individual planar structural
components in the cladding
• Options available for attaching facade clad-
ding (e.g. transfer of forces that is linear or
at points)
• Requirements due to rear ventilation
• Options for attachments to and loading of
shells higher up in the structural hierarchy
(Can large tensile forces be transferred and
absorbed, for example?)
• Structural and physical aspects (significance
and risk of thermal bridges)
Very heavy facing shells or other elements
(balconies, trellises etc.) attached to the front
of thermally separated envelopes should have
their own structure and perhaps a foundation
for transferring vertical forces. Shells only then
have to be anchored to transfer horizontal
forces and prevent buckling.
Adjusting connections
The following strategies can be used to make
connections adjustable:
• Underlay or lining
• Spacer screws and bolts
• Fasteners that can slide in long slots or on
rails (e.g. Halfen channels)
• Connections in oversized slots that are sub-
sequently filled in
• Available and sufficient options for position-
ing fasteners on surfaces offering a mater-
ial bond (an adhesive surface or “welding
embedment”), very precise setting of screws,
bolts and dowels etc. in installation
Surfaces – structural principles
e f
A 2.1.20
Notes
[1] VDI-Richtlinie 2221: Düsseldorf 1993. p. 39f.
VDI-Richtlinie 2222: Düsseldorf 1997, p. 5f.
[2] VDI-Richtlinie 2221: Düsseldorf 1993. p. 39f: “Effect:
an invariable, predictable occurrence resulting from
physical, chemical or biological natural laws.”
[3] The revised classification builds on typological
investigations carried out during a research projects
on building envelopes:
Herzog, Thomas; Krippner, Roland: Gebäudehülle.
Synoptische Darstellung maßgeblicher baulicher
Subsysteme der Gebäudehülle mit Schutz- und
Steuerungsfunktionen als Voraussetzung für die
experimentelle Arbeit an ihrer energetischen und
baukonstruktiven Optimierung. Abschlussbericht
(unpublished). TU Munich 2000.
Herzog, Thomas; Krippner, Roland: Synoptical
Description of Decisive Subsystems of the Building
Skin. In: Pontenagel, Irm: Building a New Century.
5th Conference Solar Energy in Architecture and
Urban Planning. Proceedings. Published by Euro-
solar. Bonn 1999, p. 306 – 310
[4] Nitz, Peter; Wagner, Andreas: Schaltbare und regel-
bare Verglasungen. Published by Fachinformations-
zentrum Karlsruhe. BINE Themeninfo, I/02. Karlsruhe
2002
[5] The definition of shells in the literature is inconsistent
and partly contradictory. The definition made here
seems to be the most plausible. Confusion is caused
when the classification refers only to a specific type
of structure (e.g. a single-layer concrete wall) and not
to the whole envelope system (e.g. a double-shelled
structure with a concrete wall and an aluminium pro-
filed sheet metal weatherproof shell). See “Connect-
ing layers and shells”, p. 36f.
[6] Herzog, Thomas; Nikolic, Vladimir: Petrocarbona
Außenwandsystem. Bexbach 1972
[7] The description and to some extent classification of
joint sealing systems is based on the following re-
search report: Scharr, Roland; Sulzer, Peter: Beiträge
zum methodischen Vorgehen in der Baukonstruktion.
Außenwanddichtungen. Published by the VDI. Düssel-
dorf 1981. It used scientific methods to investigate
and demonstrate “elements and structures of sealing
systems in exterior walls with an analysis of built
structures” in construction.
[8] See DIN 18 516 Part 1: Berlin 1999. This does not
apply to “small-format slabs” with a surface ≤ 0.4 m2
and dead weight ≤ 5 kg
[9] See DIN EN ISO 8044: 2015-12 Corrosion of metals
and alloys and DIN 18 516 Cladding for external
walls, ventilated at the rear
37

A 2.2 Edges, openings Edges
So far, we have dealt with building envelopes
as continuous surfaces and their structure in
terms of thickness. Surfaces in and around a
building envelope are, however, finite, so every
surface is also defined by its edges. When
the structural, functional and design properties
of a building envelope change, they can be
described as different definable areas. Any
change in their properties is usually one of
permeability.
Openings are the parts of a building envelope
permeable to flows of energy and materials,
which is generally the case when the parts
can be opened entirely, e.g. the sashes of
windows [1]. It therefore seems expedient
to expand the word “opening” to include the
link to the physical process. A skylight, for
example, is an opening in a roof through which
light can enter.
A change in properties (performance) also
involves a change in structure. The word
“edges” as used in this chapter refers not to
the edges of an individual structural compo-
nent that is put together with many similar
parts to form a whole (e.g. bricks in masonry),
but rather to transitions from a planar surface
to an opening.
The reveal
A reveal’s depth depends primarily on the sur-
rounding wall structure (Fig. A 2.2.5, p. 41).
Reveals can be increased in size by adding
additional elements, but cannot be made
smaller. The reveal’s geometric form has a
direct influence on daylight entering the build-
ing and on views and lines of sight. Figure
A 2.2.4, p. 40 illustrates some basic features.
The design of reveal surfaces is connected
with the (structural) terminations of structural
components used in and around openings
(e.g. windows). A reveal can also help to reflect
daylight into the interior. As well as geometry,
the properties of specific surfaces must be
taken into account here.
The depth of the reveal is always in proportion
to the opening size, and it in turn in relation to
the wall’s surface. A facade’s external three-
dimensional effect is largely created by the
offsetting of individual areas of the facade and
the resulting shadows.
Structural aspects involved in building reveals
include:
• Transferring wind loads
• Dissipating the structure’s own weight
• Sealing against wind, precipitation etc.
Openings
Openings in the building envelope are indis-
pensable for using the interior and supplying it
with light and air. Their protective and supply
functions mean that the permeability of open-
Edges, openings
ings should be modifiable because fluctuations
in exterior conditions are pitted against a desire
for stable conditions inside. Openings in the
building envelope mediate between inside and
out and control the exchange between the inter-
ior and exterior climate. Individual parameters
such as heat, light, air, sound, moisture etc.
can be summed up by the term “regulation
of permeability”, for which elements that close
openings are used [2]. The most familiar of
these is the window, which through appropri-
ate material lets light in, even when they are
closed, although air can only be exchanged
if the window sashes are open, through slot
ventilation between the sash and the frame,
or through adjustable slits in the frame. The
functions of lighting and ventilation can of
course be provided separately. The simplest
form is fixed glazing with a separate (opaque)
sash for ventilation [3].
The advent of extensively glazed facades (e.g.
in greenhouses) in the 18th century and con-
struction of buildings like the Crystal Palace in
London (1851) and the Glaspalast in Munich
(1854) represented a transformation. A window,
once a transparent element in an opaque wall
surface, was now an opening element in an
entirely transparent facade. Analogous to win-
dows in a solid wall, the openable elements of
a (transparent) glass facade were also called
windows.
Position and geometry
An opening’s arrangement and geometric
shape are always related to the space behind
it. Its position and geometric form affect day-
light levels inside, ventilation and users’ views
of the outside. An opening’s position is always
related to its use in horizontal and vertical
positions. A change of floor plan usage can
modify the horizontal relationship to openings.
In contrast, it is not usually possible to modify
the relative vertical arrangements of open-
ings because of the difficulty of raising or low-
ering a room’s floor.
Vertical structuring of the facade surface
The facade of a storey can generally be divided
into three areas (Fig. A 2.2.2, p. 40):
• Upper window area (a)
• Eye-level area, from the interior looking
out (b)
• Floor to parapet area (c)
The following terms describe upper and lower
areas around openings (areas around edges)
in punctuated facades.
• “Lintel area” describes the area above a
window /door up to the roof
• “Dado area” describes the area under a
window /door down to the floor
A 2.2.1 House, Paderborn (DE) 1995, Thomas Herzog
and Andrea Heigl
39
Edges, openings
a a
b b
c c
A 2.2.2
Lines of sight
A desire for fresh air is often accompanied
by a desire to stand directly at an opening
(an open window), so manual operation of
moveable closures and contact with the out-
side must be taken into account in planning
openings. The opening should allow for this as
well as closing the inside off from the exterior.
Here a distinction is made between visual and
physical links. The figures below indicate a
user’s average visual axis based on various
positions in the room [4]:
• ca. 175 cm standing
• ca. 130 cm sitting down to work
• ca. 80 cm sitting on the floor
• ca. 70 cm lying down (at a height of
30 cm)
An opening’s position and partitioning must be
adapted to its type of use and position.
Light
The amount of light entering a space through
a facade diminishes in the space’s depths
(Fig. A 2.2.3 [5]) and is measured in the form
of the daylight factor (DF). It specifies ratios
of illumination levels inside and out (only
diffuse light) under standard conditions as
a percentage [6].
The external factors influencing interior
light are:
• The structure’s orientation
• Time of day
• Local solar radiation conditions (climatic
conditions, local shade from the surround-
ings, such as from vegetation and /or other
buildings)
The positioning and geometry of openings in
the facade is of fundamental importance in this
context. High window openings let more light
into the depths of rooms.
A room’s actual luminance is largely deter-
mined by the reflectivity of interior surfaces,
which in turn depends heavily on the predom-
inant colours [7].
40
a
b d
c e
A 2.2.3
Ventilation
Put simply, ventilation is “the exchange of air in
a space for outside air” [8]. Enough air should
be exchanged in a space to meet hygienic
demands, taking structural physical aspects
into account (removal of pollutants in the air,
discharge of moisture). Based on their drive
forces, a distinction is made between mechan-
ical ventilation (which moves air mechanically)
and free ventilation, also called natural venti-
lation. Natural ventilation moves air by using
differences in pressure between the inside and
outside. These pressure differentials result from
the following forces that are produced by nat-
ural conditions [9]:
• Wind forces: differences in pressure between
inside and outside caused by wind impacting
the facade result in the exchange of air
• Thermal lift: forces that arise due to differ-
ences in density because of temperature
differences (thermal stratification). When
wind pressure increases, thermal lift adds
to its force.
Figure A 2.2.6 [10] shows the basic principle
of air exchange through a facade opening
due to thermal stratification without the influ-
ence of wind. There is no movement of air
in the area of the imagined plane N (neutral
zone). Changing the opening’s vertical position
and the influence of wind forces can shift this
plane vertically. As well as the formation and
positioning of ventilation openings in a facade,
their variability is a crucial factor in the context
of the physical properties of the building’s
envelope and mass [11].
Continuous ventilation requires small ventila-
tion openings that are easy to regulate. Par-
ticular attention must be paid to interior airflows
because this kind of ventilation continues for a
long period.
• Ventilation from one side: To make efficient
use of thermal lift, two openings should be
positioned at the greatest possible vertical
distance from each other. Systems that are
easy to regulate prevent undesirable cooling
and draughts.
A 2.2.4
• Cross ventilation: To make use of thermal lift
in this case, the vertical distance between
the air intake and air outlet should be as
large as possible. This distance is not im-
portant in systems that employ wind-induced
pressure differences.
Brief, intensive periods of ventilation require
openings with the largest possible ventilation
cross-sections:
• Ventilation from one side: The neutral zone
in the middle of the opening means that the
surface can be divided into two parts by a
vertical distance.
• Cross ventilation: Air flows through in only
one direction.
The exchange of air as well as the movement
of air are relevant considerations in ensuring
comfort [12], including:
• Air speeds at interior air intakes
• Maximum air speeds occurring in the room
• Average air speed in the room
• Average air speed at occupant levels
(1 metre above the floor)
The upper limit value of air speed for comfort
is regarded as 0.2 m/s. In office and admin-
istration buildings in particular, paper will
be blown about at this air speed [13]. A
draught is defined as the “undesirable local
cooling of the human body” by a flow of air
[14]. There are no absolute values governing
draughts, which is why reference is often
made to a “risk of draughts” [15]. To prevent
draughts, it is preferable to distribute air enter-
ing the room through the space as much as
possible.
Problems in the “comfortable incoming air sup-
ply” arise in summer with the ingress of warm
outside air and in winter with draughts result-
ing from the ingress of cold outside air (which
cold air downdraughts at the facade adds to).
Distributed building technology for preheating
or cooling incoming air in and around facade
openings can counteract this problem.

A 2.2.2 Areas of a facade, based on usage
a Upper window area
b Eye-level area
c Floor to parapet
a a Thick wall
b
A 2.2.5
The effect of mechanical ventilation is more
predictable than fluctuations in external condi-
tions, so observations and investigations often
only deal primarily with mechanical ventilation.
Only in recent years have we seen an increase
in approaches that take fluctuating conditions
involving free ventilation into account in simu-
lations and measurements. Increasing know-
ledge of natural ventilation and the growing
importance of using environmental energy,
especially solar energy, has resulted in more
consideration being given to windows for ven-
tilation. Aerodynamic factors affecting air in-
takes (gaps in partly opened windows, profile
formation) must be defined for windows as
they are for mechanical ventilation, for which
precise figures are available on all compo-
nents. Some effects familiar from air-condition-
ing technology can be applied to windows.
Displacement ventilation, which uses relatively
low air speeds, spatially separates incoming
air from exhaust air in a displacement flow
moving upwards. Air enters at a low tempera-
ture in a stratum near the floor (laminar strati-
fication of incoming air near the floor), and
internal heat sources use thermal lift to draw
air out of the incoming air layer and extract
exhaust air at ceiling height. Displacement ven-
tilation is usually used together with mechan-
ical ventilation and can also be used with nat-
ural ventilation if ventilation openings in the
facade allow incoming air to enter the room
at floor level.
The Coandă effect can be used to make the
ingress of incoming air as deep as possible
into a space. When laminar jets of air are
blown through slots not right under the ceiling
but somewhat lower than it, the turbulence
induced causes the jet to follow a surface,
“sticking” to it in a sense. This effect, familiar
from mechanical ventilation and sometimes
called the turbulence boundary surface effect
[16], can be applied to window ventilation
under certain conditions. An exterior air flow is
directed along smooth surfaces as tangential
A 2.2.3 Influence of the position and size of openings on
incoming daylight levels
a Middle
b Low
c High
A 2.2.4 Influence of the shape of the reveal (in a wall of
even thickness with the same form on all sides)
a Parallel
b Sloping outwards
c Sloping inwards
d Parallel, trapezoid, sloping inwards
e Parallel, trapezoid, sloping outwards
A 2.2.5 Influence of wall thickness on lighting levels from
daylight and views
b Thin wall
A 2.2.6 Principle of the exchange of air through facade
openings resulting from temperature stratification
without the influence of wind forces, neutral zone
N at 1/2 H
ventilation. The very low levels of turbulence
ensure that this system is also effective in
the depths of the room. The surfaces must be
very close to the air intake. The position and
geometry of incoming air openings (window
aperture positions) must also be taken into
account. The lower the temperature of supply
air compared with interior air, the greater the
risk of draughts. Exterior air entering a room
can be pre-warmed by positioning incoming
air openings adjacent to heat sources. The
incoming air should be able to warm up from
structural components by means of convec-
tion. Window ventilation is only possible at a
certain outdoor temperature, if the guidelines
established to maintain comfort are to be com-
plied with. Depending on the type of window,
an outdoor temperature of 0 to 6 °C has been
specified as the lowest limit [17].
When outside temperatures are close to the
range required for comfort, incoming air should
be able to reach users in the room as directly
as possible without being heated by warm
structural components. When outside tempera-
tures are high, incoming air can be cooled
(slightly) by cooler structural components by
means of convection. Effective thermal masses
can release the thermal energy absorbed dur-
ing night time ventilation or as structural com-
ponents cool.
Window ventilation can only be of limited use
on days when outside-air temperatures are
high, if comfort is to be maintained.
The positioning of ventilation openings in the
facade and type of ventilation (ventilation from
one side or cross ventilation) determine the
depths of the room at which free ventilation
through openings in the facade is effective.
The type of ventilation can also make a major
contribution to comfort. Without referring to
specific details on the arrangement of the
opening sash, the general rule of thumb is
that rooms that can only be ventilated from
one side are regarded as being able to be
“naturally ventilated” up to a maximum room
depth of 2.5 times the clear height (H). For
Edges, openings
Exchange of air resulting from
temperature stratification,
with the influence of wind,
neutral zone at 1/2 H
Height (H)
Neutral zone (N)
Warm Cold
A 2.2.6
cross ventilation, the maximum possible room
depth is up to 5 times the clear height [18].
If ventilation is on one side and an opening
is set high up, ventilation is effective up to a
room depth of up to 2 H. Adding a lower and
an upper opening increases the effectiveness
to up to 3 H [19]. These figures are not at all
absolute and can only serve as rough guides.
The type of opening has not been taken into
account.
Small window openings must be precisely
positioned and formed because an airtight
building envelope magnifies the effect of
streams of air in the room like a jet effect. If
ventilation cannot be regulated by means of
window openings, additional elements (e.g.
flaps) can be set into the facade. The tables in
DIN 5034 specifying a minimum window size
for dwellings refer to adequately supplying
rooms with daylight and the size of ventilation
openings cannot be deduced from them.
Changing permeability
Structural devices can influence permeability.
Rigid and modifiable, i.e. moveable elements
can be used to do this.
Rigid elements
Solar radiation and climatic conditions vary
over the course of the day and year, so the
effects of immoveable elements change with
them (shading, reflection, light refraction)
depending on the sun’s height.
Various principles can be used to provide
shade (Fig. A 2.2.8, p. 42):
• Complete direct coverage of the facade
surface
• A projecting element
• The addition of other, smaller elements
(e.g. louvre or grid structures)
Louvre structures can be divided into two cat-
egories based on their positioning, orientation
and the related height of the sun:
41
Edges, openings
a c
b e
A 2.2.7
• Horizontal louvres angled appropriately can
prevent sunrays hitting a south-facing sur-
face at a steep angle from penetrating inside
a building.
• Vertical louvres can keep sunlight striking an
east or west-facing facade at a shallow angle
out of the building.
Both principles can provide shade while
also allowing building occupants to see out
(Fig. A 2.2.7).
Moveable elements
The chapter on “Manipulators” (p. 266ff.) deals
in detail with moveable and modifiable elem-
ents in and around openings and shows
examples. The observations below deal with
moveable windows.
Windows are primarily characterised by the
possibility of partially opening and closing
the building envelope. Of all a window’s
various possible features (material, type of
movement, structure of the window frame,
attachment to the wall) the type of opening
(type of sashes), with its function of opening
the facade, defines a window’s structural
and design characteristics.
The various kinds of window openings can
be further classified as types by defining four
considerations (Fig. A 2.2.9) [20]:
• Movability
• Degree of movability
• Type of movement
• Other distinguishing characteristics
First consideration: movability of the facade
surface
Facade surfaces can be divided into fixed and
openable based on their movability. Window
openings are classified based on static (load-
bearing) and structural aspects (elements for
fixed glazing and moveable sashes). The size
of individual transparent fields depends on the
availability of materials (e.g. panes of glass)
and defines the window’s partitioning.
42
a b
d
f
A 2.2.8
Second consideration: degree of movability
A window’s degree of movability is determined
by its freedom of movement, which is in turn
governed by the window’s frame and sash
structure and type of fittings.
Third consideration: type of movement
Windows can be further differentiated based
on the way they move. This movement is
often also reflected in the term used for the
window.
• Partial change of place, movement around
a vertical axis (rotation):
- Pivoting window
- Side-hung window
• Partial change of place, movement around
a horizontal axis (rotation):
- Hopper window
- Top-hung window
- Pivoting window
• Movement involving a complete change
of place without changing the element
(translation):
- Sliding window
- Push-out window
• Movement involving a complete change of
place and element (transformation):
- Folding window
- Roller shutter
• Combinations
The folding windows usually used are in fact
often windows with pivoting panes whose entire
surface is not folded but consists of several
individual frames, in contrast, for example, to
the folding walls used as partitions, where the
entire wall surface folds.
A facade as part of the building envelope has
the fundamental function of vertically separat-
ing two spaces. The types of window move-
ments can therefore also be differentiated in a
secondary consideration by their relationship to
the facade plane – usually outside /inside and
upper / lower, e.g.:
 Edges, openings

Facade surfaces

Fixed surfaces Opening surfaces

Partial change of place Complete change of place

Movement around a vertical axis Movement around a horizontal axis No change to the element Element changes
(rotation) (rotation) (translation) (transformation)

Turning Pivoting Tilting Fold out Swing out Sliding Push out Folding Rolling

Hori- Hori- Hori-

Inside Outside Inside Outside Inside Outside Vertical Outside Inside Vertical Vertical
zontal zontal zontal

Number of Structural
Translucency Materials Drive Position locking Load-bearing
moveable sashes principles

A 2.2.9

• Turning: inwards /outwards possible combinations: • System

• Folding: inwards /outwards
• Sliding: horizontal (to the right / left) /
vertical (upwards /downwards)
Further distinguishing features
Distinctions can also be made in this context
based on construction principles and result-
ing features. As well as distinctions made for
all moveable surfaces based on the number
of sashes, specific features also define types
of opening.
The number of sashes (moveable sashes,
those that lock in place or can be moved only
for cleaning or maintenance, fixed surfaces)
can indicate varieties of possible openings.
One distinguishing feature that has gained in
importance in the context of controlled natural
ventilation is the way sashes are moved, which
can be manual or mechanical.
Specific construction principles involve various
types of openings, so they can only be differ-
entiated by the principles of their movement.
Some features are based primarily on construc-
tion and only secondarily on the opening mech-
anism, regardless of the opening’s typological
classification.
Performance range of the type of movement
Movement mechanisms have various features
that are of fundamental importance because
of their influence on function, construction
and design [21]. The performance range
of an openable element in the building enve-
lope is made up of functional properties
(Fig. A 2.2.10, p. 44):
Architects need a precise knowledge of types
of movement and related performance pro-
files to make effective use of windows as com-
ponents of the building envelope in terms of
energy balance and user comfort. [22].
Possible combinations
The terms used highlight the diversity of the
types of movements of windows resulting from
• Side-hung window with side-hung or sliding
fittings
• Side-hung hopper (turn and tilt)
• Top-hung window: push-out, top-hung
window
• Folding (combination of pivoting and sliding
movement)
• Folding window: folding, sliding window
• Pivot-hung window; pivoting /sliding
window
• Pivoting window
• Sliding windows: upwards sliding, lift and
slide, hanging, drop-sliding, drop, horizontal
lift and slide
• Parallel push out sash; tilt and parallel sash;
turn and parallel sash
Types of movement have developed through
individual steps into a multitude of vari-
ations. Some types from the middle of the last
century that are now largely no longer pro-
duced are still frequently found in existing
buildings. Such windows are no longer used
because of joint sealing problems, among
others, and higher modern structural physical
requirements that involve heavier panes and
make much higher demands on fittings and
frames. In tackling joint sealing problems, an
adequate exchange of air has become less
important than reduced heat losses (partial
optimisation), instead of solving the problem
in its context.
Building with facade elements
A building envelope cannot usually be made
in one piece, so it has to be worked on in
individual pieces during construction. Some
fundamental terms used in scientific systems
have been expanded to stipulate five steps
for architecture in this context, resulting in the
following series of classifications (Fig. A 2.2.11,
p. 45):
• Subsystem
• Structural element /component
• Element
• Material
The choice of scale or section considered
can result in a shift in this system (e.g. in
urban development: city = system, building =
element).
Assembly and installation sequences
Construction processes involve the chrono-
logical progress of assembly, and until con-
struction is complete, there are various inter-
mediate states. Depending on the situation,
external conditions can influence construction.
In inner cities, in particular, materials for large
construction projects can only be transported
to a certain extent. Climatic conditions also
directly influence construction processes.
Changing weather conditions can result in
delays that affect the entire further construc-
tion process. Erecting a facade as protection
from the weather makes it possible to continue
erecting the building largely independent of
changes in the weather.
A 2.2.7 Shading from louvres: influence of orientation
a South-facing facade: horizontal louvres
b East / west-facing facade: vertical louvres
A 2.2.8 Principles of sun shading: screening / filtering
of direct sunlight
a Projection: screening
b Projection: shading due to the screen and
reflection for use of daylight
c Louvre structure: screening
d Louvre structure: screening and reflection for
use of daylight
e Covering: screening
f Filtering: perforation
A 2.2.9 Typological classification of types of movement
of windows

43
Edges, openings

Comparison of window Side-hung Pivoting Hopper Top hung Horizontal Horizontal Vertical Push-out
movement types window window window window pivot sliding sliding window
to determine their opening window window window
performance profile inwards

Obstruction of usable opening width 1/2 opening minimal none 1/2 opening none none none
floor space related to the width (if outward width (if outward
depth of the room opening) opening)
Options for installation yes no yes yes only if yes yes yes
in high-traffic areas (if outward (if outward opening is (if outward
opening) opening) limited opening)
Views through: 100 % 100 % with no clear no clear 100 % with 50 % with 50 % with no clear
maximum clear aperture vertical aperture aperture horizontal vertical horizontal aperture
and partitioning partitioning partitioning partitioning partitioning
Geometric description 1≈ gap at the 2≈ gaps at sides 2≈ gaps at sides 2≈ gaps at sides 4≈ gaps at sides 2≈ gaps at sides top and circumferential
of the minimum /smallest side, top and top and bottom angled, top angled, bottom, angled, top slot aperture bottom gap
opening area possible bottom angled 2≈ angled slot aperture slot aperture and bottom,
slot aperture
Geometric description complete complete 2≈ gaps at sides 2≈ gaps at sides complete 50 % of opening 50 % of opening circumferential
of the maximum / largest opening area opening area, angled, top angled, bottom, opening area, area as area as gap
opening area possible perpendicular slot aperture slot aperture horizontal perpendicular horizontal
partitioning partitioning partitioning partitioning
Suitability for slot ventilation limited limited limited limited limited good good good

Suitability for complete good good no no good good good no

opening for brief, intensive
airing
Adjustability of openings only with only with only for with the fitting no good good good
extra fitting extra fitting maximum used for (mechanical
tilt position opening drive)
Protection from weather no no yes yes yes no above: yes limited
(from precipitation) below: limited (with element
for slot ventilation added to
upper opening)
Movement type no no no with extra no yes yes yes
against slamming in wind fitting

Potential for combination no no limited yes no yes yes yes

with interior manipulators

Potential for combination yes no yes no no yes yes limited

with exterior manipulators
Outside can be cleaned yes yes with no yes no with extra no
from the inside detachable (detachable)
fitting fitting
Notes on sealing also outward horizontal bottom rebate for use in vertical bottom rebate bottom rebate no protection
opening (in seals offset not always windy areas seals offset possible, con- possible, con- from weather,
wind and rain) possible tact pressure tact pressure not even when
requires requires minimally open
additional additional
feature feature
Notes on fittings projecting loads borne sash must be sash must be sash can sag high, narrow compensation scissor
sash produces centrally secured against locked in when window formats for sash's own must transfer
moment falling position when is open can jam weight required, wind forces
window is open can jam
A 2.2.10

44

Term Example
System Building
Subsystem Envelope (roof, facade), load-bearing structure, supply and disposal,
inner partitioning, access
Structural element /component Window sash in window frame
Elements Profile, insulated glazing, fittings, seals
Material Metal sheeting, glass
Prefabricated components made of elements
To enable construction to proceed largely
independently of weather conditions, individual
parts can be prefabricated under controlled
conditions in factories almost anywhere, which
can greatly reduce construction time on site
and the associated risks. Prefabrication can
also offer much greater precision and lower
tolerances.
Windows in punctuated facades are set into
recesses in the facade structure. Methods
based on two different principals are used
to build non-load-bearing exterior walls for
facades with large areas of glass construction,
with the distinction in this case made based
on their assembly.
Element facades
These are facades made up of individual pre-
fabricated units that are put together to form
a whole facade on site. The term refers not to
the sequence in the systemic context above
(see p. 43), but to their prefabrication and the
assembly process. Prefabricated elements
in glass facades usually consist of panes of
glass held in frames, so this type of construc-
tion is also referred to as frame construction.
Element facades are suitable for tall adminis-
trative buildings. The elements are lifted into
place by a crane and installed without scaf-
folding.
Post and beam facades
In contrast to element facades, a post and
beam facade consists of individual elements:
vertical facade posts and horizontal facade
beams that are put together on site. The term
describes their structural principle. Post and
beam facades are now used mainly for low-
rise buildings.
Edges, openings
A 2.2.10 Comparison of types of movement of win-
dows for identifying different performance
profiles
A 2.2.11 Basic terms for an architectural systems
analysis
A 2.2.11
Notes:
[1] In this chapter the word “window” (as used in com- [20] Westenberger, Daniel: Vertikale Schiebefenster –
mon speech) refers to a moveable, transparent Zur Typologie der Bewegungsarten von Fenstern
closure of an opening in a wall. als Öffnungselemente in der Fassade. In: Fassade /
[2] Dietze, Lothar: Freie Lüftung von Industriegebäuden. Façade 03/2002, p. 23 – 28
Berlin 1987, p. 18 [21] Westenberger, Daniel: Vertikal verschoben – Eigen-
[3] Le Corbusier made this distinction in his work schaften und Leistungsspektrum von vertikalen
for the La Tourette cloister (1960). Schiebemechanismen bei Fensteröffnungen. In:
[4] Pracht, Klaus: Fenster – Planung, Gestaltung und db 09/2003, p. 86 – 91
Konstruktion. Stuttgart 1982, p. 102 [22] This chapter contains sections from the dissertation
[5] Graphic based on Müller, Helmut; Schuster, of Daniel Westenberger. Westenberger, Daniel:
Heide: Tageslichtnutzung. In: Schittich, Untersuchungen zu Vertikalschiebefenstern als
Christian (ed.): Solares Bauen. Munich / Basel Komponenten im Bereich von Fassadenöffnungen.
2003, p. 63 Diss. TUM, Munich 2005
[6] VDI Guideline 6011. Dusseldorf 2016
[7] Miloni, Reto P.: Von Aperturfläche bis Zenitlicht.
Kleines Tageslicht-ABC. In: Fassade / Façade
01/2001, p. 12
[8] Meyringer, Volker; Trepte, Lutz: Lüftung im Woh-
nungsbau. Published by the Federal Ministry
for Research and Technology. Karlsruhe 1987,
p. 11
[9] A distinction is made between drive forces
depending on a building’s local situation because
wind forces are created by climatic conditions
due to solar radiation and differences in tem-
perature.
[10] Graphic based on Zürcher, Christoph; Frank,
Thomas: Bauphysik. Vol. 2: Bau und Energie –
Leitfaden für Planung und Praxis. Zurich / Stuttgart
1998, p. 80
[11] As for Note 7, p. 33 – 36
[12] Givoni, Baruchi: Passive and Low Energy Cooling
of Buildings. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York /
London / Bonn 1994, p. 42
[13] In specifying air speed figures, it should be noted
that air speeds above 0.15 m/s can be subjectively
(physically) perceived. Hanel, Bernd: Raumluft-
strömung. Heidelberg 1994, p. 6
[14] Fanger, Ole: Behagliche Innenwelt. In: Uhlig,
Günther et al.: Fenster – Architektur und Technolo-
gie im Dialog. Braunschweig / Wiesbaden 1994,
p. 217. For a design using very airtight windows,
ventilation openings were installed above radiators
to ensure a minimum supply of air.
[15] Draughts as well as noise are the main reasons for
dissatisfaction with air conditioning and ventilation
systems. Recknagel, Hermann; Schramek, Ernst-
Rudolf (eds.): Taschenbuch für Heizung und Klima-
technik einschließlich Warmwasser- und Kälte-
technik. Munich 2001, p. 59
[16] Recknagel, Hermann; Sprenger, Eberhard; Schramek,
Rudolf (eds.): Taschenbuch für Heizung + Klima-
technik. Munich 1999, p. 1207
[17] Zeidler, Olaf: Freie Lüftung in Bürogebäuden. In:
HLH, Vol. 51, 07/2000
[18] Daniels, Klaus: Gebäudetechnik – ein Leitfaden
für Architekten und Ingenieure. Zurich / Munich
1996, p. 260
[19] Baker, Nick; Steemers, Koen: Energy and environ-
ment in architecture. London 2000, p. 58
45
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 Modular coordination

A 2.3 Modular coordination Buildings usually consist of a range of differ-

ent individual parts (structural components or
elements) that are generally produced by dif-
ferent manufacturers and built in and installed
in varying chronological orders, so consistent
geometric rules must be followed to produce
a structure free of defects. This “grammar”
applies to the overall structural and the tech-
nical context of (building-related) subsystems,
such as the support structure, exterior walls,
interior structure and supply and disposal
(Fig. 2.3.4), and is generally referred to as
modular order [1].

From column orders to modular coordin-

A 2.3.1 Eames House, Los Angeles (US) 1949, Charles
and Ray Eames
ation systems
A 2.3.2
The dimensional coordination of a building’s
structure is not a new topic. Vitruvius de-
scribed a “modulus” as calculated part, a
basic measurement that was based on the
lower (half of) a column’s radius, on which
“symmetry … is based [as] an interrelation
of individual separate parts for planning the
building as a whole” [2].
In Antique and Renaissance architecture, fun-
damental dimensions (spacing and height of
columns, entablature height and projection)
were specified in “column moduli”. The struc-
ture and form of columns were based on the
proportions of the human body, so there was
a close relationship between the “module and
the measure of man” [3].
These orders of columns and proportions and
the related module (modulatio) theory are also
connected to the square grids laid over build-
ing floor plans and facades, where the dis-
tance between individual lines is also referred
to as the module. This invisible module is the
abstract basic unit of a (theoretical) geometric
system for organising spatial dimensions and
structuring buildings. A 2.3.3
Geometric and modular orders are not only
found in European architecture. Japanese A 2.3.2 Perspective view of the floor plan of a typical
single-storey Japanese house
dwellings are often measured using a tatami A 2.3.3 Arcade system based on the work of Jean-
mat as the basic unit, which is unique in archi- Nicolas-Louis Durand
tectural history. Tatami, hard-pressed, rect- A 2.3.4 “ARMILLA”, tools for computer-assisted technical
angular straw mats with an aspect ratio of about installation route planning in high-tech buildings,
layout of secondary lines, Fritz Haller
1:2, are laid out in homes and can serve as
the fundamental module of their structure and
dimensions. The tatami is however just one
element in the modular system of a wooden
Japanese house. Developed in an attempt
to bring about standardised measurements
for structural components, there is not just
one ideal size, but depending on two spe-
cific distances between columns, one module
for the city (approx. 95 ≈ 190 cm) and another
for the country (approx. 90 ≈ 180 cm). Dis-
crepancies in the tatami modular system are
the result of manual work by skilled craftsmen
(Fig. A 2.3.2) [4].
Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand’s work heralded a
paradigm shift in the (modular) planning and
design of buildings. Around 1800 he departed
from anthropometric, hierarchically structured
A 2.3.4

47
Modular coordination

100 mm architecture and based all construction and
architectural elements on a standard grid
1M 1M 1M with rational dimensions (Fig. A 2.3.3, p. 47).
a His system’s starting point was the distance
between columns, which as the “structural
material-related size of a girder” also takes
3M 3M aspects of a design’s economy and practi-
b cality into account [5]. Durand’s work formed
an important basis for developing the mod-
ule system, which subsequently became the
6M foundation of the development of industrial
c construction.
A 2.3.5
Konrad Wachsmann also dealt with the indus-
A 2.3.5 Modular order
a Basic module
trial production and the coordination of stand-
The basic module is the unit size used in ardised elements in his book “The Turning
dimensional coordination. The basic module Point of Building” (1959).
M agreed on EU-wide measures 100 mm.
b Multiple module Modular coordination systems based on
A multiple module is a standard multiple of
a module with a whole-number multiplier. square grids or planar surfaces can influence
Multiple modules include 3 M, 6 M, 12 M. floor plan and facade design as well as spa-
c Construction module tial organisation. Coordination systems of
A construction module is a multiple of multiple this kind are the result of precise theoretical
modules and the figure that defines the coord-
inating dimensions for the load-bearing
and practical investigations of “measure-
structure. ments, measurement methods, the definition
of dimensions and dimensioning, from the
1 smallest component through to the complete
2 5 3 building” [6].
The transition from manually crafted construc-
4 10 6 15 9
tion to (partly) industrialised construction pro-
8 20 12 30 18 45 27 cesses made it necessary to define the pos-
16 40 24 60 36 90 54 135 81 sible leeway in the relative positions of individual
32 80 48 120 72 180 108 270 162 405 243 parts in an increasingly precise way. Tech-
A 2.3.6
nical manufacturing processes can make parts
A 2.3.6 Preferred increments with very precise dimensions, so defining and
Preferred increments are selected multiples of controlling tolerances are essential elements of
modules. Applied together with modules, pre- geometric modular order.
ferred increment figures make up multi-modular
or modular dimensions. For practical reasons
The Modulor, developed by Le Corbusier
they must be limited to specific multiples of mod- between 1945 and 1955, was a clear depar-
ules. Coordinating dimensions should ideally be ture from this technological approach and
made up of preferred increments. uniform modular grids. His Modulor propor-
Preferred increments are:
tion system is based on a series of numer-
1, 2, 3 to 30 times M
1, 2, 3 to 20 times 3 M ical values, although they are not based on
1, 2, 3 to 20 times 6 M the same initial dimension, so it is a method
1, 2, 3 etc. times 12 M based more on a “directional, dynamic struc-
ture” [7].
12
Dimensional coordination and modular
8 order
9
with other adjoining or associated structural
components to be recorded. Modular order
aims to ensure:
• Overall geometric and dimensional coordin-
ation of the structure
• Replaceability of products
• A limit to the wide range of potentially applic-
able products
• Prefabrication and controlled and consistent
installation on site
Terminology and units
Modules
Modules are ratios in technical dimensions. In
Europe, the basic modular unit is M, which is
10 cm (Fig. A 2.3.5 a).
To limit the wide range of possible dimensions
of structural components and appropriately
design modular dimensions and functions
of structural components, preferred incre-
ments – multiples of modules –, i.e. a multiple
of M (M = n ≈ M), are specified. Multiples
of modules or planning modules define a de-
sign’s systematic construction (Fig. A 2.3.5 b).
DIN 18 000 on “Modular coordination in build-
ing” proposes various planning modules,
namely 3 M, 6 M, 12 M, which build on the
basic module [9].
Multiples of planning modules are put together
to form a construction module, which deter-
mines the structure and coordination of con-
struction (Fig. A 2.3.5 c). Common construc-
tion modules such as 36 M, 54 M, 72 M etc.
are classified according to their type of use.
Construction modules can be added or sub-
tracted to form parts or multiples of them,
which DIN 18 000 refers to as preferred incre-
ments. Preferred increments should be limited
to a certain number of multiples for practical
reasons. Application-oriented preferred incre-
ments with multiple applications are charac-
terised by several options for subdivision
(Fig. A 2.3.6). Based on preferred increments
or multiples of modules, functional modular
dimensions can be defined to accommodate
various human activities such as standing,
sitting, lying or walking (Fig. A 2.3.7) [10].

3 Modular order is a system of coordinating Reference systems

8
2 dimensions made up of moduli and rules for
6 5
4 6
1 4
6 8 9 10
A 2.3.7 Numerical values for the length and width of
frequently-used spatial dimensions, expressed in
modules based on the scale of the human body:
1 Person standing
2 Person sitting
3 Person sitting in a chair
4 Person standing with legs apart
5 Person walking with baggage
6 Two people standing
7 Three people standing in a row
8 Person sitting on a sofa
coordinating the dimensions of technical parts
whose position and function in a system must
7 be compatible. It uses moduli to regulate “with
the help of grids and coordination systems
18
the position and size of and links between
A 2.3.7
technical elements” [8]. Dimensional coordin-
ation establishes rules for the dimensions of
structural components, forming the basis for
planning, manufacture and installation, coord-
inating processes and those involved in them,
and determining the degree of industrialisation
of construction.
This system enables the position of every struc-
tural component, dimensions important for
connections and the dimensions coordinated
Reference planes, lines and points are required
to determine a modular structural component’s
position and general dimensions as well as its
relationship to adjoining components.
Grids
A grid is a geometric spatial coordination sys-
tem that has a regular sequence of constantly
spaced reference lines, the grid dimension.
They determine the spacing and position of
lines in the system depending on the planning
dimensions chosen. A grid’s spacing is built
on a module or multiples of a module. In most
cases the grid’s basic form is a rectangle or
square. Grids can be used to plot every struc-
tural component in its position and coordinate

48
 Modular coordination

it with other structural components. Reference A 2.3.8 Types of reference

is also sometimes made to axial dimensions,
which determine the spacing of a structure’s
grid lines and form a coordinating system
based on construction modules.
Types of references
Types of references are established rules for
plotting modular and non-modular parts of
coordination systems. There are two basic
means of plotting structural components on a
modular grid:
• Axial control lines (grid reference /axial
dimensions, centre-to-centre measurements)
• Face control lines (planning grid /standard
measurement)
Axial control lines establish a relationship
between a structural component and the refer-
ence system by making a structural compo-
nent’s axial line coincide with a reference line,
a Axial control line
The structural component is positioned so that
its central axis coincides with coordinating
lines in at least one dimension, i.e. its position
is shown. a
b Face control line
The structural component is defined in at least
one dimension between two parallel coordin-
ating lines so that it is aligned with them,
i.e. its dimensions, position and often its form
are shown.
c Combination b
A combination of axial control and face control
Iines show a structural component's position in
one dimension and its dimensions in a second
dimension.
A 2.3.9 Geometric definitions
c
A 2.3.8

M
≈
i.e. the structural component is centred on

2
n
the reference line. This shows the structural
component’s position and centre-to-centre
M

n3 ≈ M
≈

spacing of structural components, but does

1
n

not define their cross-sectional form or their

dimensions, so the dimensions of adjoining
structural components cannot be deduced in n4 ≈ M
this case (Fig. A 2.3.8 a).
Face control lines or standard measurements
use at least two lines in the reference system
n5 ≈ M

to plot a structural component, showing its

position and general size (in two dimensions)
(Fig. A 2.3.8 b). A combination of axial con-
trol lines and standard measurements defines
a structural component’s position in one di-
mension and its size in a second dimension
(Fig. A 2.3.8 c).
Structural components are three-dimensional,
so they can be clearly plotted using types of
references in a coordination system in all three
dimensions. The choice of a type of reference
and their combination will depend on the indi-
vidual case at hand. DIN 30 798/3 specifies
the following “rules of thumb” for classifying
technical parts:

• Face control lines in all three dimensions

(cubic elements /cubicles)
• Face control lines in two dimensions, axial
control lines in one dimension (planar parts /
wall elements) n
Fa ≈M
• Face control lines in one dimension, axial ce
co
6

control lines in two dimensions (linear elem- M ntr

on

≈ ol
iti

line n
os

ents /columns) n2 7 ≈M
lp
tra

• Axial control lines in all three dimensions

en

(punctiform elements /nodes)

C
M
≈
1
n

When arranging structural components that

can have different sizes in one or two dimen-
n l
tio ra

sions, a distinction is made between their cen-

si he

e
po rip

in

tral or inner position and peripheral or outer

ll
Pe

ro
nt

position. A centrally positioned structural com-

co
ce

ponent’s central axis coincides with the central Ax

Fa

ial
axis of the modular zone, while a structural co
ntr
component in a peripheral position has a pri- ol
lin
e
mary reference surface aligned with one of the
A 2.3.9

49
Modular coordination

Primary and secondary grid congruent Primary and secondary grid offset coordination lines. Here structural components
Structural grid Planning grid Structural grid Planning grid of different dimensions have the same reference
plane. Central or inner position and peripheral
material zones

or outer position are usually used in conjunction

Overlapping

with axial and face control lines. If a structural

Special connecting elements
axial control lines
positioned separately
All wall elements identical
face control lines
Special connecting elements
axial control lines
component varies from the normal position, the
dimensions for adjoining structural components
will also vary, making special formats neces-
sary (Fig. A 2.3.9, p. 49) [11].
All wall elements identical
face control lines
Geometric specifications
Modular systems are created by alternating

the spacing of parallel coordination lines with

one or more modules, so modular grids can
Material zone

be based on one or on different modules in

each of the three spatial dimensions.

Primary and secondary grids

Coordinating individual structural components
All wall elements identical Cover face All bays identical All bays identical requires superimposed planes of reference,
axial control lines control lines axial control lines face control lines
so they have to be prioritised, i.e. a primary
A 2.3.10
and a secondary grid must be defined. Usually
the structural grid is identified as the primary
grid and the fit-out grid as the secondary grid.
The most common geometrical relationships
Primary and secondary grid congruent Primary and secondary grid offset
between a facade and a structural grid are off-
set and congruent positions.
Structural grid Planning grid Structural grid Planning grid
When material zones overlap, as with axial con-
trol lines, the differing dimensions of adjoining
Exterior wall

fields make special element formats (shorten-

ing) necessary. Separating material zones en-
ables the load-bearing structure and facade to
be positioned independently of each other, so
the same elements can be used (Fig. A 2.3.10).
Cross-wall junction

Junctions and corner joints

Overlapping or independent positioning of
modular zones (material zones for the load-
bearing structure and facade / fitting out), com-
bined with a congruent or offset positioning of
the reference system, imposes various different
structural conditions on the dimensions and
connections of structural components and on
Interior corner

connections between a load-bearing structure

and a facade, especially in and around internal
and external corners (Fig. A 2.3.11).
Exterior corner

Dimensional coordination
The dimensions specified in modular orders
are only general, so the production of special
A 2.3.11 structural components requires coordinating
or standard measurements (R), which regu-
late the spacing of reference planes defin-
ing the structural component’s position and
dimensions and are usually a modular meas-
K K K K urement (R = n ≈ M). The manufacturer’s
standard measure (H) can be deduced from
R=n≈M R=n≈M these measurements, taking the proportion
of joints, the structural component’s connect-
ing planes, and dimensional tolerances into
Structural component Structural component
account: H < R.
Depending on the formation of connections,
the manufacturer’s standard measure can also
Manufacturer’s Manufacturer’s extend beyond the modular space: H > R. In
standard measure (H) standard measure (H) this case a fitting dimension, which regulates
the dimensions between structural components,
a b must be taken into account (Fig. A 2.3.12) [12].
A 2.3.12

50

Geometrical position relative to the load-bearing
structure
The facade’s position relative to the load-bear-
ing structural zone results in various connec-
tion requirements as well as structural physical
consequences and can have a range of effects
on a building’s appearance. For non-load-bear-
ing exterior walls (viewed from the outside look-
ing in), a facade plane can have the following
positions (Fig. A 2.3.13) [13]:
• In front of columns (1)
• Attached to the front face of columns (2)
• Between columns (3)
• Attached to the rear face of columns (4)
• Behind columns (5)
These geometric spatial relationships deter-
mine factors such as the extent to which the
load-bearing structure becomes a design
element, the independence of partitions in
the facade from its load-bearing structure,
the formation of interior wall connections and
the degree of penetration of exterior walls by
columns and slabs.
Further distinctions can be made in the way
in which horizontal, load-bearing slabs are
integrated into vertical, load-bearing elements
such as columns. In the case of non-load-
bearing exterior walls, elements can:
• Be between columns and integrated into
them (A)
• Project from columns (B)
• Be flush with the column face (C)
The position and arrangement of load-bear-
ing elements relative to the exterior wall
can be characterised by highlighted verti-
cal and /or horizontal elements, i.e. pilasters,
columns or projecting slabs, or by a grid
effect. From a construction standpoint, the
position and orientation of columns is crucial
to the facade’s formation and fixed super-
structure, involving aspects such as connec-
tions between columns and beams and their
spatial formation, interior wall joints and
technical installation routings, right up to fire
safety factors. Structural and physical aspects
mean that the position of columns relative to
the exterior wall can impose further require-
ments because of:
• Deformations (changes to length due to
variations in temperature)
• Thermal bridges (heat conduction from
adjoining structural components)
• Acoustic bridges (transmission of sound
between inside and out)
• A need for protection from the weather
(e.g. protection from corrosion for steel
columns)
The position and orientation of columns also
influences facade partitioning. If columns are
close together, the bays between them can
be evenly spaced. Special elements may,
however, be required for exterior columns set
wide apart due to the varying dimensions and
depending on their position and arrangement.
1 2
A
B
C
A 2.3.10 Primary and secondary grids (selection)
A 2.3.11 Elements and corners
A 2.3.12 Coordinating dimension – manufacturer’s stand-
ard measure: Different types of joints mean that
Tolerances
“Tolerances are designed to limit divergences
from the standard sizes, shapes and positions
of structural components and buildings” [14].
There are three main types:
• Manufacturing tolerances
• Assembly tolerances
• Tolerances due to changes in the form of
structural components
Joints are spaces between two modular struc-
tural components resulting from dimensional
discrepancies in manufacture and installation.
In installing adjoining structural components,
the joints require a certain margin for move-
ment, resulting in permissible deviations in
defining a structural component’s minimum
and maximum size.
Manufacturing tolerances are permissible
deviations in dimensions in the manufacture
of building and structural components and
result from the difference between minimum
and maximum sizes.
Assembly tolerances define a range of per-
missible deviations in the position of struc-
tural components in assembly and can be
linear, planar or three-dimensional. During
construction, particularly in building work
and detailed planning, it must be ensured
that appropriate tolerances are allowed for
in each case. Different types of tolerances
can often overlap or be added at joints
between adjoining structural components.
Variations in dimensions and relative move-
ment must be able to be accommodated,
seals ensured for the long term and ther-
mal bridges avoided (see also “Aspects
of building physics and planning advice”,
p. 52f.) [1].
Modular coordination
3 4 5
A 2.3.13
structural components may extend beyond the
modular space.
A 2.3.13 Geometrical positions of facades relative to the
load-bearing structure
Notes:
[1] Fundamental and additional observations in Herzog,
Thomas: Zur Kunst des Fügens oder: Nachdenken
über das Standbein. In: Der Architekt 02/1987,
p. 86 – 89
[2] Naredi-Rainer, Paul von: Architektur und Harmonie.
Zahl, Maß und Proportion in der abendländischen
Baukunst. 2. ed., Cologne 1984, p. 17
[3] ibid. p. 130
[4] Nitschke, Günter: Architektur und Ästhetik eines
Inselvolkes. In: Schittich, Christian (ed.): Japan.
Munich / Basel 2002, p. 24ff.
[5] Nerdinger, Winfried: “Das Hellenische mit dem
Neuen verknüpft” – Der Architekt Leo von Klenze
als neuer Palladio. In: Nerdinger, Winfried (ed.):
Leo von Klenze. Architekt zwischen Kunst und Hof
1784 –1864. Munich / London / New York 2000, p. 11
[6] Wachsmann, Konrad: Wendepunkt im Bauen.
Nachdruck der 1959 in Wiesbaden erschienenen
Erstausgabe, Dresden 1989, p. 54
[7] As for Note 2, p. 133
[8] DIN 30 798 Part 2: 1982
[9] DIN 18 000: 1984
[10] Bussat, Pierre: Modulordnung im Hochbau. Stuttgart
1963, p. 30 – 33
[11] As for Note 9
[12] Rinninsland, Jutta: Projekt MOSS – OE 06/11. Part 1:
Grundlagen der Modulordnung. Gesamthochschule
Kassel, Prof. Thomas Herzog. Kassel 1974
[13] Trbuhovic, L.: Untersuchungen des Strukturschemas
und der Fassadenentwicklung beim Stahlbeton-
Skelettbau. In: Girsberger, Hans (ed.): ac panel.
Asbestzement-Verbundplatten und -Elemente für
Außenwände. Zurich 1967, p. 46 – 49
[14] DIN 18 201:1997
[15] As for Note 1
51
 Aspects of building physics and planning advice

A 3 Aspects of building A facade is a central element in managing
physics and planning and regulating users’ demands on a build-
ing’s interior and changing external condi-
advice tions (see “External and internal conditions”,
p. 19ff.). Prevailing weather conditions,
such as solar radiation, outside temperature,
humidity, precipitation and wind, vary in inten-
sity depending on the time of day and year.
Building users, however, expect stable con-
ditions ranging within relatively narrow limits
in terms of air quality, humidity, air speeds
(Fig. A 1.12 –15, p. 22), acoustic environment,
the amount of light and light quality, and the
temperature of the inside air and surfaces
(Fig. A 1.1, p. 18).
The comfort requirements of a building’s
users place direct and wide-ranging func-
tional demands on its facade, involving fac-
tors such as thermal insulation, protection
from sun and glare, a supply of daylight,
protection from precipitation, damp and wind,
and an adequate exchange of air. A facade
must therefore be able to react flexibly to
fast-changing weather conditions and re-
spond to further demands, such as allowing
for views of the outside and preventing fire
and break-ins, which result in additional
requirements such as resistance to fire and
mechanical strength.
As well as influential variables, such as weather
conditions and demands for comfort, other
parameters resulting from a building’s location
and its type, usage and function must be taken
into account. Wind loads on a facade on or
near the coast will be much greater than those
in an inner city in a lowland area. Another
example of the influence of a building’s type
on its facade is in the area of fire protection for
high-rise buildings, where increased require-
ments are imposed below the high-rise limit
to prevent fire from spreading to other storeys.
The influence of a building’s usage is also
clear in the planning of administrative build-
ings, for example, with regulations and guide-
lines applying to these kinds of buildings
imposing more stringent sun and glare pro-
tection requirements [1].
Structural and physical aspects
and cold, interior wall and facade surface
temperatures and inside air temperatures
must be balanced to ensure users’ physical
comfort. Architects designing and building
facades should also try and prevent draughts,
which can be caused by structural leaks, and
cold downdraughts, which can occur when
the temperatures of a space’s surfaces are
very low. This in turn means that facades must
have adequate insulation and thermal trans-
mission resistance. National and international
standards prescribe compliance with relevant
threshold limits [2].
As well as maintaining comfortable conditions,
thermal weak points must be avoided to pre-
vent condensate from accumulating and the
associated risk of mould formation.
In view of efforts to reduce emissions of CO2
and other gases harmful to the climate, there
has been a growing focus on the ecological
significance of insulation in discussions of
these issues in recent years. National stand-
ards and the EU’s Energy Efficiency Directive
(EED), passed in 2012, have contributed to [3]
much greater demands on improved insu-
lation – especially in and around facades –
because of the high proportion of heating
energy requirements in buildings’ total energy
requirements. Preventing heat losses through
the facade can play a central role [4] in min-
imising the consumption of fossil fuels and
related CO2 emissions.
Another advantage of improved insulation is
reduced operating costs. Maximum heating
and cooling needs are usually lower in well-
insulated buildings than in badly insulated ones
and can result in lower operating and invest-
ment costs for technical building equipment.
As insulation requirements increase so do
demands on the planning and construction of
facades. Highly insulated, opaque exterior
walls often now consist of various inseparable,
interconnected materials and layers, which
must meet structural, insulating and moisture
resistance criteria equally. The resulting diffi-
culties in recycling these building materials will
have to be taken into account in choosing such
hybrid structures and in positioning and joining
them in future.

A 3.1 Swiss Re company headquarters, London (GB)
2003, Foster and Partners
Criteria based on location, type and usage
make it clear that it is not just structural and
design aspects that are crucial in planning
facades. Functional demands, including com-
fort, fitness for use, durability, low energy
consumption and more, are also essential.
Structural and physical aspects such as those
outlined below are also of vital importance.
Thermal insulation
Providing adequate insulation and a comfort-
able interior climate is one of the main func-
tions of facades in most of the Earth’s climatic
zones. As well as protecting people from heat
Transparent facade structures and optimised
thermal insulating glazing must also have very
well-insulated frames to minimise heat losses.
Window frame profiles with optimum insulation
can have Uf-values of 1.0 W/m2K and lower, so
a holistic approach is advisable for optimising
a facade’s thermal insulation and can help to
prevent thermal and hygric weak points in and
around joints between precisely manufactured
metal and glass facade elements and solid
structural components made on site.
While well-insulated exterior solid or wooden
walls can fairly easily achieve U-values of

53
Aspects of building physics and planning advice

Thermal insulation functions

Structural Physiological Ecological Economical

functions functions functions functions

Hygienic Comfort-related
functions functions

Protection from Minimising usage- Minimising energy

Preventing damage Preventing
excessive cooling related energy costs (heating and
from condensation mould formation
and overheating consumption cooling costs)

Reducing Extending the Extending

Preventing damage Reducing interior
dust formation building’s functional the building’s
due to diffusion air speeds
and vortices and service life service life

Adapting and Minimising the

Preventing investment and
harmonising the
constraining operating costs of
temperatures of air-conditioning
stresses
wall surfaces systems
inside rooms with A 3.2 Thermal insulation functions
the rooms’ air A 3.3 Facade with roller blinds (inside)
temperature and louvre system outside, Munich
(DE) 2001, Peter C. von Seidlein
A 3.2

0.15 W/m2K, even good triple insulating
glazing, inert gas-filled glazing or vacuum
insulating glazing has U-values of around
0.6 W/m2K. In other words, nowhere near the
thermal values of the well-insulated exterior
walls made of opaque building materials men-
tioned above. Standard commercially avail-
able window frames may well have U-values
of > 1.0 W/m2K, so thermal weak points can
easily develop around them.
In joining window frames or frame profiles in
glass facades to solid walls, details should
be appropriately constructed to ensure that
thermal resistance is as consistently effective
as possible at every point in the facade to
prevent thermal bridges and the risk of con-
densation forming. Planners should consider
factors such as heat transmission, convection
and the exchange of long-wave radiation in
choosing the properties of materials, structural
components and connections. This is espe-
cially important in and around joints, at the
bonded edges of glazing and panels, and in
the area of fastening elements because linear
or intermittent thermal bridges and leaks can
increase the risk of heat losses, condensation
and mould formation.
Horizontal and vertical corners, inside and
out, attics and footings, and projections and
recesses in insulating and sealing layers are
in practice particularly critical, especially at
junctions between different types of facades
and structures.
Mistakes made in planning or construction
can greatly impair the function and durability
of structural components, increase heating
energy consumption, have negative ecologic-
al effects and be harmful to one’s health if
mould forms.
Protection from moisture
Exterior weather factors such as precipitation
and fluctuating extremes of temperature make
intensive demands on facades, which are also
exposed to considerable loads from moisture
hitting the splash water zone of the building’s
plinth, damp from surrounding soil and humid-
ity inside the building.
Water must not be allowed to penetrate struc-
tures in and around closed facade surfaces
(such as plastered masonry), punctuated
facades and partitioned exterior wall struc-
tures (like glass facades). Any water that does
penetrate must be extracted in a controlled
manner. The moisture content of materials
sensitive to damp, such as certain insulating
materials and timber, must also be kept low.
As well as choosing adequate materials, plan-
ners must make every effort to prevent ther-
mal bridges in building facades because they
are usually also weak points in terms of mois-
ture and can pose an increased risk of con-
densate forming on interior surfaces and inside
the facade.
The permeability to vapour of individual com-
ponents and the application of sealing meas-
ures in and around joints and fastening elem-
ents will determine the risk of condensate
forming inside exterior walls.
Effective prevention of condensation is a fun-
damental precondition for ensuring both a
facade’s durability and a healthy interior cli-
mate. We now know that mould can form even
in the absence of visible condensate, resulting
in critical surface temperatures being redefined
in DIN 4108-8. The basic rule of construction in
Central Europe is that the inside of a building
should be more vapour-proof than the outside.
This basic rule is reversed for warm, damp
climates, where the outside should be more
vapour-proof than the inside.
Condensate can form in multilayer glass
facades when moist air inside cavities of the
facade meets cold surfaces. The risk of this
occurring can be reduced by improving the
quality of insulation between exterior layers
and ventilating the cavities [5].
The demands on a facade’s moisture protec-
tion depend largely on the building’s usage
and technical equipment. Air in indoor swim-
ming pools (and in winter in air-conditioned
buildings generally), for example, is more
humid, increasing the risk of condensate
forming.
One phenomenon often overlooked in planning
is the formation of condensate or hoar frost on
a facade’s exterior surface. This risk increases
with the quality of insulation and is especially
great with highly insulating panels and triple
glazing, whose exterior surfaces barely warm
up at all due to these units’ low heat transfer.

54

The result is that the steamed-up glass surface
hardly dries under cold weather conditions.
This phenomenon will become increasingly
common in future.
Sun protection
After thermal insulation, protection from over-
heating is one of a facade’s most important
functions. This is crucial not only in tropical
and subtropical climate zones but also
in temperate climates like Central Europe’s
because of changing climatic conditions and
users’ increasing comfort requirements. Plan-
ners need to find a balanced relationship
between the glazing percentage or type of
glazing and the sun-shading system to provide
a consistent overall solution.
The intensity of solar radiation on “permeable”
(or transparent) facade surfaces is more or
less transient due to changing solar radiation
levels and geometric variables in and around
building openings. Relevant for an adequate
and consistent supply of daylight is the build-
ing’s specific geometry, with its projections
and recesses, and the dimensions, distribu-
tion, orientation and angles of transparent or
translucent facade components. The illumin-
ation of interiors by daylight, thermal loads from
solar radiation, and visual contact with the
outside are influenced by the size, orientation
and position of openings in the facade, by
radiation’s physical characteristics and by the
photometric properties of glazing. This also
applies to added components such as sun-
shading devices and anti-glare screens and to
deflected daylight (Fig. A 3.3).
Sun protection systems
The primary function of sun protection systems
is to prevent overheating and ensure a com-
fortable interior climate. They also greatly influ-
ence the resulting energy consumption used
in cooling, which accounts for a large propor-
tion of power consumption in tropical and sub-
tropical climate zones. Solutions are required
that ensure an adequate supply of daylight in
the interior without overheating it. This can be
achieved by blocking out direct sunshine as
far as possible, while diffuse daylight can be
transmitted into an interior as necessary to illu-
minate it.
Sun shading systems can be classified into
fixed or moving systems. Fixed components
are structural components that can project from
an exterior wall, be freestanding or consist of
fixed louvres (see Fig. A 2.2.8, p. 42). Moving
systems, such as roller blinds and folding shut-
ters, are dealt with in detail in the chapter on
“Manipulators” (p. 266ff.).
One advantage of fixed systems is that they
require little maintenance. The sun’s position
constantly changes over the course of the day
and the year in a defined way, so fixed systems
occasionally let some direct sunlight through.
Some solar radiation may, however, be blocked
out, which can reduce light in the interior.
Aspects of building physics and planning advice
Moving systems, in contrast, are almost ideal.
They can immediately react to the weather,
and with the use of appropriate components,
incoming daylight can be reflected onto a
room’s ceiling, where the reflected light can
provide even illumination into the depths of the
space. The sun protection and light refraction
effect of adjustable louvre systems can be
optimised if:
• The pitch angle of louvres covering upper
windows and areas of window users look
through is adjustable
• The topsides and underside of louvres have
different degrees of reflectivity
• Louvre surfaces have a geometric structure
Common perforated louvre systems (e.g.
blinds or shutters) generally transmit slightly
more radiation and increase cooling loads
marginally compared with non-perforated
systems with similar structures and surfaces.
Systems that do not completely block out
direct sun may require appropriate anti-glare
screens. What is essential for a facade’s sun
protection effect is not just the type of sun
protection used, but also its position. It is
important to ensure that sun protection is
attached outside the glazing. In windy locations
in particular, stable construction of moveable
sun protection systems is crucial in ensuring
their protective function when there is both
sunshine and wind.
Glare protection
External interference should not be allowed
to impair visual function and comfort. The dis-
tribution of luminance in a user’s field of vision
and resulting contrasts are decisive in en-
abling them to recognise objects and for the
occurrence of glare and absolute levels of
luminance. A distinction is made between
physiological glare, which directly impairs
vision, and psychological glare, which can
cause premature fatigue and adversely affect
performance and well-being.
Direct glare is directly caused by a light
source, while reflected glare is the result of
reflections from light surfaces onto shiny sur-
faces. The crucial variables for direct glare
are the observer’s visual angle relative to their
environment and the luminance perceptible
in the viewing direction. The brighter the envir-
onment is, in a tolerable range, the lower the
risk of glare is.
The low luminance of computer monitors
(10 –100 cd/m2) means that rooms with com-
puter workstations are subject to increased
requirements for glare-free interior illumination.
For this reason, windows in such rooms must
be able to be completely screened against
direct sun-light and its associated heat radi-
ation and glare. Appropriate measures should
be taken to prevent glare from reflecting off
surfaces the sun shines onto. These demands
are constant, even in the face of strong wind,
A 3.3
55
Aspects of building physics and planning advice
so anti-glare screens must be protected from
wind and should be either inside or in the
facade cavity.
Use of daylight
Intelligent daylight systems make targeted use
of daylight. Besides the use of appropriate sun
protection systems to regulate levels of solar
radiation transmitted into a room, a second illu-
mination strategy can be employed that uses
only the visible part of the overall spectrum of
solar radiation to illuminate interiors. The infra-
red range of light in particular can overheat
rooms, so this approach uses specially coated
glazing that screens sunlight selectively, i.e. it
only allows the transmission of solar radiation in
the visible range.
Fixed systems
One special form of glazing that improves day-
light usage is insulating glazing with compo-
nents that refract daylight. These units use
two and three-dimensional reflecting grids
and aluminium honeycomb sheets made of
specially formed and partly high-gloss coated
metal or plastic structures that are placed in
the space between the panes like a miniature
form of a fixed sun shading system. Prism
systems that refract light can also improve
spaces’ illumination levels, refracting mainly
light from the zone near the zenith into the
room. Prism systems can, however, obstruct
views of the outside, so their installation should
be restricted to the parts of openings outside
users’ fields of vision.
Moveable systems
A much simpler and more widely used form are
moveable sun shading systems. The advan-
tage of these compared with fixed systems is
that their position and state can be changed,
so incoming light and views are not impaired,
even when the sky is completely overcast.
A desire for visual contact with the outside
world as well as effective sun protection and
demands for highly transparent facades have
resulted in the development of perforated
shades (blinds and shutters) through which
the surroundings remain visible, even when
they are closed. Most commercially available
products are about 9% perforated. The diam-
eter of each hole depends on the thickness of
the sheet metal and dimensions of the louvres.
Holes often have a diameter of 0.6 to 1.1 mm.
The degree of radiation transmission for indi-
vidual louvres under perpendicular incoming
radiation is 8 %. As well as the transmission
of reflected radiation passing between lou-
vres, there is also always direct transmission
because the perforated louvre is not lightproof.
On average, with surrounding reflectivity of
20 %, radiation transmission increases by 4 to
6 % due to perforation. This means that com-
pared with a louvre system with a fairly closed
structure and surface finish, a 1.6 increase in
56
radiation transmission and correspondingly
greater cooling requirements are to be
expected from perforated louvre structures.
Blinds and shutters with louvres whose tilt
angle can be adjusted to various extents at
different heights have also been available for
some years now. The upper louvres are less
steeply angled than the lower ones so they can
both refract light and provide shade against the
sun. The degree of reflectivity of the louvres’
topsides and undersides can also be optimised
to meet varying requirements. Light surfaces
offer better light refraction characteristics, while
dark colours reduce glare in interiors. Louvres
with different colours and degrees of reflectivity
on the louvres’ topsides and undersides are
now commercially available.
Sound insulation
The sound insulation demands made on
facades in keeping out outside noise are based
on exterior noise levels and admissible and
actual sound levels in the interior (Fig. A 3.4).
DIN 4109 specifies the main sound insulation
requirements for facades. If, compared to
the partitions and joints between sections of
a building and between partitions, a facade
has a disproportionate level of soundproofing
to protect against outside noise, or back-
ground noise levels inside are lower than
expected, the subjective disruptive effect of
interior noise from adjoining rooms, especially
high-frequency sounds, can be problematic.
Sound insulation between adjoining rooms
is based not only from the sound insulation
of separating ceilings and walls, but on their
connections to the facade. There is also a risk
of flanking sound transfer through facades,
which is much more pronounced in post
and beam facades than in element facades
if joints between facade elements are in or
around joints with separating ceilings and
walls. DIN 52 210 classifies facades based on
their evaluated sound reduction index in sound
insulation classes 1– 6 in accordance with VDI
Standard 2719. During the planning and con-
struction process, a facade’s necessary sound
insulation properties must be secured for the
long term (Fig. A 3.5).
The sound-insulating effect of facades and
joints with partition walls and separating ceil-
ings can be greatly increased by the following
structural measures:
• Increasing the weight of components, e.g.
filled with sand or heavy gas or lead panels
• Increasing the number of consecutive,
decoupled shells, e.g. by using double
shells, preferably with materials of different
thicknesses and masses
• Increasing the elasticity of components
by laminating together several thin sheets
of metal or glass, or appropriate acoustic
decoupling for connections and mounts, by
installing soft seals, for example
 Aspects of building physics and planning advice

• Increasing the structure’s asymmetry in terms these, building law regulations regulate the Noise level dB [A]
of the weight of successive layers requirements imposed on buildings’ smoke Jet engine
(at a distance 140
• Increasing spaces between surfaces adjoin- extraction openings. of 25 metres)
ing the layer of air Jet engine
130 starting (at a
• Increasing the absorption of surfaces adjoin- Classifications / load classes
distance of
ing the layer of air, e.g. by using porous Fire-resistant glazing is usually installed in 100 metres)
120
materials or labyrinthine configurations transparent structural units consisting of a
frame, one or more transparent elements,
Pop group 110
If a facade is to meet the demands imposed brackets, seals and mounting materials.
by sound insulation classes 4– 6 based on Depending on their classification, they can Jack-
100
VDI Standard 2719, very thick panes of insu- resist fire for 30, 60, 90 or 120 minutes. hammer
lating glass (especially outside) with large
spaces between the panes filled with a heavy DIN 4102/13 divides fire-resistant glazing into Heavy traffic 90
gas will have to be installed. Much thinner F and G classes (Fig. 3.6). These are transpar- Average
panes and more cost-effective facade struc- ent vertical, slanting or horizontal structural 80 traffic
tures can be built with laminated glass, with units that prevent fire and smoke from spread-
cast resin or PVB-foil lamination replacing sin- ing depending on their fire resistance rating. 70
gle glazing. This can enable a single pane of
Conver- Office
glass in sound insulation class 4 to achieve Unlike G-glazing, F-glazing also prevents 60
sation
sound insulation class 5 or 6, which ordinarily high-temperature heat radiation from passing
requires two panes. Expertly planned and con- through it. F-glazing becomes opaque when 50
structed double-skin facades (depending on exposed to fire and forms a heat shield. These
the size of ventilation openings in the exterior units behave like walls in terms of their fire Library 40 Dwelling
glazing and sound absorption in ventilation protection properties, so according to the
openings and the facade cavity) can reduce specifications of building inspection authority 30
outside noise levels by 4 – 8 dB compared with approvals, F-glazing can be used without
a single-shell glass facade equivalent to an restriction as space-enclosing walls or for par- Bedroom
20
internal facade. tial areas in them. Forest

10
Protection from fire and smoke In contrast, fire-resistant glazing in fire resist-
Ensuring that facades provide protection from ance class G (G-glazing) remains transparent
0
fire and smoke mainly involves measures and in fire and reduces the temperature of heat
A 3.4
provisions to: radiation passing through it to the outside, so
• Prevent fire these are special structural components for fire
• Inhibit or stop fire from developing protection purposes. G-glazing may only be Noise Exterior Required Of the exterior
• Impede or suppress the spread of fire installed where there are no technical fire pro- level noise R'W, res structural component
range level dB [A]
• Ensure fire alarm and warning measures tection concerns, e.g. as window openings in
dB [A] Recre-
• Enable fire fighting the walls of corridors that serve as emergency Bed ation Offices 2)
• Secure the rescue and safety of users and escape routes. The bottom edge of the glass rooms1) rooms etc.
the fire brigade must be at least 1.80 m above the floor so that II 56 – 60 35 30 30
• Extract smoke and heat the corridor will be shielded from heat radiation III 61– 65 40 35 30
and offer people protection in case of fire.
IV 66 –70 45 40 35
A facades’ fire and smoke protection proper-
V 71–75 50 45 40
ties are crucial in preventing fire and protecting A local building supervisory authority will decide
3)
the lives and health of people and assets. A on other potential applications of G-glazing in VI 76 – 80 50 45
3) 3)
multiplicity of regulations that can be different individual cases, taking into account heat radi- VII > 80 50
in specific states (Länder) within Germany must ation and the risk of rollover or flashover if flam- 1)
Wards in hospitals and sanatoria
2)
be observed. In Germany, state building regu- mable materials are stored, built or attached No requirements are imposed on the exterior structural
lations and rules laid down by trade supervis- within the range of such radiation. G-glazing components of rooms in which noise penetrating from
outside makes only a minor contribution to interior noise
ory boards (Gewerbeaufsichtsämter), building must remain effective as a physical barrier levels due to the activities carried out in those rooms.
inspection authorities (Bauaufsicht), the Tech- enclosing a space. No flames can be allowed 3)
Here requirements must be determined based on local
nical Inspectorate (Technischer Überwachungs- to develop on the side away from the fire. conditions.
A 3.5
verein – TÜV) and general DIN and VDE stand-
ards and guidelines all exercise an influence The responsible building authority usually
on fire protection. decides for each building individually which
fire resistance class applies in a facade, taking
Guidelines and standards laid down by the the building type, storey height, nature and
regional fire brigade, the German authority extent of fire loads, as well as other measures
for approving non-regulated construction prod- in the building’s specific fire protection con-
ucts and types of construction (Deutsches cept, into account (Fig. A 3.7, p. 58).
Institut für Bautechnik – DIBt) and the German
association of non-life insurers (Verband der General regulations, such as the German model
Sachversicherer – VdS) must also be taken building code (Musterbauordnung), prescribe
into account in this context. Basic precondi- methods to stop fire from spreading from one
tions for preventative fire protection include storey to the one above it in high-rise buildings A 3.4 Noise levels from various causes
ensuring fire alarm options and structures that (top edge of the FFL of the top storey > 22 m), A 3.5 Noise level ranges and prescribed sound reduction
are accessible to the fire brigade. As well as which can be achieved by partitions made of index R’ based on DIN 4109, table 8

57
Aspects of building physics and planning advice

Fire resist- Building inspection authority Fire resist- Fire resistance class for structural
ance class description ance duration components based on DIN EN 13 501-2
based on in an ISO with spatial enclosure no spatial enclosure
DIN 41021) standard fire
load-bearing non-load-bearing load-bearing
F 30 – B Fire-resistant ≥ 30 min REI 30 EI 30 R 30
F 30 – A Fire-resistant, made of non- ≥ 30 min
flammable building materials
F 60 – AB 2) Highly fire-resistant ≥ 60 min REI 60 EI 60 R 60
F 60 – A Highly fire-resistant, made of ≥ 60 min
non-flammable building materials
F 90 – AB Fire-proof ≥ 90 min REI 90 EI 90 R 90
F 90 – A Fire-proof, made of non-flammable ≥ 90 min
building materials
(F120) (Highly fire-proof) (≥ 120 min)
(F180) (Fireproof to the highest degree) (≥ 180 min)
Firewall – REI – M 90 EI – M 90
I = Insulation. The time it takes to produce an increase in temperature on the cold side of the structural element, usu-
ally 140 °C.
E = Integrity. The length of time that the structural element retains its integrity against flames or hot gases in a stand-
ard fire.
R = Load carrying capacity. The length of time that the relevant structural element is able to carry the current load in a
normal fire development phase.
M = Mechanical effect. The ability of the structural element to cope with the mechanical impact in a standard fire.
1)
based on DIN 4102-2 for walls, columns, ceilings, beams and stairs
2)
AB: made largely of non-flammable materials A 3.6

Building material Building material class Euro class

as defined in DIN 4102-1
Non-flammable building material (e.g. steel truss girder) A1 A1
A 2 (e.g. plasterboard interior
Non-flammable building material with flammable parts A2
panelling in a wooden building)
Building material not very flammable (e.g. oak
B1 B
parquetry on floor screed)
Slight contribution to fire C
Normally flammable building material (e.g. glued
B2 D
laminated timber beam) A 3.6 Behaviour of building materials in fire based
Acceptable behaviour in fire E on the European DIN EN 13 501 standard
Easily flammable building material (e.g. untreated A 3.7 Examples of building materials and their flam-
B 31) F
coconut fibre matting) mability and building material / Euro class
1)
not permitted in construction classifications
A 3.7

non-flammable material F 90 (or W 90) that must
extend either 1 metre in a vertical direction or
1.50 metres in a horizontal direction (e.g. fire-
resistant projections). Parapet cover plates
also require mechanical fixing in this case. A
series of facades of this kind, including some
not backed by masonry or concrete parapets,
have been approved and built in recent years.
The same applies to the interior corners of
multistorey office and administrative buildings.
Building fire-resistant glazing into such areas
serves to extend a firewall and prevents fire
from spreading horizontally to the facade of a
part of the building that is separate in terms of
fire safety. If a low-rise extension is added to
a multistorey building, the wall separating the
building’s two parts must be a firewall up to the
higher building’s roof.
Staircases required as emergency and escape
routes in case of fire are also areas where
glass can be used to ensure fire safety for
facades. If parapets, lintels or projections can-
not meet standards required to prevent fire
from spreading, fire safety authorities must
determine the extent to which a sprinkler sys-
tem could meet these demands.
For fire safety reasons, it should be ensured
that joints between a building’s facade and
its shell are properly built and impervious to
smoke. If fire does break out, smoke and toxic
gases can spread very quickly through joints
throughout the building and pose risks for
building users that could otherwise be avoided
based on the fire incident.
Structural measures
In the event of fire, smoke extraction openings
are either automatically activated or are manu-
ally operated by emergency responders. As
well as typical smoke and heat extraction sys-
tems, the size of which DIN 18 230 defines
depending on the risk group, openings in the
facade (side-hung or bottom-hung sashes)
can provide the necessary cross-sectional
sizes in individual cases, after consultation
with fire safety experts. The prerequisite is that
the openings open directly outside.
Effective smoke extraction depends largely
on the right dimensioning of systems and
adequate calculations of amounts of incoming
air. In determining the cross section required
for smoke extraction, regulatory bodies distin-
guish between aerodynamic smoke extraction
and the size of a geometrically calculated
opening. Sashes must open in the right way,
and a sufficiently large incoming air vent
cross section is necessary – normally one with
1.5 times the surface of the ventilation opening.
If appropriate building automation ensures
a simultaneous opening of incoming and
exhaust air vents, the cross sections of both
openings can be the same size. Door open-
ings can also be taken into account for this
purpose. There are currently no rules on smoke
extraction through vertical facade elements, a
separate technical approval in each individual
case is required for them.
Fire and smoke protection at weak points in
facades
As well as the typical thermal bridges in a
facade (such as those due to gaps between
frames and sash frames and structural con-
nections and between the frames holding infill
panels and their edge bonds) any irregular-
ities in a facade pose particular fire safety risks.
Slender, undivided posts and beams in the
area of partition walls and their connections
with the structure can also be weak points
in terms of the spread of fire in curtain wall
facades. Structural compensations must be
made for a facade’s movements and deform-
ations, which can be far greater than normal
in the event of fire due to the higher tempera-
tures in and around the connections and joints
between the facade and the structure and
interior partition walls.
Special measures for improving fire safety
properties in this context could include:

58

• Materials that foam up when exposed to heat,
forming a seal and improving fire resistance
and mechanical integrity
• Materials that vaporise when exposed to heat
and compensate for the heat’s effects
Facades exposed to particular risks
When installed in double-skin facades on multi-
storey buildings, fire-resistant glazing mainly
has a protective function of preventing fire from
spreading to the storey above. Vertical paths
along which fire can spread must be equipped
with F 30 glazing. The W 90 fire resistance class
required for high-rise building parapets must
be integrated into the inner layers of double
facades. Designs in which the facade is venti-
lated by multistorey cavities like shafts, where
smoke cannot be prevented from spreading
to adjoining storeys if windows are open due
to the pressure ratios caused by fire, require
special testing.
General planning advice
In planning facades, all the functional and
resulting structural and physical requirements
must be met by appropriate materials and
structural components, with the components
subsequently coordinated and properly and
durably joined.
In terms of a facade's structural type, the issue
of whether the load-bearing system chosen
is a solid structure with load-bearing exterior
walls and intermittent window openings or a
concrete, steel or timber frame with a separate,
usually non-load-bearing facade, is crucial in
planning.
Which facade type or structure should be
chosen for different facade zones must be
decided in the planning process, taking these
general conditions into account. As described
in the chapter on “Surfaces – structural princi-
ples” (p. 26ff.), the following options are avail-
able for managing a facade’s load-bearing
behaviour, structure, permeability to radiation
and construction principles:
• Load-bearing or not
• Single or multi-shell
• Single or multilayer
• Opaque, translucent, transparent
• Rear-ventilated curtain wall facade, post and
beam facade or element facade
Among the conditions governing a facade’s
design are the type of structure and choice of
materials as well as technical building equip-
ment planning (e.g. whether a building is air-
conditioned or not).
Any irregularities or leaks in a facade pose
particular structural physical risks and increase
the likelihood of damage. These include all
types of penetrating joints between structural
components in and through the facade (see
the section on “Principles of joint sealing” in
“Surfaces – structural principles”, p. 32f.),
especially in the form of and in and around
fastening elements and cable routing (e.g.
for sun protection or photovoltaic systems).
In these cases, and to form structural connec-
tions, various groups of tradespeople often
work together on critical structural and phys-
ical interfaces.
The same applies to connections between
interior structures (mainly partition walls) and
facades, where flexible new partitioning of
spaces to accommodate changing conditions
can play a crucial role.
Particular attention must be paid to special
areas of facades such as the building’s bot-
tom and top edges (at the base and rooftop)
and vertical and horizontal exterior and inter-
ior corners (especially in and around offset
insulating and sealing layers) in planning (see
Fig. A 2.1.7, p. 29).
Issues such as air- and watertightness, ther-
mal insulation, protection from damp, sun,
glare, noise, fire and smoke and the use of
solar energy and daylight have to be dealt with
holistically while taking framework conditions
into account as such measures often affect
each other.
Facade types
From a structural point of view, facades can be
basically classified into load-bearing and non-
load-bearing. In the former, windows are set
or integrated into a load-bearing exterior wall
(Fig. A 3.8, p. 60). These can be individual
windows or be combined into horizontal (also
storey-high) or continuous vertical bands of
windows (over several storeys). Structural con-
nections around window frames require espe-
cially careful planning to ensure appropriate
thermal insulation and protection from environ-
mental moisture and noise. The exteriors of
facade bays between windows can be clad
with sheet metal or opaque glass. This can
often make them look like non-load-bearing
facades, but they are built in a completely dif-
ferent way (Fig. A 3.9, p. 60).
Non-load-bearing facades completely cover
the building shell and form an extra closed
weather protection cover into which elements
such as glazing, individual windows and
bands of windows are integrated. Experience
has shown that there are often structural and
physical weak points in and around slab and
wall connections. Soundproofing and fire and
smoke protection problems often arise in con-
struction practice, especially between adjoin-
ing rooms, if joints are not properly planned
and built to ensure adequate insulating and
sealing functions. This is especially the case
if the following aspects have not been suffi-
ciently taken into account and compensated
for in the structure:
Aspects of building physics and planning advice
• Deformations in the building, e.g. resulting
from the structure’s own weight and traffic
loads
• Manufacturers’ specified tolerances
• Dynamic, horizontal movements in slabs
caused by wind pressure, wind suction or
earthquakes
• Changes in length within structural com-
ponents and between adjoining structural
elements due to differing materials and
temperatures
Facade structures
The static, structural and physical properties
of single-layer (monolithic) exterior walls are
determined entirely by their material and thick-
ness, so the wall’s material and joints must
meet multifunctional requirements in this case.
In multilayer or multi-shell facades, however,
the materials of individual layers or shells can
be optimised to secure various functions.
As described in detail in the chapter on “Sur-
faces – structural principles” (p. 26ff.), a layer
of air can be enclosed between shells in a
multi-shell facade and be either enclosed,
inward and/or open to the outside. Depending
on the desired functional or design characteris-
tics, the external weather protection layer can
be transparent, translucent or opaque.
In planning such facades, architects must
ensure that insulating and moisture protection
layers remain airtight, and suitable sealing
systems must be used, especially to close
up joints. If these layers are on the inside,
they must be more vapour-tight than the outer
weather protection layer. In practice, a weather
protection layer with vapour pressure equal-
isation openings through which moisture can
escape from a structure unimpeded has been
shown to have proven benefits (Fig. A 3.12,
p. 61). Water can get into air cavities through
the openings in unfavourable conditions
such as driving rain, so it must be directly dis-
charged outside through appropriate openings
in a controlled way. Creating two coordinated
sealing layers can effectively secure a water-
tight facade.
If such facades are properly planned and built,
they offer better protection not only from rain,
but also from damp, wind and noise. For this
reason, multilayer or multi-shell facades are
preferred for buildings exposed to high noise
levels or wind loads and from which a high
standard of comfort is expected.
Joint formation
Regardless of a building’s construction method,
junctions and connections between different
structural components and the resulting joints
must be especially carefully planned in all
facades to ensure central functions such as
sealing the building against moisture and
damp, ensuring adequate thermal insulation
and airtightness across the entire facade sur-
face in the long term.
59
Aspects of building physics and planning advice
In planning joints in buildings, it should be noted
that different trades, e.g. concrete, masonry,
timber and steel construction etc., allow for
A 3.8
different dimensional variations. These are
prescribed in the relevant standards, although
the dimensional tolerances they specify usu-
ally refer only to the planning and construc-
tion of buildings or structural components.
They do not take time-dependent deformations
that result in divergences from prescribed
nominal dimensions into account, so particular
attention must be paid to these. These include
plastic deformations because of material creep
or changes in form due to swelling or shrink-
age, changes in temperature or the effects
of temporary or ongoing loads (e.g. structures’
own weight, traffic loads, wind loads, snow
loads etc.).
Architects must take any discrepancies from
nominal dimensions resulting from these fac-
tors into account in planning by ensuring the
appropriate arrangement, dimensioning and
formation of joints and connections between
structural components (see also p. 32ff.).
Compliance with this stipulation will prevent
problems during the construction process
and ensure that facade structures retain their
functionality in the long term.
Construction methods
Rear-ventilated curtain wall facades are the
most widespread form of opaque facades due
to their wide range of functional features and
design options. They are non-load-bearing
facades attached to a load-bearing exterior
wall by means of an appropriate substructure.
(see p. 34ff.)
In structural terms, an exterior curtain wall
facade shell or facade cladding is designed
to absorb only wind loads, which are directly
transferred to the exterior wall through the
substructure. Its outer layer protects the struc-
ture from the weather, while insulation, usually
directly adjoining the exterior wall, ensures
appropriate protection from extreme tempera-
tures. A gap between this weather protection
and thermal insulation ensures that any rain-
water that gets in through leaks in the outer
skin can escape though the exterior layer’s
A 3.9
60
continuous air cavity. Moisture moving from
the inside to the outside by means of vapour
diffusion can also escape in this way. Correctly
built, rear-ventilated curtain wall facades are
effective, durable systems. They are available
in a wide range of colours and materials so
they also offer designers extensive creative
freedom [6].
Light, non-load-bearing facades can be clas-
sified in terms of their construction into post
and beam and element facades. Whether
individual components (post and beam) or
structural components (elements) ready to
use are delivered and assembled on a building
site is the essential factor here.
The post and beam facade type is very wide-
spread among curtain wall facades (Fig. A 3.10).
The longitudinal and intersecting connections
between the posts and beams are built to be
able to slide. Infill panels, such as windows,
glazing or panels, sit in a glass rebate, whose
depth must be able to accommodate the expect-
ed tolerances, expansions and deformations.
In contrast, facade elements that are ready
for use in element facades, including glass,
panels, metal sheeting and insulation through
to the integration of external cladding with
natural stone or installation of sun protection
systems (including sensors and drive technol-
ogy) and distributed ventilation technology, can
be mechanically processed and prefabricated
in a factory (Fig. A 3.11). One major advantage
of this is that in contrast to the situation on a
building site, a high degree of automation and
precision can be achieved in a factory’s con-
trolled, industrial conditions, ensuring consist-
ently high product quality and reliable quality
assurance.
Finished prefabricated elements are trans-
ported to the building site for assembly,
attached to brackets that have already been
attached to the building’s shell and adjusted.
Element facades, where facade profiles form
frames with material-specific connections,
are one example of this kind of facade type.
The rubber-sealed edge profiles of adjoining

A 3.10
A 3.8 Vertical section of a load-bearing exterior wall with
windows
A 3.9 Vertical section of a non-load-bearing, curtain wall
post and beam facade (top – parapet, middle –
ceiling slab joint, bottom – base)
facade elements are interlocked during assem-
bly on the building site in a labyrinthine config-
uration. This enables them to absorb tolerances,
expansions and deformations and ensures that
joints between elements meet the standards
of insulation, soundproofing and air and water-
tightness required of them. Inadequately built
intersections between facade elements are typ-
ical weak points in this kind of structure.
Building element facades involves more mater-
ial and a greater effort in manufacture and
requires experienced designers and builders.
Mistakes in planning cannot easily be cor-
rected by subsequent supplementary work
by tradespeople. Element facades are more
complex to plan, so they require appropriate
(planning) lead times, which is one factor that
must be taken into account when tendering
for contracts. These kinds of facades are suit-
able for high-rise buildings and other large-
volume buildings, particularly those with regu-
lar structures.
Concluding remarks
The choice of a facade’s materials and struc-
ture plays a decisive role in its design, func-
tional and structural-physical characteristics.
Skilled professional planning and construction
A 3.11
A 3.10 Post and beam facade
A 3.11 Element facade
A 3.12 Vapour pressure equalisation in post and
beam facades
of an effective facade is an essential element
in creating a comfortable, durable, energy-
efficient and valuable building.
In creating such buildings, the structure’s spe-
cific requirements and framework conditions
must be coordinated in an integrated planning
process involving all planners. Especially in
the context of users’ comfort requirements and
the insulation required to meet them, there is
great potential for optimising the costs and
benefits and the design and functional proper-
ties of a building.
As well as qualified planning, construction
work on the building site must be closely
coordinated with the companies carrying
it out and supervised. Particularly when
sophisticated facade structures that are
equipped with moveable, adjustable compo-
nents are involved, it must be ensured that
building services control systems are coord-
inated with the facade’s mechanical sys-
tems to ensure that building’s automated
systems work effectively with the facade. Cor-
rect initial operating of the systems built by
workers from all trades – including the facade
construction – as soon as the building is com-
pleted, is required to ensure the productive
interaction of building technologies, facade
and users.
Aspects of building physics and planning advice
A 3.12
Notes:
[1] See also German workplace regulations (Arbeits-
stättenverordnung ArbStättV), section 9 (2); German
screen display work regulations (Bildschirmarbeits-
verordnung – BildscharbV), p. 7; German workplace
safety regulations involving screen display work
(Unfallverhütungsvorschrift Arbeit an Bildschirm-
geräten) VBG 104, sections 9, 16 and 25 and the EU
Display screen equipment Directive, 90/270/EWG
[2] See also DIN 4108 and European standards DIN EN
13 162 to 13 171
[3] See also the Energy Efficiency Directive: http://
ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/energy-efficiency/
energy-efficiency-directive. As of 05.03.2016. The
EED aims to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels
by 20 % by 2020, compared with 2005 consumption
levels.
[4] Energy for space heating makes up 69 % of house-
hold energy consumption. German Environment
Agency (Bundesumweltamt) (2012): https://www.
umweltbundesamt.de/daten/private-haushalte-
konsum /energieverbrauch-der-privaten-haushalte.
As of 06.02.2016
[5] DIN 18 516 “Cladding for external walls” must be
complied with.
[6] See also DIN 18 516-1: Cladding for external walls,
ventilated at rear, part 1: requirements, principles
of testing
61
Authenticated | antonio.zulu.666@gmail.com
Download Date | 10/13/19 5:52 AM

Wrapped Reichstag, Berlin (DE) 1995,
Christo & Jeanne-Claude
Part B Structures built with specific materials
Anyone involved in planning and building
facades in compliance with generally accepted
rules will at some point need to make deci-
sions on materials. This entails making targeted
use of the properties of existing construction
materials and of those that may need to be
developed as well as taking them into account
in planning and construction.
Architects face a series of guidelines, consider-
ations, recommendations and ideas with a local
or regional or sometimes even a global back-
ground that are of a functional, economic, eco-
logical and/or cultural nature and arise out of
planning and approvals law constraints, rules,
standards and regulations. A facade is one
subsystem in the wider system of the “build-
ing”, a large and complex technical object
whose use of materials determines phases
in its production in a workshop or factory, its
composition of elements into structural compo-
nents, and its transport, assembly and installa-
tion in both intermediate and final states. This
means that a building's subsequent mainten-
ance and upkeep, operation and options for
exchanging parts must all be well thought out
in terms of the spaces, organisation and effects
on structural details involved.
A knowledge of the structural, physical and
technical features of the building materials
involved and of the construction, technology
and manufacture of structural elements and
components, taking the structure’s special char-
acteristics and technical context into account,
are among the essential skills required of
architects responsible for designing buildings.
The following examples are designed to pro-
vide them with guidance and orientation in
their work.
63
 Natural stone

B 1 Natural stone The Stone Age is regarded as the first major

cultural epoch because it was when people
began using a naturally occurring material to
make various tools. In the past stone was used
to make artefacts ranging from simple tools
and weapons through to graves and walls
and up to precisely worked treasures such
as jewellery.

Stone directly extracted from the Earth’s crust

is called “natural stone”. Natural stone can be
divided into three main groups based on its
genesis:
• Igneous rock (magmatites) B 1.2
• Sedimentary rock (sedimentites)
• Metamorphic rock (metamorphites)

These three stone “families” are subdivided

into around 30 types of stone, including gran-
ite, sandstone and marble. All the types of
stone found in the Earth (4,500 – 5,000) belong
to one of these groups. Natural stone can be
used in various ways on the outsides of build-
ings (see Fig. B 1.10, p. 67). Granite, for ex-
ample, is suitable for use in applications rang-
ing from the construction of solid structures
to facade cladding.

Ashlar
Before natural stone can be used in con-
struction, it must be worked and shaped
into a specific form by splitting, sawing or
milling. The resulting product is also called B 1.3
“ashlar”.
Stone is classified as hard or soft depending
on its compressive strength (hard stone: e.g.
granite, diorite – soft stone: e.g. limestone,
tuff or tufa). Ashlar to be used in masonry must
have certain physical prerequisites such as
minimum compressive and tensile strength,
frost resistance etc. [1].
Figure B 1.11 (p. 67) shows the most import-
ant material properties of ashlar, such as bulk
density, thermal conductivity and compressive
and tensile strength. Artificially produced stone
(e.g. brick, concrete) is called artificial stone
and produced in the form of modular, prefabri- B 1.4
cated elements.

Natural stone in facades

The historic development of stone facades is

B 1.1 German Pavilion, Barcelona (ES) 1929 /1986,
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
closely connected with that of masonry struc-
tures. Stone is one of the oldest construction
materials. In early cultures, such as those of
Mesopotamia and Egypt, stone was used to
build load-bearing walls and is still used for
that purpose today, as well as to make rear-
ventilated, non-load-bearing facade cladding.
Humanity’s first stone buildings were devel- B 1.5
oped out of local conditions and were initially B 1.2 Graves, Petra (JO) 4th century BC
often only piles of stone added to pre-existing B 1.3 Stairs, retaining wall, architecture and sculp-
natural spaces such as caves and similar ture, Temple of Athena Nike, Athens (GR)
5th century BC
structures. Ancient forms of exterior stone B 1.4 Mountain village in Tessin (CH)
walls served mainly to create permanent sites B 1.5 Panel under a display window decorated with
and places of safety, while later cultures show petrified ammonites

65
Natural stone

Natural stone

Igneous rock Metamorphic rock Sedimentary rock

Orthogneiss / Paragneiss

Solnhofen limestone
Volcanic tuff or tufa

Calcareous tufa
Shell limestone
Chlorite schist

Conglomerate
Serpentinite

Greywacke
Lava stone

Sandstone

Limestone
Mica slate

Travertine
Migmatite
Quartzite

Granulite

Dolomite
Trachyte

Diabase
Rhyolite
Gabbro

Breccia
Granite
Syenite

Phyllite
Marble
Diorite

Basalt

Shale

B 1.6
examples of stone facades cut from stone with
the highest precision and aesthetic standards
(Fig. B 1.2).
The extraction of natural stone for construction
purposes began around 5,000 BC. When
bronze and hard tools were developed (approx.
2,500 BC) it became possible to shape stone
precisely into ashlar.
As Greek building culture flourished, techniques
for grinding and cutting hard stone, which the
Egyptians practised with great precision to
make hieroglyphs and reliefs, were refined. The
Greeks’ development of entasis and the curva-
ture of the plinth zone bears witness to their
efforts to transform the appearance of facades
and perfect them (Fig. B 1.2, B 1.3, p. 65).
The Romans further developed stone-cutting
techniques. Vitruvius was the first to record
practical knowledge of natural stone in writing
in his “De architectura libri decem” (Ten Books
on Architecture). Around 2,000 years ago this
work was the basis for generally accepted
technical building rules across the European
continent within the boundaries of the Roman
Empire. The Romans’ systematic separation
of load-bearing elements from cladding estab-
lished clear principles for designing a structure
and organising a building site.
Onyx
B 1.7
The appearance of large secular buildings Before windows with transparent panes of
played an increasingly important role in their glass were developed, thin, polished stone
construction, as the “Palazzo dei Diamanti” in often provided translucent protection from
Ferrara by Biagio Rossetti strikingly illustrates the weather (Fig. B 1.23, p. 69). One modern
(Fig. B 1.6). example of the use of natural stone’s trans-
In many cases the facade was for the first lucent properties is the St. Pius Church in
time completely detached from the rest of Meggen by Franz Füeg (1966, p. 74f.).
the structure, becoming an independent
architectural element in the overall building. Some architects have developed novel and
In Italy in particular, facades whose form and unusual ways of using natural stone in specific
materials clearly distinguish them from load- projects. For a vineyard in Yountville, California,
bearing walls were built at enormous expense Herzog & de Meuron (1998) used wire mesh
and effort. baskets of stones, which are used in landscap-
ing, as facade material. Light passing through
In one particular technical version, an outer them produces fascinating effects in the inter-
layer of thinly cut and worked stone panels ior. The facade’s large masses of stone enable
was laid in mortar on a load-bearing exter- it to regulate temperatures, and its coarse
ior wall, which is referred to as “incrust- structure makes the facade very permeable
ation”. In Tuscany and Umbria especially, out- (and a haven for reptiles), an effect that can
standingly highly crafted incrusted facades be compensated for by structural measures
made of different stone panels were built (see the example of the Mortensrud Church by
(Fig. B 1.8). Jensen & Skodvin, p. 77).

Modular prefabrication using stone made of

clay has been practised for centuries, but the
use of natural stone was only re-established in
the early Middle Ages. Increasing demands
resulting from the building of large cathedrals
resulted in the further development of tech-
niques for constructing natural stone facades,
making the prefabrication of ashlar in large
quantities possible. The development of frame
and horizontal construction using continuous
horizontal bed joints also shortened construc-
tion times. These processing methods, devel-
oped during the Romanesque period, were
further refined, leading up to their maximum
expression in the construction of Gothic facades
from the 13th century on [2].

At the beginning of the Renaissance, the desire

to express secular power in architecture grew.
B 1.8

66
 Natural stone

Raw Thermal Com- Bending

Solid
structure

Floor
covering

Steps

Facade
cladding

Sculptural
work
density conduct- pressive tensile
ivity strength strength
[kg/m2] [W/mk] [N/mm2] [N/mm2]
Basalt 2,700 – 3,000 1.2 – 3.0 250 – 400 15 – 25
Basalt ° ° ° -
Granite 2,500 – 2,700 1.6 – 3.4 130 – 270 5 –18
Granite • • • • •
Marble 2,600 – 2,900 2.0 – 2.6 80 – 240 3 –19
Marble - ° ° ° °
Slate Slate 200 – 2,600 1.2 – 2.1 50 – 80
°
Sandstone - Sandstone 2,000 – 2,700 1.2 – 3.4 30 – 200 3 – 20
°
Limestone • - - - Limestone 2,600 – 2,900 2.0 – 3.4 75 – 240 3 –19
°
• Suitable B 1.10 B 1.11
° Limited suitability
- Somewhat suitable

B 1.9
Natural stone extraction wall) – but with incised stone – in his facade • Thermal insulation layer (if the exterior
design for the spa building in Vals (Fig. B 1.13). wall does not have the necessary insu-
Various methods are used to extract blocks In the 20th century, modernism returned to lation)
of raw stone in quarries depending on the this technique in the form of suspended, rear- • Attachment and anchoring of cladding
stone’s type, stratification and commonness ventilated facades, which are usually attached panels on various substrata
(Fig. B 1.14 –16, p. 68), but what they all have by corrosion-proof metal load-bearing and
in common is the goal of producing the lar- restraining anchors to absorb vertical and hori-
gest and most perfect blocks without wasting zontal forces. The technical approach of treat-
material. Roughly-worked raw stone blocks are ing layers of masonry differently based on their
sawed or gang-sawed into the desired forms function is now again being used in facades
to make ashlar. Computerised cutting technol- in which natural stone is used solely as clad- B 1.6 Palazzo dei Diamanti, Ferrara (IT) after 1493,
ogies can now be used to make almost any ding material, detached from the load-bearing Biagio Rossetti
form, including round forms. wall (see Fig. 1.27– 30, p. 70f.). B 1.7 Stone types and “families”
Economical and structural physical advan- B 1.8 Cathedral of S. Maria del Fiore, Florence (IT) 1296
(–1887), Arnolfo di Cambio, Filippo Brunelleschi
tages mean that this type of construction is
et al.
Construction and design now almost exclusively used to build natural B 1.9 German Pavilion, Barcelona (ES) 1929 /1986,
stone facades. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
There is a wide range of construction options B 1.10 Use of various kinds of natural stone for exteriors
available for creating stone facades and their Natural stone exterior wall cladding is often [3]
B 1.11 Material-specific properties of natural ashlar [4]
individual appearances. The first precursors structured as follows: B 1.12 “Fallingwater”, Mill Run (US) 1937, Frank Lloyd
of suspended stone facades were built in • Natural stone panels Wright
the early 20th century: buildings such as the • Rear ventilation zone B 1.13 Thermal spa, Vals (CH) 1996, Peter Zumthor
Postal Savings Bank building by Otto Wagner
in Vienna (1912). From the second half of that
century, this became one of the most common
and most economical forms of stone facade
construction.
The "Finlandia" concert and congress hall
in Helsinki by Alvar Aalto (1975) shows the
aesthetic potential inherent in this technical
solution [5].
Today’s architects are becoming increasingly
aware of the centuries-old construction prin-
ciple of the facing wall. They have clear ad-
vantages over thin, suspended stone facades
in terms of their mechanical resistance to
horizontal forces. A facing wall is also the
simplest structural solution for creating the
distinct impression of horizontally stratified
stone facades.

One outstanding example of a building with a

natural stone facing wall is the Kaufmann resi-
dence ("Fallingwater") by Frank Lloyd Wright.
Its outer walls’ rough, stratified structure is
analogous with the stratified structure of the
bed of the river the house was built above
(Fig. B 1.12).
A good six decades later, Peter Zumthor used
the same construction technique (a facing
B 1.12 B 1.13

67
Natural stone

B 1.14 B 1.15 B 1.16

Sizes of natural stone panels

The static bending strengths and breaking

loads for dowel holes holding natural stone
panels must be verified. DIN 18 516, Part 3
prescribes the following minimum thick-
nesses:
• Angle of inclination greater than 60° relative
to the horizontal: 30 mm
• Angle of inclination up to a maximum of 60°
relative to the horizontal: 40 mm B 1.17

In deciding on the thickness of natural stone

panels with greater bending strengths, archi-
tects should normally adhere to the minimum
thicknesses prescribed in the DIN standard.
The dead weight of panels with an angle of B 1.18
inclination of 0 to 15 °C is increased by a factor
of 2.5 due to the reduced bending strength
and breaking load for dowel holes caused Retaining
anchor
by permanent loads, vibrations, shocks and Dowel hole
dynamic loads. Sliding sleeve

Dowel
Load-bearing
anchor
Anchoring
2

Loads are transferred through stone slabs into

Joint spacer
a substructure or anchor base individually, Sliding sleeve in joint width
i.e. through each slab. Substructures (e.g.
rail systems) of facing masonry structures that
do not have sufficient load-bearing strength
must be able to transfer forces from the struc-
ture’s dead weight load and wind loads into B 1.19
load-bearing structural components. Each B 1.20
panel is normally held by three to four anchors
whose geometric positioning ensures that the
panels are kept in place free of restraining
stresses (Fig. B 1.17).
a b g h
Appropriate structural measures must ensure
that large panels that need more than four
anchor points are installed free of restraint
stresses for structural reasons. Fastening elem-
ents can be divided into four main groups: c d i j
• Dowels
• Screw anchors
• Profiled webs
• Other (e.g. adhesive)

e f k l
B 1.21 B 1.22

68
 Natural stone

Candle in a
mm 2–3 2–5 3–7 5 –10 8 –15 12 – 30 dark room

Mica-free Limestone Coarse- Fine- Onyx Alabaster

quartzite grained grained without without
marble marble pigment bitumen
B 1.23 B 1.24
Joints

Joints absorb movements that can occur due

a a
to temperature variations or structural and
dynamic effects. Joints in natural stone facade
cladding generally measure 8 –10 mm and
can be left open. If joints are closed, perman-
ently elastic filling material must be able to
withstand calculated maximum movements.
In most cases panels are attached along joints,
so it must be ensured that attachments are
matched with the load-bearing structure’s joints
and that adjoining slabs have an allowance for
movement on only one side of the anchoring.

bb
Colours and surfaces

A stone’s colour and texture result from the

mixture of the minerals and pigments found
in it. Limestones also often contain fossils,
which add to their optical effect (Fig. B 1.5,
p. 65).
Stone can lose its natural colour due to phys-
ical, chemical or biological soiling, although
soft, porous types of stone tend to fade even
without such influences, especially when used
on exteriors. Water on the surface of natural b
stone often intensifies its colour. Depending
on a natural stone’s hardness and individual
characteristics, its surface can be further
worked by machine or by a stonemason. b
aa
B 1.25
Dowel length
B 1.14 Havixbeck quarry, Münsterland (DE), 1952 = constant
B 1.15 Sectioning a block of stone with an iron bar
B 1.16 Using a special wedge technique to split a block
of stone Reference plane
B 1.17 Geometrical conditions for positioning attach- of the substructure
ments
B 1.18 Cross-sectional forms of dowel pins
B 1.19 Grouted dowel in a sliding sleeve, horizontal
cross-section
B 1.20 Axonometric view of load-bearing and retaining
dowels
B 1.21 Load-bearing (a – h) and retaining dowels (i – l)
B 1.22 Dowel that can be finely adjusted
B 1.23 Marble windows of the Arsenale in Venice (IT)
B 1.24 Translucent light stone (translucency in equivalent Dowel sleeve mounted Gap width varies depending
flush with the panel on panel thickness tolerances
material thicknesses) [6]
B 1.25 Slots and grooves used to fit load-bearing and
retaining dowels
B 1.26 Undercut anchors for flush and spaced mounting
B 1.26

69
Natural stone
B 1.27 Hotel, Berlin (DE) 1996, Josef Paul Kleihues
The facade of the Four Seasons hotel is made of
prefabricated storey-high panels hung on storey
slabs. Each panel is made of polished Roman
Travertine slabs 30 mm thick. The panels overlap
and are attached with stainless steel pins. An
aluminium frame supports the rear-ventilated,
insulated natural stone cladding and window
surrounds separated by a thermal break.
70
B 1.28 Office building, Berlin (DE) 1996, Jürgen Sawade
This elegant, very flat facade is made of pol-
ished, black, shiny African granite. Its window
elements are set flush into the stone. The basic
grid measures 1.20 ≈ 1.20 metres and the
panels are 30 mm thick. The use of a temporary
facade hoist meant that the facade could be
assembled without scaffolding, greatly acceler-
ating construction.
B 1.27
B 1.28

B 1.29 Office building, Berlin (DE) 1997, Klaus Theo
Brenner
This strictly structured stone facade is made of
green dolomite with striking stainless steel attach-
ment elements that prevent its upright stone slabs
from falling out of the facade.
Shadows cast by the stainless steel elements vary
depending on the time of day and year, lending
the building an individual character.
Natural stone
B 1.30 Residential and commercial building, Berlin (DE)
1996, Josef Paul Kleihues
A traditional punctuated facade with aluminium-
frame windows in the middle of the wall and
windows' projecting stone frames that reinforce
the effect of the openings. The frames are made
of polished green serpentinite, with polished,
open-pored, yellow travertine wall and parapet
elements.
B 1.1.29
B 1.30
71
Natural stone

B 1.31 B 1.32

Natural stone from German quarries:

B 1.31 Fürstenstein diorite (igneous)
B 1.32 Greifenstein basalt (igneous)
B 1.33 Dorfprozelten sandstone (sedimentary)
B 1.34 Mosel slate (sedimentary)
B 1.35 Aachen bluestone (sedimentary)
B 1.36 Odenwald quartz (metamorphic)
B 1.37 Zöblitz garnetiferous serpentinite (metamorphic)
B 1.38 Jura marble (metamorphic)
B 1.39 Colour of natural stone [7]
B 1.40 Techniques for working stone with machines [8]
B 1.41 Stonemasonry techniques for working stone
by hand [9]
B 1.33 B 1.34
Surface treatments for natural stone:
B 1.42 Coarsely pointed
The surface is chipped off with a tapering
pyramid-shaped pointed chisel and must be
completely worked. The type of blows make
the difference between a roughly and finely
pointed surface.
B 1.43 Toothed
The end of a toothed or claw chisel, applied
in various ways (straight, arched or criss-cross),
can be used to produce a wide variety of
surfaces.
B 1.44 Drove-chiselled in a herringbone pattern
Drove chisels with alternating widths (8 –15 cm)
and various blows can be used to produce
different surface effects.
B 1.45 Pointed, bush-hammered, axed and ground
These four different kinds of working create
different surfaces.
B 1.35 B 1.36 B 1.46 Bush-hammered
The surface is worked with a bush hammer,
finely or roughly depending on the hammer head.
A 7 ≈ 7 hammer head is used for fine textures,
while for coarse textures a 4 ≈ 4 hammer head
with pyramid-shaped teeth is used.
B 1.47 Bush-hammered, brushed and waxed
The wax protects the surface and makes colour
more intense.
B 1.48 Polished
Polishing creates a smooth, intensely shiny sur-
face. Any holes are filled to optimise the polish-
ing’s effect.
B 1.49 Flame-treated
This technique makes use of the various thermal
expansion properties of particles found in nat-
ural stone. Brief flame treatment of a stone sur-
face causes parts to flake off evenly, creating a
rough surface. The reduction in material must be
taken into account in determining the thickness
of panels.
B 1.37 B 1.38

72
 Natural stone

Notes:
[1] DIN 18 516-1: 2010-06; DIN 18 516-3: 2001-11
[2] Pfeifer, Günter et al.: Mauerwerk Atlas. Basel / Munich
2001, p. 17f.
[3] Müller, Friedrich: Gesteinskunde. Ulm 1994, p. 196f.
[4] Hugues, Theodor et al.: Naturwerkstein. Munich 2002,
p. 72
[5] A + U 05/1983, Alvar Aalto, p. 160 –167
[6] ibid., p. 171
[7] As for Note 3, p. 169
[8] As for Note 4, p. 74
[9] ibid.

B 1.42 B 1.43
Black
Dark grey
Pale grey
White
Cream
Yellow
Reddish
Red
Brown
Olive
Dark green
Grey-green
Light green
Light blue

Basalt • ° - ° ° -
Granite - ° ° • • - - -
Marble - ° • • - - °
Slate • - ° - ° • ° -
Sandstone - - - • • • • • ° ° ° -
Limestone ° ° ° - • ° • • • -
- Some sorts
° A few sorts
• Many sorts
B 1.39 B 1.44 B 1.45
Sawn

Ground and
slightly roughened

Milled

Polished

Sandblasted

Rubbed

Flame-treated

Polished

Basalt • • • • • •
Granite • • • • • •
Marble • • • • •
Slate • • •
Sandstone • • • • •
Limestone • • • • • •
B 1.40 B 1.46 B 1.47
Roughening
Bossage
Pointing
Bush hammering
Axed
Crandalling
Batting
Tooth chiselling
Grooving
Scabbling
Rubbing

Basalt • • • •
Granite • • • •
Marble • • • • • • • • • •
Slate •
Sandstone • • • • • • • • • •
Limestone • • • • • • • • • •
B 1.41 B 1.48 B 1.49

73
Natural stone

St. Pius Church

14
Meggen, CH 1966

Architect:
Franz Füeg, Solothurn
with Peter Rudolph and Gérard Staub

º A+U 11/2003
Bauen + Wohnen 05/1966 and 12/1966 17
Casabella 677, 2000
Detail 03/1967 18
Stock, Wolfgang Jean (ed.): Europäischer
Kirchenbau 1950 – 2000. Munich, 2002
16

• Steel frame structure with a 1.68 m basic grid

• Roof support structure made of steel piping
Ø 63.5 mm; spanning 25.50 m
• Translucent marble panel facade
(h ≈ w = 1,020 ≈ 1,500 mm)
• Unusually festive atmosphere inside

Isometric view not to scale

Ground floor layout • Section Scale 1:750
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20
Details of panel mounting, vertical and horizontal
Scale 1:5 21 10
4

20 7

aa cc
4 4

1 Circumferential wooden batten 12 Angle, 35/35/4 mm

2 Flat steel, ¡ 550/10 mm 13 Angle, 40/25/4 mm
3 Marble panel, 150/102/21 mm, 14 Spacer, 25/25/4 mm
sanded smooth on the outside 15 Spacer, 30/30/3 mm with sealing
4 Facade column Å IPB 240 16 M8 with hexagon socket
a a 5 Steel truss rafter made of hollow 17 Flat steel panel support,
steel tubing, Ø 63.5 mm ¡ 20/20/15 mm, covered with
b b 6 Flat steel, ¡ 260/10 mm rigid foam
7 Marble panel, 150/102/28 mm, 18 Angle, 40/40/4 mm
sanded smooth on the outside 19 Rigid foam strip to prevent contact
8 Flat steel, 240/10 mm between marble and steel
9 Steel sheeting condensate channel, 20 Insulated steel sheeting box,
edged with rainwater downpipe,
10 Fresh air inlet Ø 125 mm
11 Fresh air duct 21 Condensate channel drain

74
 Natural stone

6
17 18
12
1 13

19
14
2 5
7

15
16 4
17

12 13

17
8

4 3 5

c c

8 9

10

11

bb

75
Natural stone

House

Sarzeau, FR 1999

Architect:
Eric Gouesnard, Nantes

º A+U 06/1999
L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 320, 1999
LOTUS 105, 2000. Special issue: a a
Aperto over all

• Use of the same material to clad the

facade and roof gives the building’s exter-
ior a monolithic look
• 50 ≈ 50 cm dark grey shale slate panels
• Concealed rainwater gutters

1
Ground floor layout Scale 1:200
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20

1 Slate panels, 20 mm
Substructure made of steel Z-profile sections 3
Cement render, 20 mm
Masonry, 200 mm
Closed-pore thermal insulation
Vapour barrier b b
Plasterboard composite panel, 3
100 mm
2 Aluminium sheeting rain downpipe,
concealed
3 Rainwater downpipe 1

bb aa

76
 Natural stone

Mortensrud Church

Oslo, NO 2002

Architects:
Jensen & Skodvin, Oslo

º Architectural Review 12/2002

Architektur Aktuell 01– 02/2003
A+U 08/2002
Byggekunst 04/2002
Detail 11/2003
Living Architecture 19, 2004

• Inside the church the bedrock has been left Section • Floor plan
exposed in places Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section of the western facade
• External glass facade with interior oiled Scale 1:20 a
steel frame
• Broken slate slabs laid dry without mortar
• Broken stone fill is stabilised by large steel
plates between columns 1 metre apart
• Price per square metre is similar to that of
b
public housing prices in Oslo

aa
a b

1 Steel profile section, fi 80/40/4 mm between the panes 15 + laminated safety

Insulating glazing
1 Toughened safety glass 6 + space
between the panes 16 + laminated safety
glass 8 mm
Tubular steel, ¡ 80/80/4 mm
2 Steel tubing, Ø 38/5 mm as central glass
pane support
2 3 4 3 Steel plate, 360/80/15 mm
4 Steel profile section, fi 80/40/5 mm
5 Insulating glazing
Toughened safety glass 6 + space
glass 7 mm
6 Tubular steel facade posts, ¡ 160/80/8 mm
7 Steel profile section column, IPE 300
8 Slate, laid dry
9 Flat steel stone fill support, ¡ 250/5 mm
10 Lintel made of steel profile sections
2≈ fi 300/100 and 2≈ flat steel, ¡ 100/10 mm
11 Flat steel, 2≈ ¡ 100/10 mm
12 Steel profile section, fi 80/40/5 mm
13 Steel grating, 30 mm
14 Tubular steel handrail, Ø 30 mm

7 6 5

8
14

13 12

9
11

10

bb

77
Natural stone

Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte /

Archaeological Museum

Frankfurt am Main, DE 1989

Architect:
Josef Paul Kleihues, Berlin / Dülmen
with Mirko Baum (Project Manager)

º Arkitektur 08/1989
Baumeister 06/1989
Casabella 481, 1982
Feldmeyer, Gerhard: The New German
Architecture. New York 1993

Floor plan • Cross section Scale 1:1,000

• Rear-ventilated natural stone curtain wall Axonometry
4
facade in materials and colours that har- 1 Vertical cross section Scale 1:5
monise with the church building
• Exposed fastenings function as technically 1 Red sandstone,
no veining,
necessary ornamentation and yellow-green sandstone
2 from the Würzburg region
2 Spacer with
5 special screw,
visible from the outside
3 Support anchor,
not visible on the outside
4 Bracket for exposed
screw fastening
6
of retaining spacer
5 Mounting rail with
standard perforation
6 Wall anchor
7 Steel-reinforced concrete
7

aa

b b

a a

bb

78
 Natural stone

Office of the Federal President

Berlin, DE 1998

Architects:
Gruber + Kleine-Kraneburg, Frankfurt am Main

º Detail 06/1999
Burg, Annegret; Redecke, Sebastian:
Kanzleramt und Bundespräsidialamt der
Bundesrepublik. Boston / Berlin / Basel 1995

• Dark, polished natural stone (Nero Impala)

• The (elliptical) cut of the stone emphasises
the building's form
• Windows flush with the exterior stone cladding
2 3
1

a bb 4 5
7 6

Floor plan Scale 1:3,000 8

Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20 9

1 Natural stone, 40 mm
Air cavity, 85 mm
Insulation, 100 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete 300 mm
Gypsum plaster, 25 mm
2 Window structure:
Aluminium bracket on three sides
with plastic chock wedges 4
providing thermal separation 3
3 Anthracite stove-enamelled aluminium window, 10 11
Glazing: b b
Ground floor 16 mm laminated safety glass made
of 2≈ toughened safety glass
1st – 3rd floors 10 mm toughened safety glass 5
4 Timber-frame window, dark stained oak,
Insulating glazing - laminated safety glass 6 mm +
space between the panes 14 mm + toughened safety
glass 4 mm
5 Aluminium profile section safety barrier, 20/20 mm
6 Aluminium cover plate, 3 mm
Aluminium ribbed profile fastener with integrated
rubber seal, both sides of the butt joint 2
Aluminium profile section substructure fi 50/3 mm,
screwed into aluminium profile section fi 40/3 mm, 1
screwed onto wooden plank
7 Aluminium angle, 50/50/2 mm aa
8 Retaining anchor
9 Supporting anchor
10 Ventilation grille
11 Sunshade – can be lowered to 100 mm
above the window sill
(for air circulation)

79
Natural stone

Museum of Modern Art

Vienna, AT 2001

Architects:
Ortner & Ortner Baukunst, Vienna
with Christian Lichtenwagner
Structural engineers:
Fritsch Chiari & Partner, Vienna

º A+U 01/2002
Materia 39, 2002
Dernie, David: Neue Steinarchitektur.
Stuttgart 2003
aa bb

• Rear-ventilated curtain wall facade of

basaltic lava stone
• Panel formats increase in size with the
height of the building
• Curved roof clad with basalt panels
• Diamond-sawn stone with a porous but
smooth surface

1 Heated stainless steel gutter 8 Steel angle profile, 100/100/10 mm with thermally
2 Overflow gutter separate wall connection
3 Retaining anchor 9 Tubular steel door frame, | 100/100/6 mm
4 Supporting anchor 10 Tubular steel frame, | 60/60/4 mm with steel lugs
5 Natural stone - Mendig basaltic lava to attach the natural stone panels
a a 100 mm, hung in elements with 11 Door leaf: natural Mendig basaltic lava stone,
grouted anchors, 40 mm, attached with undercut anchor dowels
Bed joints filled with permanently elastic Mineral wool, 60 mm
material Rigid polystyrene foam, 20 mm
Ventilation cavity, 50 mm Aluminium sheeting, 2 mm
c c Mineral wool, 80 mm 12 Double window glazing:
Steel-reinforced concrete, 300 mm inside – laminated safety glass made of
Wooden battens, 50 mm 2≈ toughened safety glass + space between
Three-ply plywood, 25 mm the panes + toughened safety glass
Plasterboard, 2≈ 12.5 mm outside – toughened safety glass + space between
6 Insect screen the panes + toughened safety glass
7 Limestone, 250 mm 13 Stainless steel cover plate, 2 mm

80
 Natural stone

1 e

12 13

12
5 8 9 10 11 e 5

dd

d d

Cross sections • Entrance floor plan

Scale 1:1,000
Facade – vertical cross section
Scale 1:50 5
Horizontal cross sections of fire
door and slit window
Scale 1:20
Vertical cross section of slit window
7
Scale 1:20

12

13

cc ee

81
Natural stone

Jewish Center a

Munich, DE 2006/2007

Architects:
Wandel Hoefer Lorch, Saarbrücken
Structural engineers:
Sailer Stepan Partner, Munich
Facade consultants:
Schiller und Partner, Kornwestheim

º Archithese 02/2009 b
Naturstein 09/2007
Fleckenstein, Jutta; Purin Bernhard (ed.):
Jüdisches Museum München. b a
Munich, 2007

• A building complex consisting of the main

synagogue, a cultural and community centre
and the Jewish Museum
• Circumferential storey-high, roughly textured
natural stone (travertine) slab plinth
• Transparent roof lantern with a filigree steel
structure
• Glass facade encased in bronze metal mesh

aa

82
 Natural stone

10
12
11
9

6 7

Floor plan • Cross section

Scale 1:500
2 Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20

1 Rough travertine slabs, 80 –120 mm

Air cavity, 50 mm
Thermal insulation, 120 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete, 300 mm
3 4 5 Battens, 80/100 mm
Cedar wood plywood, 19 mm
2 Cedar wood three-ply plywood, 22 mm
3 Steel profile angle, 120/80/8 mm
1 5 4 Timber beams with felt strips, 160/40 mm
5 Steel profile, IPE 120
6 Travertine slab, 50 mm
Steel grating on a height-adjustable steel frame,
50 mm
7 Stainless steel turnbuckle
8 Post and beam facade:
Bronze profile covering strip with insulating
solar protection glazing
Laminated safety glass 8 + space between the
panes 16 + float glass 8 mm
9 Stainless steel suspension cable, Ø 6 mm
10 Steel tubing, Ø 50.4/4 mm
11 Bronze spacer, ¡ 35/10 mm
12 Triangular truss
bb Steel sheeting, 20 mm

83
Natural stone

Arts Centre

Würzburg, DE 2001

Architects:
Brückner & Brückner, Tirschenreuth aa
with Norbert Ritzer

º AV Monografías / Monographs 98, 2002

Bauwelt 14/2002
Detail 10/2002 a a
b b

• Burenbruch shell limestone used in the

ground floor and plinth
• Udelfang sandstone
• Cogent dialogue between the old and new
buildings
• Converted building has been integrated
into the new function

Cross section • Floor plan of the upper floor

Scale 1:1500
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:1500

1 Udelfang sandstone louvres, 100/225 mm

Air cavity
Insulating rendering
Thermal insulation, 40 mm
Sealing sheeting
Steel-reinforced concrete parapet, 250 mm
2 Steel columns, HEB 300
3 Insulating glazing - toughened safety glass 8 mm +
space between the panes 16 mm + float glass 10 mm
4 Aluminium pipe, | 50/50 mm
5 Heating pipes, copper piping, Ø 24 mm
6 Ground floor and plinth: Burenbruch shell limestone,
100/225 mm
7 Flat steel with lugs, 250 mm
8 Flat steel, 500/10 mm, welded to 250/10 mm flat steel
9 Exterior wall (pre-existing): whitewashed brick inside,
untreated natural stone outside

84
 Natural stone

cc

3 6

7 2

4
5

c c

bb

85
 Clay

B 2 Clay Fired clay, the main component in ceramic

building materials, has been used in construc-
tion for many thousands of years. Although the
basic principles of its production are largely
unchanged, new production methods and
applications mean that ceramic materials are
still among the most “modern” of building
materials.

Artificial stone

In recent decades, the range of artificially

produced stone, including clay brick, has B 2.2
expanded greatly. One main reason for this
is the development of different additives
that can greatly influence artificial stone’s Additives Clay Water
properties (thermal conductivity, compressive
strength, colour etc.). The great diversity of Feeding
products available notwithstanding, three
groups can be differentiated based on the Milling / mixing
method used to produce them:
• Dried (the oldest form of artificial stone) Pressing
• Hardened
• Fired Cutting

Dried types of artificial stone include various Drying

kinds of mud brick, which have undergone
extensive further development recently due to Firing
their ecologically relevant qualities. Sand-lime,
concrete and lightweight concrete blocks are Quality control
masonry units that are hardened by means of
steam and pressure. Bricks are fired and are Packing
available in many formats, hardnesses and
colours. Figure B 2.4 summarises the material Storage
properties of some types of artificial stone.
Transport

B 2.3
Clay brick in facades

In the Nile Valley there are traces of buildings Bulk Thermal Com- Bending
made of hand-formed mud bricks that are density conduct- pressive tensile
ivity strength strength
estimated to date from around 14,000 BC
These kinds of clay structures can disinte- [kg/m2] [W/mk] [N/mm2] [N/mm2]
grate if they are exposed to the weather with- Mud
1,800 – 2,000 0.64 – 0.93 2.40 0.52
out protection from other construction meas- brick
ures. Its specific properties make clay (a mix Sand-lime
600 – 2,200 0.23 – 0.98 4 –6 **
of clay and quartz sands) sensitive to moisture. brick
Clay and mud does not set hard when it dries Aerated-
out, it only hardens. If it is again exposed to concrete 350 –1,000 0.07– 0.21* 2– 8 **
blocks
water (e.g. in the form of rain or soil moisture
Concrete
etc.), it softens and loses strength. For this 500 – 2,400 0.24 – 0.83 2– 48 **
blocks
reason, similar structural solutions designed
Granulated
to protect mud-brick buildings from erosion
slag brick 1,000 – 2,000 ** 6 –28 **
are found all over the world (e.g. building
Brick 1,000 – 2,000 0.18 – 0.56* 4 – 60 **
them under overhanging rock walls, on natural
stone bases or cladding them with fired brick Ceramic
building 1,600 – 2,000 ** 36 – 66 7– 20
or natural stone etc.). To make mud-brick walls materials
more durable, people began firing bricks from
* Dry values, 50 % fractile
around 5,000 BC. If bricks are fired at a tem- ** No figures available
perature of 1,000 °C, they sinter, producing a B 2.4
building material that offers good protection
from weathering. At this time people were also
already able to glaze surfaces and make artifi- B 2.1 Apartment house, Rue de Meaux, Paris (FR) 1991,
Renzo Piano Building Workshop
cial stone with coloured additives (Fig. B 2.5, B 2.2 Traditional mud-brick buildings, Yemen
p. 88). Artificial stone has been a common B 2.3 Diagram outlining the production of clay bricks [1]
building material for millennia. It has been used B 2.4 Material-specific properties of artificial stone [2]

87
Clay
Horizontal
expansion joint
B 2.5
in a wide range of very different buildings in
various local, climatic and geological condi-
tions, aesthetic styles and social contexts.
Crucial progress towards the mass production
of fired bricks was made in Roman antiquity.
There were brickworks supplying all kinds of
building projects with their materials all over the
Roman Empire [3]. In England and Germany
fired clay materials became important in the
Middle Ages, as is manifest in the term “brick
Gothic” (Fig. B 2.6).
The invention of the extrusion press, ring or
Hoffman kiln, and shortly after it the continu-
ous or tunnel kiln in the 18th century made
it possible to mass produce bricks. Clay dis-
solves easily in water but becomes highly
physically and chemically stable when fired.
Its high resistance to soiling, flue gas, algal
growth and frost made this building material
very suitable for exteriors [4]. At the end of
the 19th century, clinker masonry cladding
B 2.6 was the standard weatherproof material for
facades in many places; almost always with
a wide range of historicising decorations, at
least facing the street, which could be ordered
from catalogues. “Stony Berlin”, with its huge
tenements, was built largely of brick. Modernist
architects, such as Alvar Aalto and Mies van
der Rohe et al., also often used brick. From
the mid 20th century others, such as Eladio
Dieste, continuing an Iberian tradition, created
wonderfully inventive architecture using fired
clay brick as an essential element in load-bear-
ing structures, as in his church in Atlántida.
Here the material conveys the character of a
light, undulating shell (Fig. B 2.14). Today’s
B 2.7
ceramic cladding can be just a few centimetres
thick, and its resistance to weathering makes
it especially suitable for protecting insulation
panels or mats.
Ceramic facades
When brickwork is used for buildings’ exterior
walls, load-bearing walls also take on the
functions of building shells. A wide range of
alternatives and design variants that were
developed over centuries in different cultural
regions are available. Many publications
B 2.8
88
B 2.9
describe the relevant construction methods
for walls and openings in detail [5].
The following examples document mainly non-
load-bearing exterior walls that serve mainly
as exterior protective shells for the buildings
behind them. Some buildings also show how
brick elements can be used to create walls
that are permeable to light and air as well as
functioning as screens and sunshades.
The structure of clinker brick facades
Their similar external appearance can lead
people to confuse facing brickwork with
exposed brickwork, leading to misunder-
standings of their structure in the planning
of a brick-faced wall, which now usually has
non-load-bearing, rear-ventilated facade clad-
ding. This type of exterior shell must be per-
manently attached to the building’s frame. In
contrast to other facade cladding, individual
elements (clinker bricks) in a masonry shell
can be quickly joined using mortar to form an
overall system. It must meet various require-
ments depending on the facade’s orientation,
height and colour. As well as transferring loads,
it is essential that it can absorb the movements
caused by hygric and thermal influences.
Anchoring
Facade cladding serves primarily to bear
loads from the structure’s own weight and
wind suction and pressure. The relatively heavy
weight of brick-faced walls means that this is
of primary importance in their construction.
Building elements with structural functions,
such as columns, slabs and load-bearing walls,
are suitable for bearing loads. In practice, loads
from the structure’s own weight are usually
transferred into the slabs of each storey. Around
facade openings, structurally effective anchor-
ing transfers loads from the structure’s own
weight on the section of facade above the lintel
into a load-bearing structural component. A
range of different prefabricated lintels are now
commercially available. Anchor pins extending
into the brick backing (cavity wall ties) ensure
the stability required to withstand wind loads.
They must be flexible enough to absorb the
different movements of the outer and inner
shells. The required number of anchor pins
 Clay

B 2.5 Ishtar Gate, Babylon 562 BC

B 2.6 Town Hall, Tangermünde (DE) 1430
B 2.7 Decoration, Berlin (DE) 1891, Franz Schwechten

_ar
B 2.8 Industrially-produced, coloured brick, around

>
1880
B 2.9 Brackets for supporting facing masonry

x
B 2.10 Brick production, Pakistan 1999

y
B 2.11 Support brackets for facing brickwork in a plain
facade wall surface, at an opening and with a
thermally separated cantilever slab
B 2.12 Chile House, Hamburg (DE) 1924, Fritz Höger
B 2.13 School, Hamburg (DE) 1927, Fritz Schumacher
B 2.14 Church, Atlántida (RO) 1959, Eladio Dieste
B 2.10
per metre can range from five (middle) to nine
(corner, opening) depending on their position
in the facade [6].

Joints
Cladding shell
Expansion joints can be horizontal or vertical.
They range in width from 10 to 20 mm and

_ ar
normally have a permanently elastic seal.
>
The space between vertical joints should
be 15 metres in a continental climate and
x

25 metres in a maritime climate [7]. Euro-

code 6 stipulates that the distance between
movement joints may not exceed 12 metres, Joints with
x2

durable elastic
although the facade’s colour and orientation
sealants
play a crucial role here.
bv

The spacing of horizontal joints depends on

the building’s height. Movement joints can be
dispensed within buildings up to 12 metres
high, while a horizontal movement joint at least
every 9 metres is prescribed for higher build-
ings. In practice, one movement joint is usually B 2.11

B 2.12 B 2.13 B 2.14

89
Clay

Vertical expansion joint Horizontal expansion joint Expansion joint

l < 0.5 · expansion

joint spacing
Expansion joint
40 – 50 mm

1
12 – 20 mm

2
l < 0.5 · expansion
3 joint spacing
Layer of air and Core insulation
20 mm 3 2 1 4 insulation [m] [m]
(min. 15 mm) Concrete blocks 6 5–6

1 Closed-cell foam 3 Elastoplastic joint Sand-lime brick 6–8 6–8

profile sealing mass
Brick 12 8 –12
2 Bonding coat 4 Support bracket
Expansion joint Expansion joint
B 2.15 B 2.16 B 2.17
built for each storey or every two storeys
directly behind the structural anchoring layer.
Window sills, corners, changes in facade clad-
ding or any expected dilation in the overall
building system are special cases requiring
extra movement joints. The facade is ventilated
at the back through open, vertical joints (butt
joints) between single elements.

Appearance
Many components make up a brick facade’s
aesthetic impression. One of the most import-
ant is the bond, which depends heavily on
the basic module of stones, bricks or blocks.
Its material (basic material, firing, added
colour /glaze) and structure (mix of different
B 2.18 B 2.19 stones and their arrangement) shape a
facade’s appearance.
Joints are a technical necessity but also greatly
influence the look of a building. The colour,
width and depth of joints can determine a
facade’s appearance, as can various formats
and colours of stone or brick (Fig. B 2.18 –23).
Reliefs are now rarely used as a way of differ-
entiating designs, although bricks’ small dimen-
sions allow elements made of them to be
varied. To enliven an otherwise monotonous
facade surface it is often enough to have single
bricks or stones protrude slightly out of the
facade plane. Small-scale openings in exterior
ceramic walls let through air and light, offer
protection from sun and glare and allow for
views. They also shape the appearance of
B 2.20 B 2.21 many historical buildings.

Ceramic panel facades

Newer ceramic panel systems are available

only in the form of suspended, rear-ventilated
facades that have clear structural and phys-
ical advantages. Small, medium and large-
format systems are available. Small-format
systems have the great benefit that they can
be adjusted to buildings’ geometries and
structures in finely graduated increments.
DIN 18 516 states that panels can be used
without separate structural planning verifica-
tion if they are less than a maximum of 0.4 m2
in size and 5 kg in weight.
B 2.22 B 2.23

90
 Clay

30
8 14 8

8 7 15
B 2.24 B 2.25
Frames
The frames of ceramic panel facades must
transfer the static loads of the structure’s own
weight, wind suction and pressure, and ther-
mal changes in mass without any restraining
stresses to the load-bearing structure. Connec-
tions with load-bearing structures are usually
made of rust-resistant steel or aluminium [8], so
they often also create a thermal bridge, which
can be alleviated by installing plastic isolators.
In some limited cases the frame can be made
of appropriately treated timber depending on
the building’s height.

Facade panels
Various methods can be used to make facade
panels. If they are incrementally pressed into B 2.26 B 2.27
negative moulds, the side walls of moulds must
be conical. This process does not allow for any
undercutting. The form of an extrusion press’s
mouthpiece determines the cross section of the
panels it produces (Figs. B 2.25 and B 2.30).
Installing individual panels separately gives
them a limited freedom of movement and only
a few joints that must be harmonised with the
building shell are necessary.

Water can be drained off facades in a variety

of ways:
• In horizontal joints by arranging panels like
scales (or shingles) or using shiplaps
• In a vertical direction along water-draining
joint profiles
B 2.28 B 2.29

B 2.15 Joint formation, proposed by the German

Masonry Construction Association (Deutsche
Gesellschaft für Mauerwerksbau)
B 2.16 Arrangement of vertical expansion joints around
a corner
B 2.17 Standard spacing of expansion joints (LDF)
B 2.18 –23 Bond patterns for vertical format facades
B 2.24 Facade structure, axonometry, ceramic panels
on an aluminium frame held in place by clips
and no other fasteners
B 2.25 Modular height increments for upright rectangular
panels
B 2.26 Structure of a vertical format facade
B 2.27 Vertical standard section
B 2.28 Structure of a horizontal format facade
B 2.29 Horizontal standard section
B 2.30 Drying kiln
B 2.31 Printing works, Munich (DE) 1993, Walter Kluska
B 2.30 B 2.31

91
Clay

B 2.32
If joints are open, as is often the case when
fine ceramic stoneware is used, appropriate
dimensioning of the air cavity must be carefully
calculated. Ventilation cross-sections must
comply with those prescribed in DIN 18 516,
Part 1. One important aspect in planning
ceramic panel facades is the option of re-
placing single damaged panels, for which the
frame and form of facade panels must allow
(Fig. B 2.46).

Colour and surface

Most ceramic panels are the inherent colour
of their materials. Firing temperature, oxygen
content of air in the kiln, type and amount of
iron content, and raw and additional materials
B 2.33 B 2.34 can all influence the colour of ceramic building
materials. In the ordinary production of ceramic
panels, surfaces can only be provided with
designs before they are fired. If panels are pro-
duced by extrusion presses, a profiled screw
press mouthpiece can influence their surface
design. The higher cost and effort involved
means that added colours (glazes) are now
rarely used.
One current example of a non-load-bearing
ceramic brick exterior wall is a car park built
by the Renzo Piano Building Workshop firm
in 1992 in Genoa, where brick panels are
held in steel frames, each attached to two
round steel bars, with metal disks as spacers
(Figs. B 2.40 and B 2.41). Another innovative
structure is the BP Studio in Florence show-
B 2.35 B 2.36 room (2001) designed by Claudio Nardi,
where long extruded panel strips were slid
onto metal profiles (Figs. B 2.44 – 46).

Notes:
[1] Ramcke, Rolf: Mauerwerk in der Architektur. In
Pfeifer, Günter et al.: Mauerwerk Atlas. Munich /Basel
2001, p. 15
[2] ibid., p. 15, 122 –159, p. 204 – 234; DIN 1053
[3] As for Note 1
[4] ibid., p. 22
[5] ibid., p. 122 –159, p. 204 – 234. Acocella, Alfonso:
L’architettura del mattone faccia a vista. Rome 1990
[6] DIN 1053 -1:1996 -11
[7] ibid.
[8] See also the guidelines on choosing materials in
DIN 18 516, Part 3
B 2.37 B 2.38

92
 Clay

B 2.32 Colour palette (selection)

B 2.33 –38 Openings in walls
B 2.39 Large-format system
B 2.40 – 41 Car park, Genoa (IT) 1992, Renzo Piano
Building Workshop
B 2.42 Fine ceramic facade panel with bonded,
concealed fasteners
B 2.43 Fine ceramic facade panel with mechanical,
visible fasteners
B 2.44 Section of the showroom facade, Florence (IT)
2001, Claudio Nardi
B 2.45 Extruded linear structural elements for partially
permeable facade structures: detail
B 2.46 Assembled state

B 2.40

10
20 5
5
50

B 2.39 B 2.41

B 2.42 B 2.43 B 2.44

B 2.45 B 2.46

93
Clay

Funerary chapel

Batschuns, AT 2001

Architects:
Marte.Marte, Weiler
Structural engineers:
M+G, Feldkirch

º Detail 06/2003
L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 346, 2003
Waechter-Böhm, Liesbeth (ed.):
Austria West Tirol Vorarlberg. Neue
Architektur. Basel / Berlin / Boston 2003

1
• Compacted clay with no chemical additives
1 Steel sheeting, 3 mm
• Clay was laid between shuttering in layers
2 Light
with no joints about 12 cm high 3 3 Compacted clay ex-
• Compacted using handheld machines ternal wall, 450 mm
• Slight weathering of the surface due to rain 2 4 Steel-reinforced
is not a problem as the earthen structural concrete rail,
205/120 mm
components were built slightly oversized 5 Squared oak timber,
2
4 80/80 mm,
represents a cross
as set into the hori-
zontal lines of the
layers of clay
6 Tamped concrete,
coloured like the
earth
7 Steel-reinforced
concrete beam,
300/200 mm
8 Oak door leaf,
7 2≈ 24 mm
5 9 Solid oak threshold
Floor plan on a hollow steel
Scale 1:500 section,
Vertical cross ¡ 200/100/7 mm
section 10 Stainless steel
Scale 1:20 8 sheeting, 240/10 mm
11 Steel beam made
of flat steel,
b ¡ 380/15 mm and
2≈ ¡ 180/20 mm,
a a welded
b 12 Float glass, 8 mm
bonded in a steel
sheeting frame
13 Steel angle,
∑ 220/150/10 mm
Sealing layer
14 Infill capillary barrier
to prevent rising
damp
11

11

9 13 12

10

14
6

aa bb

94

Rauch House
Schlins, AT 2008
Architects:
Boltshauser Architekten, Zurich
and Martin Rauch, Schlins
Structural engineer:
Josef Tomaselli, Bludesch
º Arquitectura 363/2011
Baumeister 07/2009
Werk, Bauen und Wohnen 03/2008
Kapfinger, Otto; Sauer, Marko (eds.):
Martin Rauch – Gebaute Erde.
Munich, 2015
• Exterior walls made of compacted clay
sourced on site (construction pit)
• The compacted clay structural components
not stabilised (no cement or limestone added)
and the facade surfaces left untreated
• Horizontal brick strips project 2 cm to protect
against erosion (calculated erosion)
• Fired mud-brick slabs for terrace and roof
• The walls and ceilings of the living room and
bedrooms are loam-rendered
• Compacted clay floors, with fired tiles (Raku
technique) in wet rooms
Isometry, no scale
Floor plan, first floor
Scale 1: 400
Vertical cross section, facade
Scale 1:20
a 8
Clay
1 2
1 Fired mud brick, 40 mm, infill
Lava gravel; bitumen sealing sheeting, 3≈ 4 mm;
three-ply spruce panel, 27 mm; reed insulation
matting, 4≈ 50 mm; bitumen sealing sheeting, 4 mm;
cork-loam mixture, sloping
4
2 Dippelbaum timber beam ceiling, approx. 180 mm,
filler timber, loam panels, 25 mm,
loam render 5 mm
3 Rammed earth, 450 mm; reed insulation matting, 5
2≈ 50 mm; loam render, 30 mm with wall heating
(Fine marble powder plaster base)
4 Oak window, untreated on the outside, oiled on the
inside, insulating glazing 3
5 Three-ply spruce panel, 27 mm with several layers of
casein coating, sanded and waxed
6 Erosion protection, fired mud brick, 280/120/30 mm
7 Trass lime ring beam with reinforcement,
300/150 mm
8 Splash guard, fired mud brick,
6
400 – 600/300/40 mm
9 Bitumen sealing sheeting, 2≈ 4 mm,
foam glass, 100 mm, 7
bitumen sealing sheeting, 4 mm
aa
95
Clay

Trade fair administration building

Hanover, DE 1999

Architects:
Herzog + Partner, Munich

º Architectural Review 01/2001

modulo 10/2002
Gissen, David (ed.): Big & Green.
Toward Sustainable Architecture in the
21st Century. Washington 2003
Herzog, Thomas (ed.): Nachhaltige
Höhe – Sustainable Height. Munich /
London / New York 2000

• Rear-ventilated, curtain wall brick facade

system on an aluminium frame
• The ceramic material has a natural light pearl
grey colour (no surface colour added)
• Facade panels with horizontal grooves
(grooved ceramic panels) to prevent facade
run-off water from being driven upwards when
it rains and reduce stress peaks in the manu-
facturing process

Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20

Floor plan
Ground floor • Standard upper floor
Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:5

96
 Clay

6 5 7

1 Aluminium capping sheeting, 3 mm

with sound-insulating coating 4
2 Extruded aluminium section
3 Grooved clay-brick panels, 200/400 mm
4 Aluminium end profile
5 Thermal insulation, 60 mm
6 Steel-reinforced concrete. 300 and 400 mm
7 Stainless steel sheeting; positioned in
coordination with the
glass and steel facade
aa

a a

5 4
6

97
Clay

Museum Brandhorst
a b
Munich, DE 2009

Architects: b
Sauerbruch Hutton, Berlin
Structural engineers:
Ingenieurbüro Fink, Berlin

º Architectural Review 1349/2009

Architektur Aktuell 03/2009
Baumeister 04/2009
a
Brandhorst, Annette (ed.):
Museum Brandhorst. Die Architektur.
Ostfildern 2011

• Facade cladding made of multicoloured

glazed ceramic rods mounted vertically in
front of horizontal, folded aluminium sheet
elements
• Horizontal strip window with light-deflecting
elements that fold outwards
• A grid above the ground floor's glass roof,
which can be walked on, lets in natural
daylight

1 Oak timber grid above ventilation duct

2 Plasterboard acoustic panel, 10 mm
Mineral fibre insulation, 30 mm
Aluminium profile, fi 60/30 mm
3 Motorised adjustable anti-glare blind
4 Motorised adjustable sunshade blinds
5 Insulating glazing, toughened safety glass 6 +
space between the panes 10 +
float glass 4 + space between the panes 8 +
laminated safety glass 12 mm
6 Insulating glazing, toughened safety glass 4 +
acrylic glass light-deflecting prisms in space between
the panes 10 + laminated safety glass 8 mm
7 Tubular steel louvre support, ¡ 100/60/6.3 mm
8 PMMA pipe profile, Ø 50 mm
9 Light diffusing film for luminous ceiling
10 Polycarbonate panel, 6 mm
11 Steel bracket
12 Hollow ceramic cladding profile, 40/40/9 mm
Perforated aluminium sheeting, 2 mm,
acoustic fleece
Aluminium frame, mineral fibre thermal insulation,
120 mm, steel-reinforced concrete, 250 mm
Wall heating system with facing brick layer, 150 mm
Internal plastering, 20 mm

98
 Clay

aa

3
4 2

10 9 8 7

11

12

Floor plan, ground floor

Cross section Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20 bb

99
Clay

House

Brühl, DE 1997 a

Architect:
Heinz Bienefeld, Swisttal-Ollheim

º A+U 10/2001
Baumeister 11/1997
Pfeifer, Günter et al.: Mauerwerk Atlas.
Munich / Basel 2001
b

a b

• The solidity of the house’s cubic form is

emphasised by the choice of materials and
the way in which the roof seems almost to
float above it
• Clinker brick-facing facade
• Wild bond
• Wall almost 50 cm thick with multilevel lintels

Floor plan • Cross section, ground floor

Scale 1:250
Horizontal cross section • View with glazed door
Scale 1:20
Vertical cross section, facade
Scale 1:20

1 Rainwater gutter, fi 140 mm 6 Taunusstein clinker brick, NF 115 mm

2 Steel purlin, 2≈ ∑ 80/80/10 mm
3 Steel-frame window, galvanised
frames,
micaceous iron oxide finish,
insulating glazing
4 Steel profile, fi 40/35 mm,
in front of steel piping,
aa ¡ 50/25 mm
5 Sheet metal windowsill covering,
bent up at the ends and set into
the masonry joint
wild bond, bed joints, 20 mm
Poroton lightweight brick
Lime plaster, 25 mm
Lime slurry render with marble powder
7 Jack arch lintel, 15 mm rise
8 Steel-framed glass door, galvanised
frames, micaceous iron oxide finish,
insulating glazing
9 Steel profile, galvanised, micaceous
iron oxide finish, fi 120/40/8 mm
10 Prefabricated concrete step

100
 Clay

4 8 b

2 9

10 6
cc
b
b

4
5

8
9

c c

10

bb

101
Clay

Art museum
a
Ravensburg, DE 2013 b

Architects: 7
LRO Lederer Ragnarsdóttir Oei, Stuttgart
Structural engineers:
Ingenieurbüro Schneider & Partner,
Ravensburg

º Arquitectura viva 158/2013

Baumeister 01/2013 c
Conarquitectura 10/2015
DBZ 08/2014 a c
Detail 06/2013 b
wettbewerbe aktuell 01/2013

• Multilayered external walls with facing brick-

work made of roughly jointed recycled bricks
• Load-bearing, insulated steel-reinforced
concrete wall
• Multilayered arching roof with untreated
recycled bricks on the inside
• Triple-glazed, timber-frame windows

aa

bb

102
 Clay

1 Two-ply bitumen sheet roof sealing, 4 Duplex steel support bracket,

slate top layer
Thermal insulation, 300 mm
Vapour barrier, undercoat
Steel-reinforced concrete to distribute
loads, 200 mm
Stainless steel anchor, Ø 4 mm,
in the mortar joint
Recycled brick, 115 mm
Arc radius, evenly conical, 1.50 – 5.50 m
2 Top parapet cover, copper sheeting,
0.7 mm, gradient 6 %
3 Facing brickwork
Recycled brick, 115 mm
“Finger gap”, 10 mm
Stainless steel cavity wall anchor,
Ø 4 mm, in the mortar joint
Thermal insulation, 240 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete, 250 mm
Gypsum plaster smoothed with
emulsion paint
to minimise thermal bridge effect, 2
material cross section minimised
5 Thermal insulation, 300 mm
6 Copper sheeting, 0.7 mm
7 Two-ply bitumen sheet roof sealing,
slate top layer
1
Thermal insulation, 280 mm
Emergency seal / vapour barrier
undercoat,
Sloping screed, 2 %, 40 – 95 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete, 3
200 mm plastered
8 Fixed glazing:
timber frame with triple glazing,
U = 0.84 W/m2K
9 Peripheral LED light strip
10 Copper sheeting windowsill, 1.5 mm
11 Thermal insulation, 240 mm
12 Cast steel manhole cover
13 Cement-bonded waterproofing slurry

2
5
6
7

Floor plan
Ground floor
Cross section
Scale 1:500
Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20

10

11

12

13

cc

103
Clay

Israel Museum extension

Jerusalem, IL 2010

Design:
James Carpenter Design Associates, New York

º DETAIL 06/2011
Element + Bau 04/2011 a
Intelligente Architektur 75/2011
a

• Renovation and expansion of one of Israel’s

most important museums
• The design respects the existing building
and surrounding garden designed by Isamu
Noguchi
• Smooth transition between inside and outside
• Extruded clay ceramic louvres specially
developed for this site and facade orientation
provide high quality daylight illumination
• The louvres on each side are of different
widths
• The louvres thus screen the interior from
direct sunlight on all sides

a b

104
 Clay

Floor plan Scale 1:1,000

1 Diagram of daylight, light deflection
2 No scale
a 1 pm
b 5 pm
Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20
3 Vertical cross section of louvres, no scale
Axonometry brackets

1 In-situ poured concrete beam,

120 ≈ 25 cm
2 Eaves, 110 ≈ 16 cm,
prefabricated steel-reinforced
concrete
3 Roof parapet, 50 ≈ 4.5 cm,
prefabricated concrete
4 Steel columns, Ø 20 cm,
painted
5 Low-iron, laminated safety glass,
2 ≈ 8 mm,
facade posts, painted
6 Ceramic louvre
7 Window grid
aa 8 Mechanical ventilation

105
106

B 3 Concrete
B 3.1 Art and Architecture Building, Yale University,
New Haven (US) 1964, Paul Rudolph
Concrete, the first artificially-produced hetero-
geneous building material, was an important
developmental step in the history of construc-
tion. It is extremely durable, easy to work,
readily available and structurally robust in com-
bination with steel. Steel-reinforced concrete
is widely used in load-bearing structures, and
its plastic malleability is continuously leading
to novel construction methods.
In facades concrete has a range of applica-
tions, although these are often ignored in
favour of simplistic pragmatism. As a mono-
lithic building material worked in a single
piece, it can be used to make seamless tran-
sitions between elements. As well as exposed
concrete facades made of concrete poured
on site, an extensive range of structural and
design options is available in forms ranging
from large panels to small blocks. The term
“concrete facade” usually refers to general
applications for cement-bonded and cement-
based building materials. This section focuses
on the effective use of concrete in building
design, which can be divided into five main
areas:
• Exposed concrete facades
• Precast elements
• Concrete panels
• Exposed concrete blocks
• Cement-bonded panels
These various applications involve different
production, manufacturing technology and
normative requirements. Various material-
specific adjustments can also be made, with a
diverse range of colours and structural options
available for designing surfaces to make them
• Heavy/ light
• Insulating /storing
• Densely-structured /open-pored
From opus caementicium to (steel-rein-
forced) concrete
Despite being a very old material, concrete
has had a lasting influence on the develop-
ment of modern architectural forms [1]. Lime
mortar was in use as a building material around
12,000 BC, and based on experience with it,
opus caementicium was made from the 2nd
century BC Using this concrete the Romans
created masterly architectural achievements
such as the Pantheon in Rome (118 AD).
At the end of the Roman Empire, opus cae-
menticium’s importance as a building material
was lost for almost 1,500 years. The develop-
ment of Portland cement (around 1824) marked
the beginning of the development of modern
concrete.
In the mid 19th century efforts were made in
France and England to reinforce concrete.
Experiments were carried out in an attempt to
find a substitute for wood and natural stone
because it was hoped that a new material
would offer better protection from encroaching
damp. A patent was issued for an iron and
Concrete
concrete composite slab in England in 1854.
At around the same time, François Coignet
developed the tamped concrete, or “Béton
aggloméré” process, adapted from rammed
earth techniques and used it to build a three-
storey house.
Pioneering construction projects around 1900
were accompanied by a range of experimental
investigations into concrete’s material behav-
iour and the further development of calculation
methods for a general theory of steel-reinforced
concrete construction. This led to new applica-
tions, especially for load-bearing structures
with long spans.
Concrete in facades
Use of this new material became established
around 1900, especially in industrial and
commercial buildings such as wholesale mar-
kets and factory halls. These buildings were
usually built around linear skeleton structures
made of columns and beams. One pioneer
in this area was Auguste Perret, whose town-
house in the Rue Franklin in Paris (1903) high-
lighted concrete in a house’s facade for the
first time.
From around 1910, steel-reinforced concrete
construction was influenced by more formal
approaches. Designs such as those by Tony
Garnier (“Une Cité Industrielle”, 1901–1917),
Le Corbusier’s design for the reinforced con-
crete structure “Dom-Ino” (1914) and Ludwig
Mies van der Rohe’s design for an office build-
ing (1922) and a steel-reinforced concrete
country house (1923) all worked with panels
and continuous parapets.
In-situ concrete
At this time concrete was regarded as a mod-
ern building material. Around 1900 architects
and entrepreneurs hoped that poured and
cast concreting techniques would have vari-
ous advantages, although the degree of mech-
anisation of work processes and formwork
systems required had a major influence on the
economic success of their ventures.
Exterior walls were still often built as conven-
tional punctuated facades and their surfaces
rendered in the same way as masonry walls.
Three sacred buildings and one “amateur”
project marked concrete’s early years and gave
expression to the material’s specific qualities.
Frank Lloyd Wright worked on the Unity Church
in Oak Park in Illinois (1906) with various plas-
tic forms and added special aggregates to
concrete to extend both his design freedom
and the range of colours in exposed concrete
surfaces. In 1922 Auguste Perret left the sur-
faces of a skeleton structure in the Notre-Dame
church in Raincy near Paris visible and made
the largely separate outer walls a light, tracery-
like concrete grid. For the St. Antonius church
in Basel (1927), Karl Moser chose a strict,
cubic formal language, designing exposed
concrete surfaces that bear the marks of the
107
Concrete
B 3.2
formwork and powerfully highlight the material
of the facade and interior.
One building in which concrete was expertly
used in the facade’s modelling is the Goethe-
anum in Dornach (1928) by Rudolf Steiner,
although building such plastic, organic designs
involves a great deal of work and sophisticated
artisanal formwork techniques.
In the 1950s concrete became a mass-market
building material, used in all kinds of con-
struction tasks. One main driving force was
Le Corbusier, who sought to highlight con-
B 3.3 crete’s immediate, “raw” materiality – “Béton
brut”. He used it skilfully as a design medium
in relief and /or plastic facade surfaces, such
as the Sainte-Marie-de-la-Tourette priory (1960)
in Éveux near Lyon (Fig. B 3.2).
While Swiss firm Atelier 5 used raw exposed
concrete for (small) residential buildings in
building the Halen housing estate near Bern
(1961), Louis Kahn chose very smooth sur-
faces for the Jonas Salk Institute in La Jolla
(1965). Kahn was also the first to structure
concrete facades along orthogonal lines by
using shadow joints and carefully positioning
formwork ties, making the facades’ production
B 3.4 process legible.
In the 1960s and 1970s many architects
increasingly used the options concrete offered
for moulding exterior walls and buildings and
the various design possibilities of its surfaces.
Unique buildings from this period include the
Pilgrimage Cathedral in Neviges (1968) and
the Town Hall (Rathaus) in Bensberg (1969) by
Gottfried Böhm. These buildings – especially
the church – model a plastic, rugged structure
with powerful, opaque surfaces whose fine tex-
ture of formwork structures prevents them from
appearing monotonous (Fig. B 3.3).
Another very plastic use of concrete as a
material is evident in an office building by Bar-
bosa & Guimarães Arquitectos in Porto (2009)
(Fig. B 3.5). Here polygonal facade surfaces
determine not only the building’s outside appear-
ance but also its interior spaces. While Carlo
Scarpa explored concrete’s mouldable qual-
ities in an almost (skilled) craftsmanly manner,
especially in the Brion family monument in San
Vito d’Altivole near Asolo (1975), Paul Rudolph
B 3.5
108
used industrial textured formwork for the Art and
Architecture Building at Yale University in New
Haven (1958 – 64) (Fig. B 3.1, p. 107). The fluted
profiling of its coloured surfaces, alternating
smooth grooves with rough, broken piers, cre-
ates a sophisticated play of light and shade.
Adding locally available materials to concrete
and/or structuring damp surfaces can open
up further design options, as Auer + Weber
demonstrate in their ESO Hotel at Cerro Paranal
(2001) (see p. 123) and Herzog & de Meuron
at the “Schaulager” art storage facility in Basel
(2003) (Fig. B 3.8).
More recently architects have often sought to
express the impression of a monolithic con-
struction method, down to the last detail. The
avoidance of any construction joints, dispens-
ing with visible formwork ties, and structural
components with extremely pared-down cross
sections and novel appearances has subjected
this high-performance material to enormous
technical challenges.
Prefabrication
Producing concrete on a building site has
structural and technical disadvantages, so
efforts have been made to break structures
down into similar, transportable elements that
can be serially produced in prefabrication
plants. These make it possible to work in any
weather and ensure higher quality and greater
precision in production and higher standards
in surface finishes.
The first field factory for precasting concrete
elements opened in France in the early 1890s.
In 1896 French stonemason François Henne-
bique made the first building prefabricated in
a series, using a transportable cubicle made
of 5 cm thick, reinforced concrete slabs.
From 1920 assembly-based construction
methods using steel-reinforced concrete
became increasingly important. Architects
like Ernst May, who applied a system of wall
blocks of various sizes that he developed in
a series of housing estates in Frankfurt am
Main (Praunheim, 1927), and Walter Gropius,
who used a small-format construction method
and hollow slag concrete blocks for the
Dessau-Törten estate (1927), worked on con-
 Concrete

cepts involving extensive prefabrication.
Although these systematic approaches did
not become established in construction tech-
nology or economy, these experiments were
an important (first) step on the path to indus-
trialising building [2].
In the 1950s and 1960s large panel construc-
tion – building with large format, load-bearing
walls – became widespread. While prefabri-
cated system construction resulted in the
building of very schematic facades on a mas-
sive scale, postmodern architecture almost
reversed this approach, using prefabrication
and the plastic malleability of concrete elem-
ents to create arbitrary interplays of colours
and forms.
Architects like Angelo Mangiarotti (see p. 116),
Bernhard Hermkes (Architecture faculty build-
ing at the Technische Universität Berlin, 1968,
Fig. B 3.4), Gottfried Böhm and Eckhard Ger-
ber formulated architectural responses. Böhm’s
administration building for Züblin AG in Stutt-
gart (1984) shows a sophisticated treatment
of the forms and colours of precast elements.
Gerber used orthogonal planar steel-reinforced
facade elements in a structurally clear way to
clad the columns and spandrel panels of an
office building in Dortmund (1994). “Heavy-duty
prefabrication” is once again an option from a
technical and design point of view. Architects
such as Thomas von Ballmoos, Bruno Krucker
(Stöckenacker housing estate in Zurich, 2002)
and Léon Wohlhage Wernik (Sozialverband
headquarters in Berlin, 2003) have planned
buildings with storey-high, multilayered precast
elements that vary slightly in size and create a
harmonious result.
B 3.6
One form of unreinforced facade cladding is
small-format, concrete artificial stone panels.
Panels fixed with mortar are a robust, easily-
worked building material that has been used
in construction for more than 100 years, espe-
cially at the bases of buildings. One of the
earliest examples of this in Germany was the
Town Hall (Rathaus) in Trossingen (1904),
where concrete panels clad the plinth and
splayed door jambs. The wide range of ways
that concrete can be worked and shaped
and the combinations of different aggregates
possible have been used to create orna-
mental structural elements such as (demi-)
columns, balusters, gables, rosettes and the
like. Concrete panels are now widely used as
a suspended, rear-ventilated, small-format
cladding material, as in the red facade of the
German School in Beijing (2001) by Gerkan
Marg + Partner.
Concrete blocks
Concrete blocks offer the advantages of en-
abling small-format, light construction with a
wide range of colours and surface treatments.
From 1914 Frank Lloyd Wright explored various
ways of using them. With his “Textile Block”
B 3.7
system, he was seeking an alternative to large-
format panel construction. Starting from a
square basic module, he worked with variously
shaped bricks and stones. Buildings like his
John Storer house in Hollywood (1923) feature
richly ornamented facade surfaces with alter-
nating patterns of smooth and structured
stones (Fig. B 3.6) [3].
Egon Eiermann focused on the motif of a trans-
lucent wall, using concrete grid blocks with
(coloured) glass infills in the St Matthew Church
in Pforzheim (1956), and the Kaiser-Wilhelm
Memorial Church in Berlin (1963).
Another application for exposed masonry
blocks is as opaque surface filling in a steel-
reinforced concrete structure, a technique fre-
quently found in Herman Hertzberger’s work.
In buildings such as the Centraal Beheer office
building in Apeldoorn (1972, Fig. B 3.7), the
Vredenburg music centre in Utrecht (1978)
and the Apollo Schools in Amsterdam (1983),
untreated exposed masonry, visible inside and
out, with its the slightly porous surfaces and
variously coloured textures, contrasts strikingly
with smooth exposed concrete and glass
(brick) surfaces [4].

B 3.2 Priory of Sainte-Marie-de-la-Tourette, Éveux (FR)

1960, Le Corbusier
B 3.3 Pilgrimage Cathedral, Neviges (DE) 1968, Gottfried
Böhm
B 3.4 Architecture faculty TU Berlin (DE) 1967, Bernhard
Hermkes
B 3.5 Vodafone Headquarters, Porto (PT) 2009, Barbosa
& Guimarães
B 3.6 John Storer House, Hollywood (US) 1924, Frank
Lloyd Wright
B 3.7 Office building, Centraal Beheer, Apeldoorn (NL)
1972, Herman Hertzberger
B 3.8 Schaulager, Basel (CH) 2003, Herzog & de Meuron
B 3.8

109
Concrete
Ticino architect Mario Botta has also used
concrete blocks, whose small format and col-
our are a deliberate reference to the region’s
tradition of building with granite quarry stone,
to build a series of detached houses.
Cement-bonded panel materials
Fibre cement panels offer a range of different
applications for mineral-based bonded building
materials. A patent for asbestos cement, a
composite of asbestos fibres and cement, was
registered in Austria around 1900. The Eternit
company produced panels of the same name
from 1903 [5].
In the 1970s asbestos fibres were found to be
carcinogenic. Sprayed asbestos was banned
in 1979 and the use of asbestos-cement panels
(with a fibre content of approx. 10 %) was
phased out in the late 1990s. After asbestos
had to be replaced as a material, cement-
bonded panels with new fibre material aggre-
gates that pose no risk to health, such as wood
shavings, became commercially available.
This material has a high level of mechanical
strength, even at low thicknesses, is fireproof,
and can be made in various sizes and formats.
Initially developed as light roofing material,
small-format shingles and large-format panels
were soon also used as facade cladding. From
1912 small-corrugation panels and from 1923
large-corrugation panels expanded the range
of these products. As well as having positive
material properties and being easy to work
with, composite panels were industrially mass-
produced from the outset, making them a cost-
effective building material.
One pioneer in the deliberate use of this ma-
terial in facade design was Marcel Breuer.
In the early 1930s he used corrugated fibre
cement panels for a shopfront in Basel.
In Germany millions of asbestos cement panels
were built into facades, especially in the 1950s
and 1960s. Renowned architects like Ernst
Neufert, who published a Well-Eternit Hand-
book in 1955, and Egon Eiermann used fibre
cement panels in industrial, residential and
administration buildings, as did Rolf Gutbrod
in his design for an office and commercial
building in Stuttgart (1952).
More recent examples show that fibre cement
panels are still often used as light and robust
facade cladding material, in buildings such
as the Lagerhaus Ricola in Laufen (1987) by
Herzog & de Meuron, where they are arranged
in stepped bands of varying sizes (Fig. B 3.9)
or the Technology Centre in Zurich (1992), by
architects Itten and Brechbühl, with its exten-
sive planes and visible fastenings [6].
Concrete technology
Concrete is artificial stone made by hardening
a mixture of cement and water (cement paste)
to form cement stone and bonding aggregate
to form a solid matrix. EN 206-1 is the most
110
important standard governing its design
and construction. Concrete’s main constitu-
ents are
• A binding agent
• Aggregate
• Additives
• Admixtures
Cement, made by burning then grinding
lime and clay or marl, is the binding agent
used. The main cement now in use is Portland
cement, which contains 3 to 5 % gypsum or
anhydrite. Cement hardens when water is
added to it. The resulting cement stone is a
strong, water-resistant material.
EN 197-1 classifies normal cements into five
main types (CEM I–V), covering 27 products
with varying main constituents. The most com-
mon kind of cement now in use is CEM II, a
Portland composite cement containing at least
65% Portland cement clinker by mass and at
least one other main constituent.
Concrete consists of about 70 % aggregate
by volume. Limestone, quartz, granite or por-
phyry in a round, rounded-sand or gravel form
is extracted from rivers or gravel pits, while
crushed sand, stone chippings or double-
crushed chips, crushed stone, comes from
quarries.
Additives such as concrete plasticiser and
superplasticiser, air-entraining agents and
stabilisers have chemical or physical effects
that modify concrete’s material properties.
Additives such as pigments, or more rarely
powdered rock, can be used to dye concrete
almost any colour.
Concrete quickly achieves high compressive
strength and good durability, although it has
a fairly low tensile strength. This is compen-
sated for by adding reinforcement to it, usu-
ally steel reinforcement, making concrete
an outstanding composite material with proper-
ties that can be very precisely adapted. These
properties govern its uses, functions and
potential applications. Requirements such
as strength, corrosion and frost resistance
etc. are generally defined, and the exposure
classes distinguish between impacts on the
concrete and on its reinforcement. Concrete
exterior elements that freeze and thaw if they
become even moderately damp and whose
reinforcement must be protected from carbon-
ation caused by alternating exposure to mois-
ture are classified in exposure classes XC 4
and XF 1. This concrete must be in strength
class ≥ C 25/30 and have a water-cement ratio
(w/c ratio) of ≤ 0.60 and cement content of
≥ 280 kg/m3.
Fresh concrete for use in exposed concrete
surfaces should be easy to work, i.e. it should
be stable and not bleed and separate, as
specified in consistency class F 3. To ensure
uniform content and consistent granulometry,
i.e. particle size and form, sufficient quantities
of fine particles of cement and aggregates
are important parameters in ensuring this con-
crete’s workability.
B 3.9
B 3.9 High-rack storage warehouse, Laufen (CH) 1987,
Herzog & de Meuron
B 3.10 Classification of types of “concrete in facades”
Types of concrete
Hardened concrete’s two most essential prop-
erties are its bulk density and compressive
strength.
Concrete can be mixed to have specific prop-
erties depending on its manufacture and
aggregates. A dense concrete offers good
load-bearing capacity and sound insulation,
while porous aggregates improve concrete’s
thermal insulation function. Various types of
concrete are classified by their dry bulk dens-
ity as follows:
• Heavy concrete: > 2,600 kg/m3
Aggregates e.g. iron ore, iron granulate,
barytes
Applications include concrete offering radi-
ation protection
• Normal concrete: > 2,000 –2,600 kg/m3
Aggregates e.g. sand, gravel, stone chip-
pings, blast furnace slag
This type of concrete is used in most con-
struction applications. If there is no risk of
confusion, normal concrete is also just called
“concrete”.
• Lightweight concrete: 800 –2,000 kg/m3
Its features are primarily determined by
- Properties of lightweight aggregates such
as expanded shale and clay etc.
- Type of concrete texture, with a porous
lightweight aggregate or dense
- Porosity, porous, foam or aerated concrete
Porous lightweight concrete is used mainly
for thermal insulation applications. It has
a lower load-bearing capacity than nor-
mal concrete but is adequate for general
building.
Concrete is also classified in compressive
strength classes. Double figures after the C
(Concrete) result from standardisation with
DIN EN 206-1 and indicate cylinder and cube
compressive strengths in N/mm2:
• Normal-strength concretes (C 8/10 to
C 50/60)

Type of Reinforced
reinforcement
Mats Textile
Reinforcement
Steel Plastic
material
Normal Lightweight
Concrete
concrete concrete
Applications
Concrete cast Precast elements
in situ (1–14 m2)
Single-layer curtain Multilayer curtain
wall panel wall panel
• High-strength concretes (C 55/67 to
C 100/115)
• Lightweight concretes (LC 8/9 to LC 50/55)
Lightweight concretes are divided into six bulk
density classes from D 1.0 to D 2.0, which plan-
ners must select depending on the application.
High-performance and textile-reinforced concretes
Wide-ranging research is continuing into con-
crete manufacture to improve the material’s
performance. Self-compacting and very strong
concretes are one focus of this work. The goal
is to add chemical materials to produce high
flowability concretes with precisely adjusted
viscosity that can deaerate without mechanical
intervention and (self) compact. These would
make it much easier to make very slender
structural components with close-meshed
reinforcement and sophisticated geometric
forms with high-quality, dense exposed con-
crete surfaces.
Other developments are focusing on improving
concrete’s strength and protecting it from pene-
trating moisture. Very strong concretes with
cylinder compressive strengths > 125 N/mm2
are now being used in construction. These con-
cretes have a low water /cement ratio and, due
to the use of ultra-fine fillers such as microsilica
or microfine cement, a much denser texture
and produce extremely low-porosity surfaces.
As well as these constructional “superlatives”,
combining concrete with corrosion-resistant
textile fibres for use as reinforcement material
is becoming increasingly important. “Textile-
reinforced concrete” is a composite material
that uses textile AR-glass or carbon fibre fabric
to produce relatively thin-walled concrete struc-
tural components that need only a thin, struc-
turally-necessary concrete covering of their
reinforcement. Results available to date confirm
that beyond the substitution of conventional
composite materials and existing construction,
Concrete in facades
Fibres
Glass Plastic Glass
Glass fibre Translucent Fibre cement
concrete concrete
Sandwich panel
this material can open up new concrete and
lightweight construction applications. It has
been shown that cement-bonded materials
can achieve exceptionally high strengths and
be used to produce extremely dense exposed
concrete surfaces. These developments are
providing new impetus, especially in construc-
tion with precast components [7]. Another area
undergoing further development is self-com-
pacting concrete, which is greatly expanding
the range of potential applications, in the con-
text of sophisticated formwork geometries, for
example. DIN EN 206, Part 9 contains more
information on this area.
Construction aspects
Despite the wide range of concretes available,
most base mixtures used in practice are based
on normal concrete. In the 1970s an enormous
quantitative and qualitative expansion in the
use of concrete was expected from the devel-
opment of various forms of lightweight con-
crete. These expectations were not met and
(structural) lightweight concrete for external
walls is used almost exclusively in detached
or semi-detached housing or commercial build-
ing construction and, apart from a few excep-
tions, rendered or used in the form of masonry
blocks or precast components joined with mor-
tar or adhesive.
The diverse possibilities of working concrete
give rise to very different facade construction
conditions. On the one hand, there are purely
material-specific demands. On the other hand,
there are forms of construction that are subject
to standards and guidelines that also apply to
the use of other building materials (Fig. B 3.10).
Exposed concrete
When we speak of concrete facades, we are
usually referring to concrete poured on site,
meaning in this context exposed concrete
Concrete
Unreinforced
Wood
Porous Lightweight Normal
concrete concrete concrete
Artificial
concrete stone
panel
Large-format Small-format Facing
panels panels masonry units
Non-load-bearing, rear- Fixed with mortar
ventilated (0.2 –1 m3) (≤ 0.12 m2)
B 3.10
facades. The production and appearance of
such concrete surfaces is subject to particular
requirements. It has been shown in practice
that designing special features requires archi-
tects to have expert knowledge of these par-
ticular requirements.
A concrete wall’s surface can be given a range
of different design effects through
• Special use of formwork
• Specific composition of the concrete
Surface treatments
One essential precondition for a concrete sur-
face is the formwork system. A concrete surface
consists of a layer of mortar made of cement
stone and the finest aggregate constituents, so
it reproduces the surface of the formwork used.
The formwork influences the surface depend-
ing on whether it is
• Absorbent (e.g. rough-sawn, unplaned
planks; uncoated particle board)
• Slightly absorbent (e.g. multi-ply boards with
special surface finishes)
• Not at all or very slightly absorbent (e.g. steel
sheeting, plastic matrices, particle board)
How often formwork has been used and its
cleanliness influence the development of
pores, marbling, blushing and differences in
colour. A major role in a concrete surface’s
look is also played by the position and arrange-
ment of:
• Joints
• Formwork joints
• Formwork ties
Trapezoidal or triangular fillets (e.g. 7 mm,
10 mm) can be used to accentuate construc-
tion and dummy joints or conceal them by put-
ting them in shaded areas. It must be ensured
that these areas have a sufficient concrete
cover.
It is impossible to make formwork joints com-
pletely watertight, and the water /cement ratio
111
Concrete

Joint spacing Guidelines for Required Joint sealing mass thickness

joint width w1) minimum
in conditions joint width
L [m] +10 °C [mm] min w [mm] tF2) [mm] permissible
divergence [mm]

Up to 2 15 10 8 ±2

More than 2 – 3.5 20 15 10 ±2

More than 3.5 – 5 25 20 12 ±2

More than 5 – 6.5 30 25 15 ±3

More than 6.5 – 8 35 30 15 ±3

1)
Permissible divergence: ± 5 mm
2)
Figures provided refer to the end state, so shrinkage in the volume of the joint sealant's mass must be taken into
account.
around joints also changes (which can cause
discolouration), so particular attention should
be paid to joints. Regularly arranged formwork
ties and the shape of the anchor cones also
influences the overall effect of a facade sur-
face. It has been shown in practice that filling
indentations by trowelling them level with the
surface often leads to unsatisfactory results.
Sharp edges require special measures to pro-
tect them from damage, which should be taken
into account in planning. Spalled areas must
be repaired, which, however, usually produces
varying colours.
Another important parameter is the thick-
ness of external walls, which depends on
the positioning of reinforcement and proper
technical placing and compacting of the con-
crete. Given the usual diameter of a poker
or immersion vibrator (about 40 mm) and
required minimum spacing of reinforcement
bars, thicknesses of ≥ 16 cm for facing shells,
or better ≥ 24 cm, have been proven to be
most effective.
Exposed concrete facades require detailed
preplanning to ensure construction quality,
assessment and guaranteeing of the surface’s
B 3.11
quality and structural element costs, so it is
advisable to draw up a formwork sample plan
that establishes special design features such
as structuring of the space, surface textures
and structural details. Test surfaces that are
similar in terms of scale, position and produc-
tion conditions are an important control medium
in ensuring the desired quality.
Exposed in-situ concrete facades have a unique
appearance and production that cannot be
reproduced exactly because they are the result
of many influential factors. Making concrete on
the building site also limits options for treating
its surface [8].
Precast components
Producing precast concrete components [9]
offers a wide range of advantages compared
with using in-situ concrete because its pro-
duction and processing will be of a piece. Hori-
zontal production can produce very dense con-
cretes with a less porous surface, although
the transport and installation options available
make it difficult to use large, heavy, precast
components economically. In terms of the
thicknesses of structural components, similar
conditions as for in-situ concrete apply. Much
more slender reinforced structural components
ranging from ≥ 7 cm to 14 or 16 cm thick can
be made in precasting factories. Precast
elements can have surfaces ranging up to
14 m2 in size, although the maximum length
of 5 metres for facing shells should not be
exceeded.
Precasting factories can offer a range of eco-
nomical ways of processing concrete surfaces.
Surfaces can be given a more plastic form with
projections and indentations and divided up
with dummy joints. Veneer layers with (frost-
resistant) undressed stone and rubble, facing
brick and natural stone and ceramic panels
can also be fabricated. This involves position-
ing the materials with the facing side on the
bottom of the formwork then bonding them to
the precast component with several layers of
concrete.
Normal concrete is most commonly used in
precasting factories, although self-compacting
concretes with very soft consistencies that are
therefore very easy to work, making them espe-
cially suitable for making exposed concrete
surfaces, are increasingly being used.

The positioning and formation of joints is an

essential detail in working with precast con-
crete elements, and their minimum width of
10 mm depends on the length of the panel.
Joint widths in dark surfaces that are especially
sensitive to temperature must be increased by
10 – 30 % (Fig. B 3.13).
A wide range of strips, permanently elastic
sealants and concreted-in plastic profile sec-
tions are available for forming joints. Vertical

B 3.11 Guidelines for planning joint widths and permis-

sible minimum joint widths in construction pursu-
ant to DIN 18 540-1–3
B 3.12 Formwork tie holes:
a Plug flush with shadow gap surface
b Fibre-reinforced concrete plug
B 3.13 Minimum thicknesses and lengths of precast
concrete elements
B 3.14 Fastenings of large-format precast concrete
elements:
a On cast-in elements
b On dowels
c On anchor rails
a b B 3.12

112

Element minimum thickness [cm]
16
14
12
10
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Element lengths [m]
B 3.13
joints at the corners of buildings require special
care. It is generally regarded as more eco-
nomical to reduce the number of joints by using
larger formats.
Building with precast concrete components
requires more detailed advance planning and
despite improved production techniques, usu-
ally larger numbers of components if they are
to be economical.
Three main types of precast concrete compo-
nents can be used to build facades:
• Single-layer suspended wall panels
• Double-layer suspended wall panels
• Sandwich elements
Large-format, single and double-layer pre-
cast concrete elements are hung free of con-
straining forces on a load-bearing structure
with facade plate anchors. Depending on
the system, elements are hung in load-bear-
ing brackets cast in concrete or screwed or
bolted on with dowels or anchor rails. Anchor
rails offer more options for subsequently
adjusting installation and joint patterns. Adjust-
able horizontal anchors with pressure screws
or bolts or wind-load anchors absorb pres-
sure and suction forces, define their position
in respect of the load-bearing layer, while
their pins ensure precise integration in the
facade plane, including during installation.
All fasteners must be made of rust-resistant
steel (Fig. B 3.14 –16).
Normally sandwich elements combine a load-
bearing and insulating layer in a single com-
ponent with a concreted facing surface. Facing
layers should be at least 7 cm thick to cover
reinforcement and to prevent greater cyclic
deformations but should be no more than 10 cm
thick. Elements, like wall panels, should not be
more than 5 metres long (Fig. B 3.13).
Individual elements are joined with load-bear-
ing anchors (vertical forces) and horizontal
anchors (horizontal forces). Binders and con-
necting pins absorb wind loads and warping
caused by temperature fluctuations. The num-
ber of thermal bridges increases with the num-
ber of fasteners and binders.
Sandwich elements can be installed as load-
bearing components or without a load-bearing
function.
Facade panel
fastener
Pressure screw
Connecting pin
a b
Concrete stone panels
One form of non-reinforced facade cladding
is small-format, suspended concrete stone
panels [10] measuring 0.2 –1 m2. They are
usually rear-ventilated and mounted on a
substructure. One advantage of small-format
panels is that they can be attached to masonry.
Panels can be fastened with (Fig. B 3.15):
• Single ties set in mortar
• Single ties fastened with dowels
• Support rail substructures
Panel thickness depends on the concrete’s
strength and is usually 4 cm, although depend-
ing on the panel dimensions, they can also be
≥ 2 cm thick. The same requirements specified
in DIN 18 516 for natural stone panels apply to
their sizes and fastening.
A greater proportion of metal elements in the
substructure increases costs of such facades
proportionately. There are not usually any
economic advantages compared with natural
stone facades.
Concrete stone panels can be produced with a
wide variety of surface treatments and colours
depending on the aggregate used.
Facing masonry units
Facing masonry units are in the tradition of
masonry construction. Normal concrete (with
porous aggregates) can be combined with
different aggregates (e.g. double-crushed
fine grade chippings) and coloured pigments,
offering a range of ways to optimise the ma-
terial’s properties to improve durability and
design.
A distinction is made between facing bricks
and facing blocks, the difference being the
height of a course (up to 125 mm = bricks, up
to 250 mm = blocks).
This distinction is not consistently maintained,
not even in DIN 18 153, so in practice the
term “facing bricks” has become established.
Their bulk density, which ranges from 1,800
to 2,200 kg/m3, means that they offer a high
degree of dimensional accuracy and good
soundproofing and fire protection properties.
A wide range of coordinated brick formats
are available and can be used to structure a
facade with different masonry bonds, colours
Concrete
c
B 3.14
and surface treatments. External walls in Cen-
tral European climates are usually double
layered with a non-load-bearing facing shell.
Depending on the building’s height and struc-
tural requirements, bricks 9 or 11.5 cm thick
are used. There are two masonry unit systems:
• Modular formats (M 10 specified in DIN
18 000)
• Octametric formats (M 8 specified in DIN
4172)
Octametric formats are based on 1/8 M
(= 125 mm) like ordinary brick formats. Modu-
lar formats are based on 1/10 M (= 100 mm)
and allow for a wider variety of formats. Walls
that are 90, 115, 140, 190 and 240 mm thick
can be built with the different brick sizes, and
the two formats can be combined.
As well as various colours, there are four main
design options for surfaces: smooth, porous,
sandblasted and rough-split. White cement is
usually used, which intensifies the effect of
the bricks’ colours. This colour palette can be
expanded or individually adjusted for specific
project solutions.
Fibre cement board
Cement-bonded board is now usually made of
a combination of wood fibres (52 %), a Portland
cement binding agent (38 %), water (9 %) and
wood mineralising materials.
These construction materials have a range
of advantages, such as substantial moisture
resistance, frost resistance and a low level
of swelling, that make them suitable for rear-
ventilated curtain wall facades. Depending
on the material’s composition, fire protection
requirements can also be met.
Cement-bonded board [11] is available in a
wide range of different formats. Maximum
standard sheet sizes are 3,100 ≈ 1,250 mm
(L x W), and their thicknesses generally range
from 12 to 18 mm.
One advantage of these light facade elements
is that they are fairly easily cut to fit and can
be readily used in even complex geometric
formats. The material is easy to saw, drill and
mill, although the usually unfinished edges
require careful handling during installation.
113
 Concrete
Panels are screwed onto a load-bearing batten
and counter-batten substructure or combined
with metallic spacers. These types of struc-
tures can be used in buildings up to a height
of 22 metres.
Joints can be covered with strips, left open,
or concealed behind plastic or metal joint
bands or profiles. 10 mm has proven the best
width for open joints in large-format sheets
b B 3.15
in practice. Joint spacings ≤ 8 mm are not per-
mitted and those > 12 mm are not advisable
(Fig. B 3.17).
Fibre cement panels have a coloured primer
and are available with industrial colour coat-
ings that do not need any additional surface
treatment.
Surfaces
As well as the design options for concrete that
formwork offers, surfaces can be worked or
treated to further modify them. A distinction is
made between the two processes. A fresh or
hardened concrete surface is mechanically,
B 3.16 thermally and/or chemically “worked”, while the
waterproofing, coating or sealing of a finished
surface is referred to as “treatment”. Various
colour options are also available [12].
Working
_ 80
Working concrete surfaces can specifically
>
highlight the colour of aggregates and make
the surface colour more even. DIN 18 500
describes the various techniques that can be
used, including in combination.
The most frequent processes used are washing
>
_ 25 (≥ 2 mm) and fine washing (≤ 2 mm), which
remove the top layer of fine mortar. This can
be done by applying retardant to the formwork
so that the aggregate and its inherent colour
predominate in the surface’s design.
Acid treatments, sandblasting or flame blasting
_5 >
> _ 15 techniques can be used to abrade and roughen
_ 30
Joint concrete, evenly exposing the cement stone
>
band
and aggregate surfaces and giving them a
slightly matt look.
Stone masonry working methods (bush-ham-
Facade mering, pointing, grooving and chiselling),
>
_ 25 8 –10 fastening screw carried out by machine or by hand, can also
B 3.17
114
produce new surfaces. Removing the top layer
partly exposes the cement stone matrix and
aggregate. White cement, coloured aggregates
and colour pigments can be used here to cre-
ate special effects (Fig. B 3.20).
Other mechanical surface treatment methods
are used in the production of precast elem-
ents, and a distinction can be made between
textures created during production (by grind-
ing or sanding, sawing or splitting blocks)
without further measures, and fine working
(fine grinding, polishing) to create very smooth
or shiny surfaces.
The colours of aggregates determine the
appearance of treated concrete surfaces
by up to 80 %. The rest of the cement stone
is influenced by the colour of the cement,
the finest particles or by any pigments mixed
into it.
Treatments
Various silane, siloxane or acrylate coatings
can be applied to a concrete surface for the
purposes of
• Waterproofing
• Coating
• Sealing
• Repelling dirt and oil
A “wet effect” surface treatment can change
concrete’s colour. Products must resist yellow-
ing, which makes preliminary tests on sample
areas necessary. Surface treatments usually
have only a limited durability.
Colour
Apart from coloured seals and coatings, which
can be glazes or opaque, there are various
ways of accentuating concrete’s colour during
its production, such as by using
• Cements with special colour (white or Port-
land oil shale cement)
• Aggregates with special colour (red granite,
Carrara marble etc.)
• Pigments (e.g. iron oxide yellow, chrome
oxide green)
A concrete surface’s appearance is influenced
mainly by the colour of its cement. A relatively
high iron content gives Portland cement its
 Concrete

dark grey colour. Low-iron raw materials (lime-
stone and kaolin) make cement whiter. Portland
oil shale cement contains cement clinker and
burnt oil shale, which creates a reddish shade.
Grey cement produces more muted, darker
colours, while white cement makes colours look
lighter and purer.
Surface treatment highlights the colours of
aggregates. Depending on the treatment, par-
ticle sizes can produce varying intensities, so
consistent proportions of powder and finest
sand must be used for a smooth surface. Con-
crete can be easily dyed by adding colour
pigments to it. For red, yellow, brown and
black shades, mainly iron oxide pigments are
B 3.18
used, green colours are obtained by adding
chromium oxide and chromium oxide hydrate
pigments, while mixed crystal pigments (e.g.
cobalt-aluminium-chromium oxide pigments)
produce blues. Small amounts (2 – 3 % of
cement content by mass) are usually enough
to produce the desired colour. Slight surface
profiling enhances the effects of colours. Con-
crete pigmentation is durable and weather-
resistant (Fig. B 3.18).
One new form of (coloured) surface design is
photo concrete, which is produced by applying
a photographic template to a surface with a
screen. The effect’s intensity depends on the
various degrees of the concrete’s hardening
and curing (Fig. B 3.19).
B 3.19
Ageing / soiling
The ageing of facades from weathering
depends on the material used and is often
due to defects in structural details. Environ-
mental soiling and the type of rainwater chan-
nelling on a facade can change its appear-
ance, with wind direction and lee or windward
sides determining the amount of water accru-
ing. A facade’s location and position play an
important role in levels of self-cleaning and
soiling effects. Deep surface textures and their
direction (horizontal, vertical) and cross-sec-
tion geometry (ribs, grooves) in particular can
have a negative impact on dirt deposits and
water run-off.

Notes: B 3.15 Fastenings of small-format artificial concrete B 3.18 Atelier Bardill, Scharans (CH) 2007, Valerio Olgiati
[1] Merkblatt Sichtbeton. Regelwerke, Sichtbeton- stone panels: B 3.19 Library, Eberswalde (DE) 1999, Herzog & de
klassen, Planung und Aussschreibung, Ausfüh- a Single ties set in mortar Meuron
rung, Beurteilung. Published by the Deutschen b Dowel attachment B 3.20 Various surface treatments using the same
Beton- und Bautechnik-Verein e. V. (DBV) / B 3.16 Can be anchored in a horizontal or a vertical concrete mix:
Bundesverband der Deutschen Zementindustrie joint. above: smooth formwork finish
e.V. (BDZ). 3rd revised edition, Berlin / Düsseldorf B 3.17 Minimum edge distances for fastening fibre from left to right: sand-blasted, fine-washed,
2015 cement panels on timber substructures acid-treated, finely ground, chiselled, pointed
[2] Junghanns, Kurt: Das Haus für alle Fälle. Berlin
1994, p. 113, 116 –145
[3] Ford, Edward R.: Die Pionierzeit des Betonsteins.
“Textile-Block”-Häuser von Frank Lloyd Wright.
In Detail 04/2003, p. 310 –315
[4] modul. Schriftenreihe zur Verwendung von Modul-
Betonsteinen in der neuen Architektur. Rheinau-
Freistett 05/1992
[5] Eternit Schweiz. Architektur und Firmenkultur seit
1903. Zurich 2003
[6] Grimm, Friedrich; Richarz, Clemens: Hinterlüftete
Fassaden. Konstruktionen vorgehängter hinter-
lüfteter Fassaden aus Faserzement. Stuttgart /Zurich
1994
[7] Hegger, Josef; Will, Norbert: Bauteile aus textil-
bewehrtem Beton. In DBZ 04/2003, p. 68 –71
[8] Kling, Bernhard; Peck, Martin: Sichtbeton im Kon-
text der neuen Betonnormen. In Beton 04/2003,
p. 170 –176
[9] Döring, Wolfgang et al.: Fassaden. Architektur
und Konstruktion mit Betonfertigteilen. Düsseldorf
2000
[10] Fassaden aus Stein. Published by the Dyckerhoff
Weiss Marketing und Vertriebs-Gesellschaft.
Wiesbaden 2004
[11] Eternit Dach- und Fassadenplatten. Planung und
Anwendung. Heidelberg 2014
[12] Kind-Barkauskas, Friedbert et al.: Beton Atlas.
Munich / Düsseldorf 2001, p. 65 –77; see also [10]
B 3.20

115
Concrete

Apartment blocks

Monza, IT 1972

Architect:
Angelo Mangiarotti, Milan

º A+U 12/1978
Bona, Enrico D.: Angelo Mangiarotti. Il
Processo del Construire. Milan, 1980
Finessi, Beppe (ed.): Su Mangiarotti:
Architettura, design, scultura. Milan, 2002
Herzog, Thomas (ed.): Bausysteme von
Angelo Mangiarotti. Darmstadt, 1998

• Storey-high precast concrete facade sand-

wich elements
• Used in two different housing blocks in
Monza and Arioso /Como (1977, a five-storey
building that is even more structured by pro-
jections and recesses in its facade)
• Flexible floor plan leaves open spaces for
residents to use as they wish

Isometry, no scale
Floor plan 1st, 2nd and 4th floors 1 5 4
Scale 1:500
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

1 Storey-high precast steel-reinforced concrete wall

panel, with integrated rigid polystyrene thermal
insulation, 120 mm
2 Precast steel-reinforced concrete roof edge element
3 Fir wood window element
4 Fir wood-frame window with insulating glazing,
4 mm toughened safety glass + 9 mm space between
the panes + 4 mm toughened safety glass
5 Wooden folding shutter
1
3
3

1 a b

116
 Concrete

Apartment blocks

Zurich, CH 2002

Architects:
von Ballmoos Krucker Architekten, Zurich

º Archithese 01/2003
Werk Bauen + Wohnen 7– 8/2003
Nerdinger, Winfried et al. (ed.):
Wendepunkt /e im Bauen. Von der seriellen
zur digitalen Architektur. Munich, 2010
Von Ballmoos Krucker Architekten:
Register, Kommentare. Zurich, 2007

• Housing complex of three slightly different

d
buildings with 51 apartments based on a
functional living room-kitchen-balcony spatial 1
group arrangement
• A reinterpretation of heavy prefabrication
and high-rise “Plattenbau” (with the advan-
tages of durability and quality ageing, among 2
3 10 d
others)
• Storey-high, triple-layer, slightly-washed con-
crete sandwich elements of different widths
• Facade openings not positioned in the panels
but created by wall element spacings

c c cc

3 4

5
8

aa

10
dd

1 Powder-coated, folded
aluminium sheeting top parapet cover
2 Precast steel-reinforced concrete parapet element,
b b washed surface
a 3 Storey-high precast steel-reinforced concrete
wall panel
Steel-reinforced concrete outer layer, 80 mm,
6
washed surface,
a 7 Rigid polystyrene thermal insulation, 180 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete inner layer, 140 mm
4 Lime-cement interior render, 15 mm
5 Mortar joint on elastomer
6 Precast steel-reinforced concrete plinth element
Floor plan, first floor 7 Two-ply bitumen sheet plinth sealing
Cross section 8 Precast steel-reinforced concrete sunscreen cover
Scale 1:500 9 Aluminium sunscreen blind
Vertical cross section 10 Timber-aluminium window with insulating glazing
Horizontal cross section laminates safety glass + space between the panes +
Scale 1:20 bb toughened safety glass

117
Concrete

Production and office building

a

Munich, DE 2013

Architects:
tillicharchitektur, Munich
Structural engineers:
Hemmerlein Ingenieurbau, Bodenwöhr
b
º Detail 07– 08/2014
Industriebau 01/2015 b
Opus C 06/2013
a

• Four different, geometrically folded wall

modules (measuring 6.60 ≈ 3.90 m, max.
depth 62 cm) built with prefabricated sand-
wich elements that are offset, storey by
storey
• (Anthracite) dyed concrete with a semi-matt
surface
• Clearly accentuated joint pattern
• Polyester textile sunscreen roller blinds stay
stable in windy conditions (5.20 m wide,
2.10 m high)

aa

118

Floor plan, ground floor • Cross section
Scale 1:400
2 Vertical cross section • Horizontal
cross section
Scale 1:20
c c
1 Extensive green roof, 90 mm,
approx. 94 kg/m2 saturated
protective layer, 30 mm drainage
layer
Two-ply polymer bitumen sealing
sheeting
Sloping rigid foam insulation,
3 max. 300 mm
Bitumen sealing sheeting,
vapour barrier
4 Steel-reinforced concrete, 340 mm,
of which precast truss slab 50 mm
render
2 Triple thermal insulating glazing -
Uf = max. 0.7 W/m2K
5 toughened safety glass 8 + space
between the panes 12 + float glass 4
+ space between the panes 12 +
toughened safety glass 8 mm
in larch post and beam facade with
bb
Concrete
aluminium pressure bar
3 Precast concrete sandwich element,
6.60 ≈ 3.90 m:
Facing shell 80 – 240 mm
dyed anthracite with iron oxide
pigment
Thermal insulation, 180 mm
Load-bearing steel-reinforced
concrete shell, 200 mm
with adhesive gypsum plaster,
grouted joint,
water-repelling surface
4 Permanently elastic joint sealing tape,
20 mm recessed
5 Screed sealing, 76 mm
with underfloor heating
(using process heating)
Separating layer
EPS footfall sound insulation, 20 mm
EPS thermal insulation, 30 mm
Separating layer
Steel-reinforced concrete slab,
340 mm, of which precast truss slab
50 mm render
6 Hollow steel door frame,
clad with steel sheeting, painted
Insulation, 60 mm
3 cc
119
Concrete

Pinakothek der Moderne

Munich, DE 2002

Architect: 8 9
Stephan Braunfels, Berlin / Munich
Structural engineers:
Seeberger Friedl + Partner, Munich
Walther Mory Maier, Münchenstein, CH
Facade planning: R+R Fuchs, Munich

º domus 853, 2002

Braunfels, Stephan: Pinakothek der cc
Moderne. Basel / Boston / Berlin 2002
Herwig, Oliver: Sechs neue Museen in 1 10
Bayern. Tübingen / Berlin 2002

• New gallery building for four collections

(modern art, drawings, architecture and
design)
• Up to 16-metre-high jointless, exposed
concrete facades with core insulation, large-
format 5-metre (formwork) grid
• Flexible connection ties designed to absorb
movements between the outer and inner
shells, outer shell prestressed with horizontal
steel strands
• Construction joints just under horizontal
triangular fillets, the shadows cast conceal
any imprecisions

Floor plan, ground floor • Cross section

Scale 1:2,000
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
Southern facade Scale 1:20 aa

a a

120

1 Glazed exposed concrete,
160 mm,
sliding foil
2 3 Styrodur thermal insulation, 60 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete, 280 mm
Interior render, 15 mm
2 Rubber granulate sheet on a
separating layer with gutter heating
3 Glued waterproof plywood
4 Light-diffusing ceiling,
matt laminated safety glass
5 Steel hollow box girder
7
8 9
c c
10
bb
Concrete
6 115 mm masonry facing shell:
with integrated retaining system
Interior render, 15 mm
7 Plasterboard suspended ceiling
8 Blind with plain-edge louvres
9 Blackout blind
10 Double casement window:
steel frame
outside: 12 mm toughened white
safety glass,
inside: B 1-I insulating glazing,
white laminated safety glass
121
Concrete

Extension to the Leibniz Supercomputing

Centre at the Bavarian Academy of Sciences
and Humanities

Garching, DE 2012
aa
Architects:
Thomas Herzog Architekten, Munich
Project Manager: Roland Schneider

a a

• Large-format precast, self-compacting 2

concrete elements used; length 12 m,
height 2.40 m, each weighs approx. 45 t
• Horizontal-format precast elements with
dummy joints in the plane spaced 30 cm
apart
• Solid concrete cube as compositional coun-
terweight to the metallic mesh screen of the
large “computer cube” opposite
• Concrete surface with small-format structure
made up of offset prisms; specially devel-
oped formwork was used

4 3
5

6
7

122
 Concrete

ESO Hotel

Cerro Paranal, CL 2001

Architects:
Auer + Weber, Munich

º Architectural Review 06/2003

Bauwelt 25/2002
Casabella 704, 2002
Intelligente Architektur 09 –10/2003
L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 343, 2002

• Hotel for ESO (European Southern Observa-
tory) staff at Cerro Paranal, located 2,600 m
above sea level
• The concrete facade in front of the hotel
rooms provides effective protection from the
sun and overheating
• Steel-reinforced concrete is a thermally inert
mass that buffers the effects of daily tempera-
ture fluctuations (approx. 20 K)
• Window ventilation with small extra radiators
for extremely low temperatures
• Exposed concrete surface dyed with iron-
oxide pigments alludes to the colours of the
Atacama Desert
1 1 Rust-coloured exposed concrete parapet,
200 mm
2 Aluminium-frame window with fixed glazing
3 Rust-coloured exposed concrete, 100 mm
Insulation, 75 mm
2 Veneered particle board built-in furniture
4 Painted tubular steel safety rail,
¡ 50/20 mm, attached at the sides
5 Painted tubular steel barrier posts,
3 ¡ 50/20 mm, set into steel sections
embedded in the concrete slab
6 Sealed steel-reinforced concrete
7 Anti-glare screen
8 Aluminium glass door with insulating
glazing

Cross section Scale 1:500

Floor plan 1st floor
Scale 1:1,500 4
Vertical cross section Scale 1:50
5

aa

b
b
a bb

123
Concrete

Contemporary Arts Centre

Córdoba, ES 2013

Architects:
Nieto Sobejano Arquitectos, Madrid
Media facade design:
Nieto Sobejano Arquitectos, Madrid
in cooperation with realities:united, Berlin

º AV Monographs 159/160, 2013

Best of Detail: Fassaden, 2015
Detail 06/2013 a
Licht + Raum 04/2013
World architecture 269, 2012 a

1
• Arts centre with exhibition spaces and work-
shop area at the edge of Córdoba’s historic
centre
• Representing Córdoba’s architectural history, 2
irregular hexagons are a clearly legible cen-
tral design motif in the floor plan and facade.
• White, glass-fibre-reinforced concrete panels
in three different sizes
• Even surfaces alternate with varying plastic
recesses 4
3
• LED lighting integrated into the facade

8
10
Floor plan, ground floor Scale 1:1,500
Facade – vertical cross section Scale 1:20

1 Glass-fibre-reinforced white 6
concrete panel, 100 mm,
Top layer, 20 mm,
PS insulation, 60 mm 5
2 Hollow steel roof beam
¡ 100/80/4 mm
3 Steel profile, Å 320 mm
4 Glass-fibre-reinforced white 9
concrete panel, 200 mm
Cover layer, 20 mm,
PS insulation, 160 mm
Fixed by means of integrat- 7
ed steel rails and brackets
to a substructure
5 Facade substructure,
steel section vertical frame
¡ 120/80/4 mm
and horizontal steel section
| 100/80/4 mm
6 Grating crosspiece
30 ≈ 300 ≈ 30 mm
Steel profile, ∑ 90/9 mm
7 LED light
8 Sloping concrete,
11 12
Geotextile separating layer
Insulation, 40 mm, sealing
Steel-reinforced concrete
composite slab, 200 mm 13
9 Brick masonry, 115 mm
10 Rainwater guttering
connected to downpipe
11 Steel-reinforced concrete,
300 mm,
Exposed concrete surface,
plank shuttering 14
Insulation, 40 mm
12 Float glass, 4 mm
13 Translucent plastic panel,
4 mm
14 Concrete layer, 200 mm;
steel-reinforced concrete,
300 mm aa

124
 Concrete

Student accommodation 1

Coimbra, PT 1999
2
Architects:
Aires Mateus e Associados, Lisbon

º Architectural Review 12/2000

Casabella 691, 2001
Detail 07– 08/2003

cc
Cross section • Floor plan Scale 1:1,000
• Closed concrete facade with masonry facing Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
made of precast, matt white hollow blocks Scale 1:20
• Autonomous reference to other concrete
facades on campus 1 White concrete hollow blocks,
390/140/190 mm
• Narrow slit windows let light into common
Rear ventilation cavity, 15 mm
rooms Insulation, 20 mm
• Small-format blocks, network of joints and Masonry, 110 mm
surface finish similar to undressed stone give Smooth-surface plaster, 15 mm
the surfaces a lively, structured look. 2 Reveal block
3 Lintel block,
390/140/190 mm

c c

3
aa

a a

b
b

bb

125
Concrete

Office and residential building

Kassel, DE 1999

Architect:
Alexander Reichel, Kassel
Structural engineers:
Hochtief, Kassel

º Byggekunst 06/2001
Detail 04/2001
Kind-Barkauskas, Friedbert et al.:
Beton Atlas. Munich / Düsseldorf 2001
aa bb

• Townhouse featuring a 3.00 ≈ 3.50-metre

support grid
• Steel-reinforced concrete frame, large areas
of the facade clad with suspended, non-
load-bearing precast glass-fibre-reinforced
concrete elements
• Fine-grained concrete with aggregates
< 4 mm and alkali-resistant glass fibres as
reinforcement against tensile forces and
cracking, approx. 2 – 4 mm; the surface is
hydrophobic to protect it from moisture
• Storey-high untreated larch frame windows
and bi-fold shutters provide functional and
aesthetic accentuation

a a

Cross sections • Floor plan, basement

and 1st / 2nd floors
Scale 1:500

126
 Concrete

d c
1 2 3 4

d 5 c

Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section

Scale 1:20

1 Glass-fibre-reinforced concrete, 30 mm,

bonded at the corners
2
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 120 mm
2 External kitchen wall:
untreated larch weatherboard, 22/88 mm
Rear ventilation cavity,
7 cement-bonded chipboard, 8 mm
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 140 mm
Vapour barrier,
OSB board, 15 mm
Installation space with
8 mineral wool, 40 mm
Plasterboard, 12.5 mm
3 External bathroom wall:
Glass-fibre-reinforced concrete, 30 mm
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 120 mm
4 Bi-fold shutters
untreated larch, 50 mm
4 5 In-situ concrete column, 240/240 mm
6 Hand crank for bi-fold shutters
8 7 Glass-fibre-reinforced concrete, 30 mm
3 5 Mineral wool thermal insulation, 120 mm
Steel-reinforced slab, 200 mm
8 Larch wood frame window with a
transparent varnish

cc dd

127
Concrete

Festival hall of the Tiroler Festspiele

Erl, AT 2012

Architects:
Delugan Meissl Associated Architects, Vienna

º a+a 02/2014
A & D Architecture and Detail 41, 2013
Architektur Aktuell 01– 02/2013
Archithese 02/2013
DBZ 01/2013
Detail 05/2013
Icon 117/2013
Zement Beton 01/2014
3
1
• Concert hall that can accommodate events
all year round and seat 862
• A prism-shaped, black monolithic building, 2
clearly visible from a distance
• Fibre-reinforced cement panel cladding with
a seemingly irregular grid

Cross section Scale 1:1,000

Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

1 Gravel, 80 mm
Separating fleece
Plastic sealing sheeting 5
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 180 mm
Vapour barrier 7
Timber framework, 50 mm
Squared timber rafters, 140/200 mm
2 Heated rain guttering
3 Folded sheet metal top parapet cover
4 Fibre-reinforced cement panel, 8 mm
Profile frame, 40/40 mm
Omega profile, 60 mm
8
Adjustment layer
Vapour-permeable sealing foil
Vapour-permeable MDF board, 16 mm
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 100 mm
between 100/100 mm squared timber
OSB board, 12 mm
Timber framework, 50 mm
Timber beams, 180/100 mm,
hung between
steel secondary structure
5 Metal cassette
6 Anti-glare roller blind
7 Insulating glazing
8 Composite timber fibreboard window
ledge

128
 Concrete

School extension and renovation

Lauterach, AT 2000

Architect:
Elmar Ludescher, Lauterach

º A & D Architecture and Detail 19/2002

Detail 07/2001

• Extension and renovation of a 1960s school

building
• Facades of the two three-storey buildings
with anthracite coloured opaque and semi-
transparent fibre cement panels
• Perforated facade elements filter light

b b

2 3

Floor plan, ground floor

Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20

1 Anodised aluminium-frame window

with fixed glazing
2 Rectangular hollow steel column, ¡ 150/100/8 mm
3 Perforated fibre cement panel, 8 mm
4 Hollow steel section, | 40/40 mm 4
5 Hollow steel section, ¡ 40/60 mm
5

bb

aa

129
 Timber

B 4 Timber Timber is a building material with almost uni-

versal potential applications. The first complex
timber buildings were built in the Neolithic Age.
Trunks, branches and the whole diverse range
of natural “timber products” were used to bind
frames and weave walls (Fig. B 4.3). Squared
timber frames for buildings and longer spans
and structures made of solid wood left round
(like log cabins and stave churches) followed
much later.
Today’s main wood processing techniques,
such as sawing and chipping, date back to
the preceding millennium and became widely
used during industrialisation. The precursors
of modern timber construction were built mainly
in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Among
the forerunners in the development of modern
timber walls and facades were greenhouses
in England and half-timbered buildings in
Central Europe. One outstanding highlight
was the Crystal Palace, built in 1851 in London, B 4.2
in whose frame, especially the roof beams,
17,000 m3 of timber combined with cast iron
was used. Timber facade techniques now
in use range from specialist production and
installation by craftsmen through to technic-
ally and structurally very advanced solid
timber wall elements that are completely auto- a d
matically manufactured and large panels and
room modules and cubicles that can be put
together in very short installation times to make
buildings.
b e
Material properties
Among timber’s wide range of physical and
technical properties, the following should be
mentioned in the context of facade construc-
tion:
• High level of strength and light weight c f
• Good working options and very well devel-
oped processing techniques
• High level of thermal resistance
• Hygroscopic behaviour facilitates a moisture
balance in timber installed on the inside of a
facade.
• More resistant woods can be used for exteri-
ors without coatings. g

Constituents and growth

B 4.1 Komyo-Ji Pure Land Temple, Saijo (JP) 2000,
Tadao Ando
Timber is a natural product and 100 % recyc-
lable. Water, nutrients from soil and CO2 react
with the help of chlorophyll and solar energy
to create starch and release oxygen. Starch is
the basic building block for cellulose, which h i j
makes up about 50 % of timber. Other constitu- B 4.3
ents include around 25 % each of hemicellu-
lose and lignin and small quantities of pigments,
tannins and resins. B 4.2 Gokstad ship, Bygdøy (NO) approx. 900 AD
B 4.3 Sidamo house, Hagara Salam (ET)
a Cylindrical structure
Wood’s structure
b Roof structure set on the ground
Cells are the basic building blocks of wood, c Roof fitted onto the cylinder,
and the many various types are classified Bamboo leaf sealing
according to their functions in the living tree, d Floor plan
such as stabilisation, material transport and e, f Cross sections
g Elevation of the cylinder
storage. Most of these cells have an elongated h Cylinder, detail
form, so they are referred to as “fibres” and lie i Roof, detail
almost entirely longitudinally in the trunk. The j Covering, detail

131
Timber
B 4.4
exception are “rays”, whose cells are arranged
radially in wood. Coniferous wood is older in
evolutionary terms and has a simpler structure,
consisting mainly of one type of cell that trans-
ports water and materials as well as stabilising
the tree. Cells in deciduous tree wood are more
specialised and form vessels. The relative pos-
ition and direction of cells and vessels, together
with annual rings, create the wood’s grain –
an essential feature for the clear identification
of different timbers. The decisive factor for a
wood’s strength and elasticity is the elementary
structure of its cell walls. The cell walls’ four
layers consist of lignin for absorbing compres-
sive forces and fibrils for absorbing tensile
forces, which, together with lignin, form a power-
ful bond.
Anisotropy
Wood consists of millions of cells with cell
walls and cell lumina (pores). It can be most
simply described as a bundle of tubes offset
from each other longitudinally, which is what
gives timber its various anisotropic proper-
ties in a longitudinal and transverse direction.
One optical characteristic of anisotropy is the
completely different look of longitudinal, trans-
verse and radial sections and the different
behaviour of timber along and across its grain
(Figs. B 4.6 and B 4.7). This has an effect on
the forces that can be allowed to be imposed
on it. For spruce wood along the grain these
forces are:
• Up to 11 N/mm2 for tensile forces
• Up to 9 N/mm2 for tensile forces
but across the grain only:
• Up to 2.5 N/mm2 for compressive forces
• Up to 0.05 N/mm2 for compressive forces
Another consequence of anisotropy is the dif-
ferent rate of swelling and shrinking in the three
planes along and across the grain, in a radial
or tangential direction. Swelling and shrinking
rates for every 1 % of change in spruce wood’s
moisture content, for example, are:
• Longitudinal, less than 0.01 %
• Transverse and radial, from 0.15 to 0.19 %
• Transverse and tangential, from 0.27 to 0.36 %
132
B 4.5
Density
The density of pure cell wall substances is
around 1.5 g/cm3 in all types of timber. In con-
trast, cell wall thicknesses and pore sizes vary
within different types and within a single type
of wood. Early wood’s cells usually have larger
pore volumes than the cells of late wood. Tim-
ber’s density is determined by the ratio of cell
wall and pore volume and ranges from a pore
volume of over 90 % for balsa wood with a dens-
ity of 0.1 g/cm3 up to around 10 % for lignum
vitae with a density of more than 1.3 g/cm3.
Spruce has a pore volume of around 70 % and
an average density of 0.45 g/cm3, while the
pore volume of oak is less than 60 % and its
density more than 0.60 g/cm3. Density greatly
influences timber’s load-bearing ability.
Insulating properties
Its porous structure gives Central European
construction timber, with its average densities,
very good thermal insulation properties. Timber
experiences only minimal changes in length
under the influence of heat, and as such, these
changes play very little role in practice. Ther-
mal expansion depends on the type of timber
and can be:
• Along the grain 2.55 to 5 ≈ 10-6 K-1
• In a radial direction 15 to 45 ≈ 10-6 K-1
• In tangential direction 30 to 60 ≈ 10-6 K-1
Timber does not usually increase in volume
because it starts drying out when tempera-
tures rise, so it shrinks and reduces in volume.
Timber’s strength decreases at higher tem-
peratures, but at the temperatures usually
occurring in buildings, it is not necessary to
take this into account.
Moisture
Living trees contain water in their cell walls
and pores. A tree’s mass can have a moisture
content of up to 70 %. Maximum moisture
absorption in the cell walls is referred to as
fibre saturation and ranges from 22 to 35 %.
Regardless of its use, timber remains hygro-
scopic, i.e. it absorbs and releases water
depending on ambient moisture conditions.
The following equilibrium moisture contents
tend to become established in timber:
B 4.6
Wood rays
Annual Pith
growth ring Bark
Cambium Early wood
Sapwood Late wood
Heartwood
B 4.7
• Buildings closed on all sides, heated, 9 ± 3 %
• Buildings closed on all sides, unheated,
12 ± 3 %
• Covered, open structures, 15 ± 3 %
• Structures exposed to the weather on all
sides, 18 ± 6 %
Timber’s ability to absorb and release moisture
can favourably influence an interior climate,
but the possible consequences must be taken
into account in construction. The absorption
and release of water causes wood to swell and
shrink and change dimensions. Timber’s load-
bearing ability declines and the risk of destruc-
tive fungi and insects grows when its moisture
content increases. Unfavourable consequences
can be largely avoided by using timber with a
moisture content that is to be expected at the
installation site over the long term. Potential
changes in dimensions must be taken into
account for all timber structural elements likely
to be subjected to fluctuating moisture con-
tents, such as those exposed to the outdoors.
This especially applies to timber facade clad-
ding, which is exposed to the effects of sun
and rain. Rapid fluctuations in moisture content
are likely to cause timber to crack.
Other characteristics
Depending on the type of wood and specific
site conditions of the individual tree, timber can
have other characteristics such as knotholes,
slope of grain, pith, annual ring widths, cracks,
bark pockets, resin galls, warps, discolour-
ation, compression wood and insect damage in
varying frequencies and concentrations. These
properties mean that solid wood’s quality varies
widely, which plays a vital role in determining
where and for what purpose a particular timber
can be used in construction.
Exterior wall cladding
Exterior wall cladding protects structures from
moisture (especially driving rain), extreme tem-
peratures (winter and summer heat insulation),
sunlight and wind, and is also an aspect of a
building’s design. Timber is available in small-
format elements (e.g. shingles), as linear clad-
 Timber

Solid wood Wood-based material

Processing Debarking Splitting Sawing Sawing Paring Machining De-fibering

Semi-finished
Log Shingles Sawn timber Sawn timber Veneers Wood wool Chips Fibres
product

Solid plywood Laminated Lightweight Flat pressed Soft, porous

Product Normal shingles Profiled boards
panels veneer lumber chipboard particle board fibreboard
with wood wool Calender
cover layer particle board

Decorative Plywood Parallel strand Wood wool Laminated strand Medium-hard

Profiled boards
shingles block wood lumber panel lumber (LSL) fibreboard

Wooden strips, Multilayer Lightweight multi- Hard wood

Veneer plywood OSB flat boards
slats and battens sheeting layer boards fibreboard

Rhomboid Synthetic Medium-density

Coreboard Particle board
panels resin-bonded fibreboard (MDF)
particle board
B 4.8 Gypsum-bonded Gypsum
Glulam
particle board fibreboard
B 4.4 Barn and stable, Veneto (IT) 1930s Cement-bonded Cement
B 4.5 Chapel, Sumvitg (CH) 1988, Peter Zumthor chipboard fibreboard
B 4.6 Deformations in a transverse section of solid wood
B 4.7 Tree trunk sections Chipboard with Fibre-reinforced
B 4.8 Classification of timber products and wood-based fibrous facing plasterboard
materials based on type of processing
Veneered Bituminised
chipboard wood fibreboard

ding (e.g. boards, slats) and in medium-sized
to large-format panels. The choice of exterior
cladding greatly influences the impact of a
building’s design.
Wood and wood-based materials
Many new solid wood and wood-based mater-
ials have been developed recently [1], pro-
viding a range of solid woods that have been
slightly altered but ensure the same quality
(Fig. B 4.8). In developing wood-based mater-
ials there has been a focus on optimising their
strength and surface qualities. Below is a selec-
tion of solid wood and wood-based materials
that can be used to build timber facades.
Logs and round timbers
Round timber is made of tree trunks or log
sections.
Steps in manufacture:
• Bark is stripped off the trunk
• Calibration of the cross section along the
length of the trunk as required
• Cutting of relief grooves in larger cross
sections to prevent cracking if required
• Air drying followed by kiln drying if required
• Visual grading of the timber’s strength
Sawn construction timber, solid hard and
soft wood
Sawn construction timber is produced by
cutting or shaping logs.
Steps in manufacture:
• Cutting with a gang saw or log bandsaw
• Air and /or kiln drying
• Visual grading of the timber’s strength
• Finger jointing and gluing of timbers if required
• Planing and chamfering if required
• Further profiling (rebates, tongues and
grooves) if required
Glued laminated timber (glulam)
Glued laminated timber is a hardened solid
wood that eliminates to some extent the weak-
ening influence of the defects and imperfec-
tions inherent in wood growth. It is made of
at least three dried softwood boards or lamin-
ations glued together with the grain parallel. It
can be used to make simple, straight structural
elements as well as forms with variable cross
sections or that turn around their longitudinal
axis and /or single or double curves.
Steps in its production:
• Softwood planks are kiln-dried to reduce the
wood’s moisture content to around 12 %
• Boards are graded for strength, visually or
by machine, and major defects removed if
necessary
• Boards are finger-jointed to form laminations
• Laminations are planed and cut to length
• Adhesive is applied to the broad face of
laminations
• Laminations are bonded in a straight or
curved press
• Boards graded into different classes can
be positioned at various levels in the cross
section
• Hardening under pressure
• Boards are usually planed, chamfered and
cut to length after curing
Tongue-and-grooved and profiled boards
Planed and profiled timbers are sawn, planed
and milled from logs.
As well as the forms and dimensions de-
scribed in DIN 4072 and DIN 68 126 Part 1,
many different profiles and dimensions can
be produced depending on the tools avail-
able. Planks are made to order in a planing
mill and can be bought from timber merchants
(Fig. B 4.16, p. 136).
Shingles
Shingles are individually split from a block,
usually by hand with a splitter or riving knife.
They have a tapering cross section, and
depending on the type of shingle, may also
be chamfered. Sawn shingles are suitable
for wall cladding, although their rough-cut sur-
faces are less robust and weather more quickly.
Wood-based materials
The timber industry offers a large variety of
mainly planar wood-based materials optimised
to make the best possible use of timber’s prop-
erties for construction applications. The main
optimisations include:
• Size, i.e. length, width and thickness, to
make larger structural components and elem-
ents covering larger areas. Materials made
of planks or veneers usually achieve much
greater strengths than solid timbers from the
same kind of wood
• Strength, with the aim of providing a timber
with greater load-bearing capacity
• Surface quality, with the goal of ensuring wide-
ranging conformity in terms of appearance
(element surfaces) or weathering (facades)
Defects such as knotholes, cracks and spiral
graining, which can greatly reduce timber’s
strength, are unavoidable in naturally grown
wood but play no or only a subordinate role
in wood-based materials because adjoining
timber elements neutralise them. This makes
wood-based materials more homogeneous,
and they usually swell and shrink much less

133
Timber

Softwoods Douglas fir Spruce Scots pine Larch Pine Fir Western Western
Silver fir Hemlock Red Cedar
DGA FI KI LA PIP TA HEM RCW
Wood colour yellowish early wood pale yellow yellowish yellowish early wood early wood white,
Sap / heart white / yellowish- white / reddish reddish / almost light brown- red-brown,
wood red brown, white, red-white, brown, yellowish white, grey, darkens,
darkens, late wood turns darkens, to reddish, late wood late wood late wood
late wood reddish- brown, late wood brown, pale red, darkens, darker
darker yellow, late wood dark brown late wood sapwood / sapwood /
sapwood / darker dark heartwood heartwood
heart wood indistin- indistin-
indistin- guishable guishable
guishable
Resistance average, low, low to average to sapwood – low, low to very high
to fungus sapwood sensitive to average, low low, sensitive average
sensitive to blue stain sapwood heartwood – to blue
blue stain very average stain
sensitive to
blue stain
Resistance average low low average low to low low high
to insects to high average than solid wood. Anisotropy, i.e. the directional
Range West coast Europe Europe, Central Southern / Central and North-west North-west behaviour of wood-based materials, diminishes
of North North-West Europe south-east southern North North as wood sections are made smaller.
America, Asia North Europe America, America
grown in America, grown in
Europe Central Europe Synthetic resin-bonded wood-based materials
America Synthetic resin-bonded wood-based materials
are bar-shaped or planar products made of
crushed woodchips and adhesive (phenolic
and resorcinol resin and other resins).
Hardwoods Maple Red Beech Oak Meranti Intsia Robinia Teak
ironwood (Copper dark-red
(Bongossi) beech) Multilayer panels
AH AZO BU EI MER MB ROB TEK These panels consist of three or five boards
Wood colour yellowish pale red pale yellow grey / grey- yellowish yellowish pale yellow grey / gold- crossed at right angles to each other, stacked
Sap / heart white, silky, brown / to red-grey, yellow, grey to white / light- to greenish yellow, later and glued together. The cover boards lie
wood shiny, sap- deep red- sapwood light- pink-grey / brown to yellow / medium- to
parallel to each other. Panels are available in
wood and brown with and heart- to dark- red-brown red-brown, green- dark brown,
heartwood a slight wood brown, darkens yellow to often narrow a wide range of strengths, a property that can
barely violet tone barely darkens olive yellow, black veins be modified depending on the quality of the
distin- distin- later shiny timber used and thickness ratios of individual
guishable guishable red-brown layers (Figs. B 4.13 and 4.15, p. 136).
Resistance very low, high very low high high to very high very high very high
to fungus also to average
blue stain
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) and structural
Resistance partly very high low high average high to high very high
veneer lumber (SVL)
to insects very low to high very high (termite- Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is made by
proof) bonding approximately 3 mm thick, cured soft-
Range Europe West Africa Europe Europe South-East South-East South-East South-East wood, and more recently, 4 mm thick, much
to Asia Asia Asia, Mada- North Asia, grown stronger beech wood veneers (Fig. B 4.11,
Minor gascar, America, in other p. 136). Veneer configurations can vary as
Papua New grown in tropical
Guinea Europe regions
follows:
• Type S: The grain of all veneer plies lie paral-
a
lel, lengthwise to the production direction,
mainly for linear structural elements and loads.
Wood- Three and Laminated Flat chipboard, Facade Wood Cement • Type Q: The grain of all plies is mainly paral-
based five-layer veneer lumber particle board plywood / fibreboard fibreboard lel, although some plies run in a transverse
material plywood siding
direction, for planar structural elements and
plywood
loads.
Wood type / soft woods, pine (Kerto) adhesive- plywood mainly made cellulose-
Material mainly spruce Douglas fir, bonded particle with thin, of spruce, fir reinforced • Type T: The grain of all veneer plies lie paral-
and Douglas Southern pine board, wood blemish-free pine, beech calcium-silicate lel like Type S, but this lumber is made of
fir, synthetic (Microlam) chips: top veneer birch, poplar, panels made lighter (lower density) veneers with lower
resins wood synthetic resins, pine, beech, specially for eucalyptus, of Portland load-bearing capacity. Veneers in each ply
preservative SVL: birch, alder etc. facades woody fibre cement,
are generally joined by a scarf joint or over-
if required Oregon pine, woody fibres from annual siliceous
Douglas fir synthetic resins; plants, with or aggregates lapped
acc. to cement-bonded without extra and cellulose
DIN 68 705-3 particle board: bonding agent, fibres SVL (Structural Veneer Lumber) is mainly used
Beech wood chips: synthetic resins, to make bar-shaped structural elements. It
(BauBuche) spruce, fir, as natural resins,
reinforcement, water-repelling
consists of veneer lumber laminations glued
mineral bonding agents (waxes / to cover layers. Laminations made of several
agent: Portland paraffin) and 2.5 mm thick veneer plies are glued together
cement, magne- substances to with the grain parallel to the length of the board
site bonding protect against
and joined along their length by means of fin-
agent pests and fire
ger joints (Fig. B 4.14, p. 136).
b B 4.9

134
 Timber

Solid wood products Logs Construction timber Profiled boards Shingles

(round sections) (Solid hard and
soft woods)
Type of wood spruce, fir, spruce, fir, pine spruce, fir, Western Red Cedar
pine, larch larch, Douglas fir pine, larch larch
Douglas fir, beech [Wood type Douglas fir oak
other types group A], oak
of wood as in [Wood type group A],
DIN 1052-1 /A 1, Red Ironwood [Wood
Tab. 1 type group C], teak
[Wood type group A]
Surface from debarked rough-sawn, levelled or split or
qualities to a smooth also planed planed rough-sawn
B 4.9 a Characteristics of soft and hard woods [1] surface and chamfered
b Wood-based materials and their constituents
B 4.10 Solid wood products and their constituents B 4.10

Particle board / chipboard
Particle board is made by pressing small wood
particles together and adding adhesive or a
mineral bonding agent. Particles should lie par-
allel to the surface and are usually arranged in
several layers or pressed with a smooth transi-
tion into the board’s structure.
Wood fibreboard
Hardwood fibreboard (HFB), medium-hard
fibreboard (MHF) and medium-density fibre-
board (MDF) are made using a dry process
with adhesives (HFB and MDF) or using a
wet process without adhesives (HFH and
HFM) with strong compression. Their bond
is based on the felting of fibres and their inher-
ent bonding ability. Hard fibreboard used for
load-bearing and stiffening purposes must
have a minimum density of 950 kg/m3 and
medium-hard /medium-density fibreboard a
minimum density of 650 kg/m3. Hard fibre-
board behaves almost identically in both direc-
tions of a board’s plane. The boards’ properties
can be changed by modifying the compressive
force, temperature and adhesives used to
make them.
Cement fibreboard
Cellulose-reinforced calcium silicate board is
made of Portland cement, siliceous aggregates
and cellulose fibres (for applications see "Con-
crete", p. 106ff.).
Wood-based materials with new applications
• OSB board combined with composite mater-
ials to make structural elements
• Timber, hemp, linen and jute fibres like
those used in the car industry to make inter-
ior elements
• WPCs (Wood Plastic Composites) made
using extrusion and injection processes
Fastenings
Fastenings can be visible or concealed but
they must reliably fix facade components
and in particular prevent solid wood sections,
such as boards, from warping. They must
also allow for the timber’s anticipated swell-
ing and shrinkage so as to prevent crack-
ing [2].
Fastening elements
Nails and screws are mainly used to join and
fix timber in facade construction. Nails must
be driven in to a sufficient depth, with 35 mm
a recommended standard depth. Nail heads
must not be allowed to protrude out of a timber
element’s surface or damage the surface.
Screws have the advantage of being easily
unscrewed if renovations have to be carried
out. The minimum depth for screws is 25 mm.
Screw heads must also not protrude out of
the surface or be too deeply sunk in the tim-
ber. Only Phillips or crosshead screws or torx
screws with partial threads should be used.
Screws with a drill tip are less likely to cause
cracking and can be screwed in closer to
edges.
Facade elements can also be installed using
clips, clamps or special fastening hooks. The
surface should in this case be coated and
impregnated with resin (so that screws better
resist pulling out). One almost unavoidable
disadvantage of these types of fastenings is
that they “pinch” or crimp the timber’s surface.
Fastening hooks, clamps and clip are used
for concealed fastenings (Fig. B 4.36, p. 139).
They are nailed or screwed to a substructure or
slot into a tongue-and-groove profile, although
the greater cost and effort required to install
them can be a disadvantage. Fastenings must
be durably protected from corrosion to prevent
surface discolouration caused by rusting metal
parts or by chemical reactions with constituents
of heartwood. Only stainless steel connectors
should be used with heartwoods such as oak
and larch.
Fastening spacing
The number of fastenings in a board will depend
on its dimensions. Up to a width of 120 mm,
one fastening will suffice. Boards wider than
120 mm must be fixed with two fastenings, one
in each third of the board’s length. Maximum
fastening spacing along a board is 100 cm.
The edge distance perpendicular to the grain
should be at least 1.5 cm and parallel with
the grain at least 5 cm. This spacing can
be reduced if screws with drill tips are used
(depending on the type of wood). The greater
a timber’s density and hardness and the closer
a fastening is to an edge, the more likely a pilot
hole will be required. Self-drilling screws can
be used as an alternative.
Substructures
A substructure is permanently connected to
the support structure and must compensate
for any unevenness in walls.
Some substructures also bear insulation.
Timber facades can be built with or without
rear ventilation cavities. If facades do not have
a rear ventilation cavity, the rear sides of their
timber elements should be coated and vapour-
permeable, rainproof sheeting installed. A
continuous rear ventilation cavity is advisable
because of the risk of moisture penetration
(20 – 40 mm). Ventilation openings must be
carefully closed with screens because other-
wise small animals and insects can get in
and damage organic material in various ways.
Structural elements behind open joints in a
facade must be rainproof. The substructure’s
dimensions must accommodate relevant struc-
tural considerations [4].
Surfaces
The effects of weathering and ultraviolet light
tend to turn untreated timber grey. Photo-oxi-
dation degrades the lignin in timber and rain
washes it out. This can cause fibres in the top
layers to peel off and, depending on the type
of wood, can result in discolouration due to
fungal infestation.
Chemical preservation agents
Chemical timber preservatives used to protect
wood from fungus and insects can be classi-
fied depending on their constituents into water-
soluble (mainly inorganic salts), oily (e.g. coal
tar oil), solvent-based products, and emul-
sions. Chemical timber preservatives usually
contain toxins in the form of biocides. Structural
measures should be exhaustively explored
before chemical timber preservatives are used.
Chemical timber preservatives are generally
only necessary if there is a risk of infestation
by destructive insects. If there is no risk of the
wood’s moisture content exceeding 20 %, there
is not usually any danger of infestation by dam-
aging fungi. Insect infestation is also unlikely if

135
Timber

B 4.11 Laminated veneer lumber

B 4.12 Board
B 4.13 Three-ply timber panel
B 4.14 SVL (structural veneer lumber)
B 4.15 Five-layer timber
B 4.16 Shiplap boards
B 4.17 Plywood (BFU)
B 4.18 Extruded wood-fibre profiles
B 4.19 –22 Examples of timber cladding panels
B 4.23 –26 Special structures

B 4.11 B 4.12
the wood’s moisture content remains under
10 %. Chemical timber preservatives can
usually be dispensed with in timber structures
that are open and can be checked for insect
infestation, apart from for load-bearing struc-
tural elements.

Biological preservation agents

Timber can also be impregnated with water-
soluble boric salt solutions (borax mixtures,
boric acid), waxes (hard wax, balsam and
other solutions), natural resin products (paints,
oils, glazes), oils, wood vinegar, wood tar,
pitch, compounds containing citrus oils and
extracts from naturally resistant types of wood.
Biological wood preservatives are, however,
B 4.13 B 4.14 not currently approved by building regulatory
authorities. Apart from boron compounds, their
effectiveness has also not been thoroughly
verified, and such coatings and treatments
may need longer drying times.

Surface treatments
Impregnation
Impregnation creates a water-repelling surface,
and the biocides they may contain can protect
wood from insects and microorganisms. They
are open-pored and do not from a film or pene-
trate timber. Coloured pigments can be used to
indicate impregnation.

Glazes
Glazes, with their limited ability to penetrate
B 4.15 B 4.16 materials and relatively thin surface film finish,
are a treatment somewhere in between impreg-
nation and paint. Depending on their pigment
content, the wood grain remains more or less
visible under the glaze. The UV protection they
offer can be adjusted by varying the density of
their pigments. Glazes are highly vapour-per-
meable.

Paints
Paints form a closed surface that repels water
and resists abrasion. They greatly reduce a
surface’s vapour permeability and almost
entirely impede moisture regulation between
the wood and air. A distinction is made between
colourless varnishing paints (form a film, less
penetrating, result in gloss to semi-gloss and
B 4.17 B 4.18

136
 Timber

B 4.19 B 4.20
smooth surfaces, no adequate UV protection,
not fungicidal) and paints that produce an
opaque coating (form a film, penetrate the
surface only slightly, surfaces usually shiny
and smooth and offer good UV protection).

Dispersion paints
Water-soluble dispersion paints form an
opaque coating. Their pigmentation contents
vary from that similar to a glaze through to
opaque coatings. They form a film, do not
penetrate timber and swell significantly when
exposed to moisture, so they largely prevent
vapour diffusion. They can produce a matt fin-
ish and emphasise the surface’s texture when
thinly applied. They offer good UV protection
and are rarely fungicidal. B 4.21 B 4.22

Stains
Staining is a way of colouring timber by apply-
ing pigments (pigmented or coloured stains)
or a chemical process (chemical stains). The
wood grain remains visible and, depending
on the staining method, can even be empha-
sised. Stains have no protective function so
stained surfaces are very sensitive to moisture.
Pigmented stains are also very light-sensitive.
Unlike glazes and paints, stains can only be
removed by planing or sanding them off.

Waxes
Pores and small cracks are filled with wax and
waxed surfaces remain largely permeable to
vapour. They are less scratch-resistant than B 4.23 B 4.24
painted and glazed surfaces and less imper-
vious to the effects of heat and water. It is usu-
ally advisable to impregnate timber before
waxing it. Waxes are especially suitable for
smooth, dry surfaces that are protected from
the weather.

Oils
Oils are the simplest, cheapest method of treat-
ing timber surfaces and the best from an eco-
logical point of view, although oiled surfaces
are less robust (especially when subject to
mechanical damage). Linseed, herb oil var-
nishes and a linseed-turpentine oil mix can be
used to oil timber. Oils offer better protection
against moisture and soiling than waxes.
B 4.25 B 4.26

137
Timber

B 4.27–30 Examples of horizontal sidings

B 4.31–34 Examples of vertical sidings
B 4.35 Horizontal clapboard or weatherboard siding
B 4.36 Bracket profiles
B 4.37 Horizontal shiplapped and overlapped timbers /
shingles
B 4.38 Vertical cover boards
B 4.39 Vertical shiplapped boards
B 4.40 Vertical timber siding
B 4.41 Large-format timber panels
B 4.42–46 Examples of traditional forms and structures
permeable to light and air
B 4.47– 49 Examples of shingles

B 4.27 B 4.28
Covers
Wood-based products can be not only veneered
but also covered. Here a distinction is made
between decorative and rolled laminates, foils
and linoleum.

General remarks on coatings

Lighter, more intensive and completely opaque
pigmented coatings (e.g. glazes) should be
applied to exterior timber exposed to direct
sunlight to keep surface tensions caused by
varying temperatures (swelling and shrinkage)
to a minimum. Structural elements painted
black can heat up to 70 °C under strong sun-
light, while surfaces painted white heat up only
to 40 °C (Fig. A 1.9, p. 21). Hardwoods contain
B 4.29 B 4.30 less resin, so are more suitable for glazing than
softwoods. Dark glazes should not be applied
to timbers with a high resin content (especially
pine and larch) in areas where the wood is
exposed to sunlight because the resin will
bleed out, causing blotches. Rounding edges
will improve the durability of surface coatings.
Interior surface coatings should be more vapour-
tight than external coatings (i.e. paints or glazes
inside /thin-film glazes outside) to prevent
external coatings from flaking off due to water
vapour diffusion [5].

B 4.31 B 4.32

Notes:
[1] Hegger, Manfred et al.: Holz und Holzwerkstoffe.
In: Baustoff Atlas. Munich/Basel 2005, p. 66 –75
[2] Volz, Michael: Grundlagen. In: Holzbau Atlas.
Munich/Basel 2003, p. 31– 46
[3] Scheibenreiter, Johann: Befestigung. In: Holzfassa-
den. Published by Holzforschung Austria. Vienna
2002, p. 34 –39
[4] Fachregeln des Zimmererhandwerks 01. Außen-
wandbekleidungen aus Holz- und Holzwerkstoffen.
Published by Bund Deutscher Zimmermeister.
Berlin 2006, p. 20 –27
[5] Volz, Michael: Holzschutz. In: Holzbau Atlas. Munich /
Basel 2003, p. 60 – 63
B 4.33 B 4.34

138
 Timber

B 4.35

B 4.42 B 4.43

B 4.36

B 4.37 B 4.44 B 4.45

B 4.38 B 4.39 B 4.46 B 4.47

B 4.40 B 4.41 B 4.48 B 4.49

139
Timber
B 4.50 Kinderhaus, Uttenreuth (DE) 2012,
KJS + Architekten
The exterior wall of this single-storey day-care
facility for children is a timber-frame structure with
rhomboid batten cladding. On a vertical substruc-
ture (40 ≈ 40 mm timber battens), larch planks
(30 mm) with surfaces 30, 60 and 90 mm wide are
positioned in an alternating sequence across the
entire facade, allowing small-scale adjustments to
be made for the edges of openings and facades.
140
B 4.51 Extension for the Freie Universität Berlin,
Berlin (DE) 2015, Florian Nagler Architekten
This building’s opaque exterior wall elements
are clad with vertical cedar boards of four differ-
ent widths that were glazed silver-grey by the
manufacturer. Horizontal galvanised steel sheet-
ing bands that mark out each storey and have a
fire prevention function add further structure to
the facades. Its exterior and interior corners are
convex and concave.
B 4.50
B 4.51

B 4.52 Great (Bamboo) Wall House, Badaling (CN) 2002,
Kengo Kuma & Associates
Erected near the Great Wall of China, this building
is made almost entirely of bamboo. Slender verti-
cal bamboo walls open up the facade to light and
wind, creating an ephemeral boundary between
inside and out. Joints of differing widths vary both
the intensity of daylight and contact between the
interior and surrounding landscape.
Timber
B 4.53 Hotel Lanserhof, Marienstein (DE) 2014,
Ingenhoven Architects
This four-winged complex, built around a square
inner courtyard, features expansive glazed areas
and spacious balconies. Storey-high sliding screens
with slender vertical larch wood louvres filter light
and can screen rooms from view, enabling guests
to create private or open areas and providing pro-
tection from the sun.
B 4.52
B 4.53
141
Timber

Sea Ranch

California, US 1965

Architects:
Moore Lyndon Turnbull Whitaker, Berkeley
Structural engineers:
Davis & Morreau, Albany

º A+U 09/1989
DBZ 02/1994
Marrey, Bernard: Des Histoires de Bois.
Paris, 1994
MLTW / Moore Lyndon Turnbull and
Whitaker: Sea Ranch. Tokyo, 1981

• Simple, robust timber-frame structure with

1
rough-sawn fir wood columns
• Profiled redwood planks b 4
1
• No impregnation and therefore no mainten-
ance required
• Overhanging roof inadvisable because of 3
constant strong winds
• All beams are connected through side or b cc
set on a column
• Squared timber cross-braces (101.6/101.6 mm), 1
joined by means of exposed quarter-circle 2
metal plates, stiffen the building against the
wind and earthquakes 5
• Weathering has greatly changed the timber’s 6
colour
• No insulation required to maintain warmth
in winter

3 3 3 3
aa
4

2 4

a a

c c

Cross section • Floor plan

Scale 1:500
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20

1 Redwood vertical siding, 25.4/203.2 mm, shiplapped

Sealing
Rough-sawn fir planks, vertical tongue and groove,
with opaque paint finish on inside areas,
50.8/203.2 mm
2 Columns, 254/254 mm
3 Beams, 101.6/254 mm
1
4 Extra beams around windows, 101.6/101.6 mm
5 Aluminium-frame skylight
6 Redwood roof covering, 25.4/203.2 mm
Sealing
Rough-sawn fir planks, vertical tongue and groove,
50.8/203.2 mm bb

142
 Timber

Residence and studio

Paris, FR 1983

Architect:
Roland Schweitzer, Paris
with Alexandre Levandovsky

º AC 110, 1984
Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas
Munich / Basel 2003

1
• Vertical timber siding
• Glazed exterior boards
• 60 cm grid, prefabricated wall elements
• Very low construction costs

2 e e

aa
4

a a

c c d d

Cross section • Floor plan, ground floor

Scale 1:200
Horizontal cross section • Vertical
cross section
Scale 1:20

1 Sheet metal capping plate, folded and painted black

75/100 mm
bb cc
2 Vertical shiplapped timber siding, 100/25 mm
Crossbar, 38/142 mm,
Air cavity in between, 82 mm
Thermal insulation, 60 mm
Vapour barrier
Plasterboard, 2≈ 15 mm
3 Vertical shiplapped timber siding, 100/25 mm
Crossbar, 38/90 mm, 5
Air cavity in between, 30 mm
Thermal insulation, 60 mm
Plasterboard, 13 mm
4 Holes drilled to equalise vapour pressure and
allow for drainage every 15 cm, d = 10 mm 6 7
5 Post, 38/142 mm
6 Post, 38/90 mm
7 Partition wall dd ee

143
Timber

Law courts

Bordeaux, FR 1998
a

Architects: b
Richard Rogers Partnership, London
Structural engineers:
OTH Sud-Ouest, Bordeaux

º architecture 01/1999 b
Bauwelt 27/1998
Lemoine, Bertrand: Frankreich 20. Jahr-
hundert. Basel / Berlin / Boston 2000

• Seven court rooms inside an open hall

• Cool air is pumped into the building over
an outside waterfall and pool and once
heated inside, flows upwards due to the
building’s form.
• The flask-like form lets a relatively large
amount of daylight in through an opening
in the top of the building envelope.
• Diagonal cedar wood siding
• Acoustic panels in the courtrooms limit the
amount of noise entering from outside and
minimise reverberation inside

Floor plan • Cross section Scale 1:1,000

Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20

aa

144
 Timber

8
2 1
4

1
5

6
6
1 Zinc sheeting capping
2 Laminated veneer timber, 2≈ 39 mm
3 Painted aluminium-frame window with
insulating glazing,
toughened safety glass 6 + space between the
panes 12 + laminated safety glass 2≈ 4 mm
4 Diagonal western red cedar timber siding, 18/70 mm
8 Pine batten substructure, 27/60/40 mm
9 Sealing
Plywood, 5 mm
10 Vertical pine battens, 32/32 mm, with sealed joints
Thermal insulation, 80 mm
Mineral fibre insulation, 50 mm, air cavity
Sound insulation, 40 mm, between a
11 wooden substructure, 20 mm
Maple wood panel lining
5 Plywood, 20 mm
6 Diagonal western red cedar timber siding, 18/70 mm,
nailed to vertical counter-battens, 38/38 mm
Sealing
Plasterboard, 10 mm
Thermal insulation, 80 mm between (8)
Mineral fibre insulation, 50 mm, air cavity
Sound insulation, 40 mm, between a
wooden substructure, 20 mm
Maple wood panel lining
7 Air extractor hood for the ventilation system
Diagonal western red cedar timber siding, 18/70 mm,
laid on a timber frame
8 Wood frame made of Douglas fir/spruce laminated
veneer timber forming a ring between vertical,
10
slightly curving wooden posts, glulam 110/180 mm
9 Glulam reveal, 58 mm
12 10 Hinge
11 Door leaf
Western red cedar veneer, 10 mm
Plywood, 10 mm
Hardwood frame with insulation, 35 mm
Maple cladding, 10 mm, with integrated lead layer
bb 12 Painted flat steel bracket as support for (8)

145
 Timber

Forestry depot

Turbenthal, CH 1993

Architects:
Burkhalter Sumi, Zurich

º Burkhalter, Marianne; Sumi, Christian:

Die Holzbauten. Zurich 1996
DBZ 07/1996
Detail 03/1995
Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas.
Munich / Basel 2003

• Prototype for forestry depots using a three-

part modular system consisting of an office
section, garage and open shed
• Differentiated by the type and colour of their
exterior sidings
• High level of prefabrication 1 1
• Garage made of concrete for fire safety
reasons

2 2

1 Folded sheet metal capping

2 Office section:
Horizontal timber siding, 21/230 mm
Battens, 40/80 mm
Vapour-permeable wind paper
Thermal insulation, 120 mm
between wooden studs,
Vapour barrier,
Pine panel, 19 mm
3 Log, Ø 300 – 380 mm
4 Solid larch timber, 120 mm
Garage section:
Vertical timber siding, 21/230 mm
Battens, 40/80 mm 4
Vapour-permeable wind paper
Thermal insulation, 80 mm
(where necessary)
Steel-reinforced concrete, 200 mm

3 aa bb

Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section

Scale 1:20

a
2

146
 Timber

House and studio

Tsukuba, JP 1995

Architects:
Naito Architect & Associates, Tokyo a a

º Bauwelt 38/1997
Detail 04/1996
l’ARCA 12/1995
The Japan Architect 46/2002

• Double-layer walls
outside: cedar timber siding, gaps closed
with acrylic glass panels
inside: cedar timber lining
• Sliding wooden elements

1 2

b b

3 4

Floor plan, upper floor

Scale 1:250
Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20
Detail of a sliding door element
Scale 1:5

1 Sliding element to close off 4 Japanese cedar boards,

aa a balcony 12/150 mm,
with Japanese cedar boards, with cover strips, 12/10 mm
12/150 mm Windproofing
2 Timber-frame window with Timber walls with 105 mm
fixed glazing thermal insulation between them
3 Guide rails for a Plywood, 6 mm
flat steel sliding door, 5 10 mm gap, closed with a 2 mm
1 5
bent to shape, 6 mm acrylic glass panel
bb

147
Timber

Housing complex

Regensburg, DE 1996

Architects:
Fink + Jocher, Munich

º A+U 04/1997
Bauwelt 25/1997 a a
DBZ 03/1999
Detail 01/1997
Pfeifer, Günter et al.: Der neue Holzbau. b b
Aktuelle Architektur – Alle Holzbausysteme –
Neue Technologien. Munich, 1998

• Horizontal larch battens

• Built in four months from the laying of the
foundations 1
• Part of a Bavarian building authority pilot
project to develop cost-effective, largely aa
prefabricated houses that can be built in Floor plan, ground floor • Cross section
Scale 1:750
large numbers Vertical cross section • Horizontal
cross section
Scale 1:20

1 Three-ply plywood panel, 40 mm c c

with sheet metal capping 4
2 Timber-frame glass door with insulating glazing 3
3 Safety barrier:
welded flat steel
4 Wooden interior door
5 As for 7 but without battens on the inside
6 Partition wall,
plasterboard on a timber stud wall
7 Load-bearing exterior wall, (gable end):
Horizontal larch siding, 48/24 mm
on battens, 40/20 mm
Wind paper
OSB particle board
Wall frame posts, 60/120 mm,
with mineral fibre thermal insulation between
Plastic foil vapour barrier 6 5
OSB particle board
Battens, 80/60 mm
Plasterboard, 12.5 mm

cc bb
2 3 c

148
 Timber

Temporary lecture hall building

Garching, DE 2011

Architects:
Deubzer König + Rimmel Architekten, b b
Munich
Structural engineers:
bauart Konstruktion, Munich
Klumpp Konstruktion, Weikersheim
a

º Detail 10/2013 a
Holzbau Die Neue Quadriga 03/2012

• Temporary university building, built in a short 1 Rhomboid spruce battens,
6
30° chamfered,
time and with a low budget. Two lecture halls
rough-sawn,
of different sizes (seating 479 and 288) sep- Black open-pored glaze,
arated by a narrow corridor 22/84 mm
• Load-bearing timber-frame structure based Undulating veneered
on a 2.50-metre grid, timber element infill plywood panel, 5 Spruce glulam,
60/70 – 260 mm
• Undulating facade made of rough-sawn, Squared spruce timber, 6 Gravel fill, 100 mm
rhomboid spruce panels with narrow annual 30/90 mm
growth rings and painted with a black glaze 2 Spruce glulam column,
• Interior partition walls made of OSB panels planed, 240/240 mm
3 OSB panel, 25 mm
and planks and – as far as possible – visible Thermal insulation
glulam roof structure Mineral wool, 200 mm
between solid spruce,
1 3 80/200 mm
Wood fibreboard, 15 mm
Floor plan, ground floor Scale 1:750 Two-ply vapour permeable
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section windproofing
Scale 1:20 4 Spruce frame
glazed black
Laminated safety
glass 2≈ 6 mm + space
between the panes
12 mm + toughened
safety glass, 10 mm
planed, 240/240 mm
Polymeric bitumen
sealing sheeting
Polystyrene insulation,
200 mm
Bituminous primer
OSB board panel,
28 mm
Spruce glulam,
planed, 100/140 mm
Glulam beam
Planed spruce,
240/850 –1,000 mm

c c

2 1

4
bb

1
5

aa

cc

149
Timber

Multistorey car park

Heilbronn, DE 1999

Architects:
Mahler Günster Fuchs, Stuttgart

º A+U 03/2001
Bauwelt 06 – 07/2000
Casabella 691, 2001

• 40/60 mm squared timber battens,

15 metres long
• Building envelope not insulated
• Timber facade modules
• Details visible on the inside and outside
• Squared timber battens screwed on with
concealed screws on both sides

Elevation • Floor plan, ground floor

Scale 1:1,500
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20

150
 Timber

1 3 7

bb

1 3

1 Square timber battens, 10 Steel profile column,

Douglas fir, 60/60 mm
and 30/60 mm
2 Steel profile timber
facade fastening,
∑ 120/80/12 mm
2 4 6
3 Galvanised steel profile,
∑ 70/70 mm
4 Facade timbers,
5 untreated Douglas fir,
12 40/60 mm
5 Flat steel bracket
6 Galvanised tubular steel
brace, Ø 44 mm
7 Door on rotating pins,
13 three-ply veneer plywood
11 door leaf, 2≈ 28 mm
8 Folded stud plate
9 Steel profile joists,
HEB 450
9
HEB 320
11 Steel profile bracket,
HEA 260
12 Hot-dip-galvanised wire
mesh, 40/40/3.1 mm
13 Round Douglas fir
glulam facade columns,
Ø 120 mm
14 Stainless steel tension
cable, Ø 10 mm
15 Squared Douglas fir
timber, 70/100 mm,
steel dowel covered
with a wooden plug,
Tubular steel spacer,
Ø 40 mm
16 Precast concrete stairs
17 Galvanised tubular steel
handrail, Ø 22 mm

10 6

14

b b

7 17

8 16

15

aa

151
Timber

Café

Helsinki, FI 2000

Architect:
Niko Sirola, Woodstudio 2000,
Helsinki University of Technology
Structural engineers:
Nuvo, Espoo

º Architectural Review 12/2000

Detail 05/2002
Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas.
Munich / Basel 2003

• Spruce glulam elements Cross section • Floor plan Scale 1:500

Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20
• 62 cm wide panels, assembled on site
1 2
• Flame-treated timber surface impregnated
with creosote
• Reapplying creosote twice a year provides
adequate protection from rain
4 11
3 2
7

4 9

aa
12

a 5 6 9

8
10

b b

4
c c
a

cc

1 Galvanised steel sheeting parapet

cover, black-coated
2 Stainless steel dowel, Ø 12 mm
3 Galvanised steel pins, Ø 10 mm
4 Glulam element 145 mm, flame-
treated on the outside, impregnated
with creosote and sanded inside
5 Screw, Ø 10 mm
6 Glulam element door, 100 mm
7 Spruce glulam element, glued,
145 mm
8 Floor light
9 Fixed glazing, toughened safety
glass, 10 mm
10 Sliding door with toughened safety
glass, 10 mm
2 7 8 7
11 Planed timber fill, 25/35 mm
12 Flat steel, painted black, ¡ 10/50 mm
13 Waterproof plywood, 16 mm

bb 13

152
 Timber

Student accommodation

Coimbra, PT 1999

Architects:
Aires Mateus e Associados, Lisbon

º Architectural Review 12/2000

a a
AV Monografías / Monographs 83, 2000 b b
Casabella 691, 2001
Detail 07– 08/2003

1
• Smooth timber panels, 80 cm wide, in three
different heights 2
• Each apartment has windows of medium
panel height and double the panel width,
with a pair of folding shutters
• The timber facade changes constantly with
the residents' comings and goings

3
aa

Standard floor plan • Cross section 4

Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20

1 Concrete slab, 50 mm
2 Glass-fibre-reinforced render
3 Plywood shutter, 20 mm
4 Plywood panel, 8 mm,
phenolic-resin-bonded
Rear ventilation cavity, 20 mm
Insulation, 50 mm
Masonry, 200 mm
Smooth plaster, 15 mm

c c

4
3

bb cc

153
Timber

Guest building for a youth education centre

Windberg, DE 1990

Architects:
Thomas Herzog with Peter Bonfig
and Walter Götz, Munich

º Arch+ 126/1995
a a
Byggekunst 06/1997
Costruire 167/1997
db 08/2009
DBZ 01/1992
Techniques et Architecture 398/1991
Worldarchitecture 02/1999

• New building for young guests at the centre 2 3

with functional floor-plan zoning and two sec-
4
tions made of completely different materials
• Translucent thermal insulation in front of a
lime sandstone wall enables the solid build-
ing’s southern facade to produce passive 5
aa
solar energy
• The north-facing facade of this timber-frame
building is clad with weatherboard timber in a
clearly structured vertical and horizontal grid 2 3
• Opaque ventilation hatches (north-facing
facade) and gable ends made of smooth b b
veneer plywood
• Module: 15 cm 8
• Larch weatherboard siding with a colourless 8 1
bb
glaze
• Regularly-positioned Z-profiles protect the
building from rain

Cross section Scale 1:400 2

Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20

1 North-facing external wall, 197 mm

Larch weatherboard siding, 22/137 mm
Ventilation cavity, 20 mm
Perforated foil that “breathes” 7
Thermal insulation, 140 mm
PE foil vapour barrier
Plywood panel, 15 mm 1
2 Glulam column, 150/175 mm
3 Glulam post, 70/175 mm
4 Glulam beam, 120/300 mm
5 Glulam crossbar, 60/160 mm
6 Glulam threshold, 60/160 mm 6
7 Aluminium Z-profile every 45 cm
8 Ventilation hatch

154
 Timber

GucklHupf

Innerschwand am Mondsee, AT 1993

Architect:
Hans Peter Wörndl, Vienna

º Architectural Record 04/1999 a a

A+U 05/1998
Techniques + architecture 441, 1999
Bahamon, Alejandro: PreFab. Barcelona
2002

• Lightweight structure for temporary use

• The building can be transformed in varying
states ranging from entirely open to com-
pletely closed
• Variable relationship between inside and out
• Red Okoumé plywood panels bonded with
waterproof glue and painted with three coats
of highly transparent spar varnish

aa

Floor plans 1 Spruce column, 120/120 mm Spruce battens, 20/30 mm

Scale 1:200 2 Spruce beam, 60/120 mm
Vertical cross 3 External wall panel 35 mm:
section Red Okoumé plywood panel,
Scale 1:50 6 mm,
Panel area, 1,200/2,500 mm,
bonded with waterproof glue,
painted with a triple coat of highly
transparent spar varnish
Plywood, 8 mm
Roofing / wind paper
with insulation between, 20 mm
Red Okoumé plywood panel,
8 mm, panel area, 1,200/2,500 mm,
painted with two coats of highly
transparent spar varnish
4 Cable with winch for
flexibility: turning, folding,
tilting, pulling
Silver anodised aluminium
5 Glazing with foil backing

155
Timber

School caretaker’s house

Triesenberg, LI 1994

Architect:
Hubert Ospelt, Vaduz
with Marcus Freund

º Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas.

Munich / Basel 2003

2 3 bb

• Four-storey timber building Elevation • Floor plan, ground floor and gallery
• Fine shingle texture on a clear stereometric Scale 1:400
1 Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
building
Scale 1:20
• Ceiling, walls and roof made of edge-nailed
timber panels 1 Copper sheeting rain guttering
• Flush beech glued laminated timber joists 2 Larch shingles, double-lapped
transfer floor loads to columns without add- Horizontal siding
Vertical battens, 80/80 mm
itional support Horizontal siding, 40/60 mm
3 Edge-nailed timber panels, 80 mm
3 Aluminium-wood windows with insulating glazing
b b 4 Larch window sill

a
aa

156
 Timber

The Olperer hut in the Zillertal Alps

Ginzling, AT 2007 b b

Architects:
Hermann Kaufmann, Schwarzach
Structural engineers:
Merz Kaufmann Partner, Dornbirn

º Architektur, Vienna 07/2008 aa

Detail 06/2008 a a
Zuschnitt 30/2008

• Reconstruction of an alpine hut with 60-bed

2
accommodation at an altitude of 2,400 metres
• Extensive use of prefabricated elements and
short construction time; structural components
were transported to the alpine building site by 1
helicopter
• Solid timber structure made of 7.8 –17.6 cm
thick spruce plywood board elements; spruce
shingle facade cladding
• The main building is only used in the summer 5
months, so no additional thermal insulation 4
was required.
• 14 % of the building’s extremely low power
requirement of 29 kWh is provided by a photo-
voltaic system and 86 % by a rapeseed oil-
fired cogeneration heat and power plant.
6
Cross section • Floor plan, ground floor Scale 1:1,000
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

1 Three-ply spruce panel, with frame and plywood,

42 mm
2 Larch shingles, 10
Weatherboard siding,
24 mm 11
Rear ventilation cavity,
100 mm
Roof membrane, spruce
plywood board element, 12
exposed timber quality
underneath, 176 mm 13
3 Copper sheeting under
a photovoltaic panel
4 A flue /ventilation duct
ventilates rooms
5 Plywood beam binder, 14
166 mm 15
6 Solid larch folding
shutter, smooth, 25 mm
7 Timber-frame window
with insulating glazing
8 Plywood frame, 16
160/94 mm
9 Three-ply spruce panel
glued, 27 mm
Plywood threshold, 7
160/94 mm
Larch threshold,
200/50 mm
Bitumen sheeting, 5 mm
Bed of mortar, 15 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete,
200 mm
Winter protection:
Solid spruce shutter
element with guide rails
hung in runner rails,
25 mm
Sealed joint
Spruce shingles
Spruce plywood, 8
Exposed timber quality 9
inside, jointless,
2≈ 98 mm, screwed down
Spruce shingles, plywood
element, exposed timber
c c
quality inside, 148 mm

16 10

11
13 14 15 cc 12 bb

157
158

B 5 Metal
B 5.1 Distribution warehouse, Chippenham (GB) 1982,
Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners
Metal
In many places progress in human civilisation
was accompanied by developments in metal-
working technologies. The discovery of a way
to make bronze (around 2,500 BC) and iron
(from approx. 750 BC) was revolutionary
because the new materials improved the effect-
iveness of tools and weapons and stimulated
general, broad-based cultural evolution.
Other than casting, only a few metalworking
techniques, such as forging, bending and
beating, were initially available. Gradually this
repertoire was expanded and refined, and
newly discovered metals and alloys increased
the range of metal’s applications.
Technological progress in metalworking is
clearly demonstrated by the example of arma-
ments, which, as well as having a protective
function, show a desire for prestige. These two
divergent requirements resulted in a diverse
range of forms of shaping and working metal
(Figs. B 5.2 and B 5.3). B 5.2
Metal was used very early in construction. Lead,
bronze and copper have been used, especial-
ly for roofs, since antiquity. The Greeks used
large amounts of bronze and iron to clamp
stones and lead to seal joints in building tem-
ples and large walls. Some of these buildings
were subsequently destroyed to recover the
coveted metals, especially during wars. Many
Gothic buildings would not stand firm without
the (usually concealed) use of iron anchors
and ties.
Apart from these applications, the use of metals
was for a long time restricted to covering dis-
crete points and enclosing projections, porches
etc. Only with the emergence of large glass
windows did metals appear in facades in a new
form and to a greater extent.
The further development and spread of metal
and glass were closely interdependent because
it was the metals’ load-bearing properties
B 5.3
(tensile and compressive strength) that made B 5.2 Greek bronze helmet
it increasingly possible to break up solid walls B 5.3 Squire's breastplate, approx.1480, chain mail
16th century.
into individual elements. B 5.4 Cast-iron balcony and porch, London (GB)
19th century.
Wrought iron, cast iron and steel
The replacing of charcoal with coke and hard
coal from around 1720 made it possible to
mass-produce pig iron, with the first iron sheet-
ing made in England in the mid-18th century.
The use of metal in building facades coincided
chronologically with the development of railway
rails (around 1830) and a more widespread use
of steel (from 1855). In 1854 the first wrought
iron Å-beams became available in France, and
James Bogardus built a five-storey facade fa-
cing the street that was made of prefabricated
cast-iron elements for Harper & Brothers pub-
lishers in New York (1854).
At this time the steel and iron elements visible
in facades were generally part of the support
structure, like those in the foundry hall of the
Sayner smelting works by C. L. Althans, or they
were combined with glass (1830) or brick, as
at Jules Saulnier’s Menier chocolate factory in
Noisel-sur-Marne (1872).
B 5.4
159
Metal

B 5.5 B 5.6
Other typical 19th-century applications for cast on the criteria mentioned above. Based on This type of construction was important in the
iron were prefabricated balustrades, railings the principle of railway rails, whose profile development of metal facades because visible
and parapets, and entire balcony and porch cross section was designed for a specific load-bearing metal sections often had to be
systems (Fig. B 5.4, p. 159) like those that still purpose and a defined installation situation, matched with the material of closed panels
characterise the New Orleans streetscape “standard steel profile sections” were devel- around windows and storey slabs. The result
today. Metal’s great strength and the type of oped from the early 20th century to meet was facades whose appearance was charac-
production (casting) made it possible to build specific load conditions. terised by large areas of glazing and by the uni-
delicate, open structures that were also very fying effect of metal. Coated steel and metals
economical, resulting in such structures being Architects such as Ludwig Mies van der Rohe such as stainless steel, aluminium, bronze or
produced and stocked in large quantities used these ideas to develop special facade weathering steel were used.
during this period. profiles and elements, creating a completely The Lake Shore Drive Apartments (Mies van
One early example of an almost completely new, self-supporting type of facade consisting der Rohe, 1951) and the Chicago Inland Steel
opaque metal facade is an office building in of elements hung from a load-bearing frame, Building by SOM (1955, Fig. B 5.11) are not-
the Rue Réaumur in Paris built by Georges a structure referred to as a “curtain wall”. This able examples of the use of stainless steel in
Chédanne in 1905. Spaces between the struc- new principle of load bearing in facades, made buildings, the Seagram Building in New York
ture’s visible steel frame are filled with riveted possible by greatly reduced profile cross sec- by Mies van der Rohe (1957, Fig. B 5.12) of
metal sheeting, and steel is the material that tions combined with improved glazing tech- the use of bronze, the Alcoa Building in Pitts-
dominates its design. niques, was a major step on the way to the all- burgh by architects Harrison & Abramovitz
glass facades of visionary designs by Mies (1953) of aluminium and the Chicago Civic
Prefabrication and systems van der Rohe and Bruno Taut in the early 20th Center (Charles F. Murphy with SOM,1965,
Using metal in construction allows for high century. Fig. B 5.13) of the use of weathering steel.
levels of prefabrication and great precision.
Parallel developments in car and railways con-
struction led to ideas and systems approaches
for building components that could also be
mass-produced. The Steel House in Dessau
by Georg Muche and Richard Paulick (1927),
Buckminster Fuller’s “Dymaxion Deployment
Unit” of 1929 and 1945 (Fig. B 5.5) and the
series of system houses by Stahlhaus AG (from
1928) testify to these developmental trends,
although none of these experiments led to
a larger series and most did not progress
beyond the prototype phase.
This was not, however, the case with another
approach – that of building not the entire
B 5.7 B 5.8
facade, but just part of the exterior wall based

B 5.5 “Dymaxion Deployment Unit” prototype, 1945,

Buckminster Fuller
B 5.6 Office building facade, Maison du Peuple, Clichy
(FR) 1939, Jean Prouvé
B 5.7 Demonstration of the stability and lightness of
the aluminium shell of a caravan
B 5.8 Streamlined aluminium cladding on a railway
carriage
B 5.9 Aluminium panels, Financial Times printing centre,
London (GB) 1988, Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners
B 5.10 Smooth aluminium panels, terrace houses, London
(GB) 1988, Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners
B 5.9 B 5.10

160
 Metal

B 5.11 B 5.12
Facades built based on the “curtain wall” prin- ments as well as an aesthetic sensibility drawn sheath of the Auditorium Parco della Musica in
ciple in a technically developed form began to from this area play a special role in architec- Rome (Renzo Piano Building Workshop, 2003;
be built in Europe from around 1955. ture. Metals in building exteriors convey an Fig. B 5.15, p. 162).
image of “high-tech”. Current developments in
Jean Prouvé’s contribution metal facades often focus on the possibilities New developments, new metals
Jean Prouvé (1901–1984) was a trained artisan of using metals as cladding on very free-form The further development of metal alloys made
metalworker and eminent designer of metal buildings. This has become feasible due to the it possible to adapt their material properties
facades. When he began his career, the main use of sophisticated computer-assisted plan- more precisely to accommodate various
semi-finished products such as metal sheeting ning processes and forming technologies that applications. A series of new techniques
and profiles were available, but their applica- make it possible to mount very thin sheet metal have also produced other three-dimensional
tion in facades had been barely explored. on highly complex frames. materials, such as metal foams (Fig. B 5.17,
Prouvé’s interest in metalworking by machine Metal’s unique surface properties often contrib- p. 163). Their main potential applications would
was oriented towards industrial practice, and ute to the very sculptural effect of buildings it be in lightweight, load-bearing structures, so
he made great progress in the area of sheet is used in or on. Among the examples of such experiments with these materials are currently
metal working. effects are the smooth, shimmering titanium
He resisted the prevailing trend of an increas- skin of the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao
ing division of tasks and specialisation by (Frank O. Gehry, 1997; Fig. B 5.16, p. 162), the B 5.11 Stainless steel facade, Inland Steel Building,
carrying out planning, experiments and manu- zinc sheeting cladding on the Jewish Museum Chicago (US) 1955, SOM
B 5.12 Bronze facade, Seagram Building, New York (US)
facture in his own workshop, keeping the in Berlin (Daniel Libeskind, 1998), the Thames 1957, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
main processes under his control. He also Barrier structures (Rendel Palmer & Tritton, B 5.13 Weathering steel facade, Civic Center, Chicago
explored the possibilities of new manufactur- 1982; Fig. B 5.14, p. 162) and the rough lead (US) 1965, Murphy and SOM
ing techniques such as autogenous and arc
welding.
Prouvé worked with the most important archi-
tects of his time as a designer and manufac-
turer and was one of the first to investigate the
possibilities of thermally separate structures.
He developed the first entirely sheet metal
“curtain wall” facade for the Maison du Peuple
in Clichy (1939; Fig. B 5.6). Among his other
major works was an apartment block on the
Square Mozart in Paris (1954; Fig. C 2.1, p. 266)
with vertical sliding, adjustable sunshading
elements and the showcase facade of the
Citroën showroom in Lyon (1932), which is
characterised by rhomboidal profile panels
made of folded sheet metal [1].

From the 1960s Prouvé especially influenced

architects such as Fritz Haller (see p. 174f.),
Norman Foster (see p. 176f.) and Nicholas
Grimshaw (Figs. B 5.9 und B 5.1, p. 158), who
advanced the use of metal in prefabricated
panels and sandwich construction by refining
production and joining techniques.

Visual impact
Metal is durable, so it is widely used to make
the outer skins of vehicles, aircraft, railway car-
riages and ships. The major technical achieve-
B 5.13

161
Metal
B 5.14
focused mainly on the area of vehicle con-
struction.
Many new features are expected from the
use of composite materials that combine
the effects of individual materials’ specific
properties.
Developments in the area of coating tech-
nologies are now also making important
contributions to the optical impact of facades.
Extremely thin metal coatings designed to
reflect solar radiation are being applied to a
growing number of substrate materials (glass
and plastics, including membrane and foil
materials).
Material properties
Most of the metals in facades are used not in
their pure form but are alloys. Figure B 5.19
shows the main properties of the metals most
162
B 5.15
commonly used in facades, sorted according
to their atomic number. Metals with a maximum
density of 4.5 g/cm3 are classed as “light
metals”, which normally include titanium, even
though it has a density of 4.51 g/cm3. All metal
materials are impermeable to both gas and
vapour. Their thermal expansion is crucial in
construction because any resulting movement
must be absorbed by the type of joints and
assembly.
Air temperature and solar radiation are essen-
tial factors in the heating of materials, which is
also determined by the colour and reflection
and absorption properties of individual metal
materials.
Figures B 5.18 and B 5.24, p. 165, show the
characteristics of various metal surfaces. Most
of these materials react to environmental influ-
ences by changing their appearance. Corro-
sive processes in some metals can make using
them in construction very problematic. Steel,
B 5.16
for example, can change its volume up to a
factor of 7 when it corrodes. Leaching can
discolour other metals (copper, weathering
steel) or they can be very toxic, even in small
amounts (lead). As well as corrosive pitting,
contact corrosion can occur if different metals
are either directly combined or if moisture
such as rainwater creates a bridge for trans-
porting ions (electrolysis) from the surface of
one metal to another. The oxidative reactivity
series of metals classifies metals as base (with
low electric potential, easily oxidised) or pre-
cious (high electric potential, resist oxidising).
The electrical difference of a metal’s actually
effective chemical form (often an oxide) deter-
mines its risk of corrosion. A neutral intermedi-
ate layer or insulation will have to be provided
in some cases [2].
As Figure B 5.18 shows, some metal materials
resist corrosion while others either naturally
form a regenerative anti-corrosion layer (pat-
ina) or can be made to do so artificially. A
third group (iron and steel) need special treat-
ment to withstand environmental influences.
Measures to protect against corrosion and
other surface treatments must be carefully
coordinated.
Production technologies and semi-finished
products
The fundamental metalworking processes are:
• Casting and shaping
• Separating and cutting
• Joining
• Coating
• Modification of material properties
B 5.14 Thames Barrier, London (GB) 1982, Rendel
Palmer & Tritton
B 5.15 Lead facade, Auditorium Parco della Musica,
Rome (IT) 2003, Renzo Piano Building Workshop
B 5.16 Titanium facade, Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao
(ES) 1997, Frank O. Gehry
B 5.17 Metal foam (scale approx. 1:1)
B 5.18 Metal materials and their surfaces
B 5.19 Properties of metal materials (selection), sorted
according to the primary metal's atomic number,
in ascending order
 Metal

B 5.17

Pure metals Iron alloys

(Selection1) Gold Titanium Iron Aluminium Copper Lead

Alloys Stainless Weathering Titanium-zinc

Steel Bronze
(Selection 2) steel steel alloy

Corrosion
Corrosion-resistant Needs additional protection Automatically forms an anti-corrosion layer that changes the
behaviour 3
(without changing form) against corrosion metal’s appearance (process can be artificially accelerated)

Necessary measures to
Solid coating Galvanising,
protect against corrosion, Liquid coating
(powder coating, enamelling) electroplating
combinations possible

Surfaces,
Mechanical surface treatment Chemical surface treatment does not cause coating Chemical surface treatment causes coating
combinations
possible • Sandblasting • Polishing • Cleaning • Burnishing • Build-up • Enamelling • Galvanising
• Shot-blasting • Water-jetting • Chemical deburring • Metal spraying welding • Plating • Painting
• Brushing • Embossing • Etching • Hot-dip • Anodising • Laminating
• Sanding /grinding • Cambering • Pickling galvanising • Oxidising • Printing
1 2 3
Metals used in facades, primary metal content greater than 90 % Alloys commonly used in facades Basis: normal outdoor environment
B 5.18

Metal material Alum. Titan Iron Copper Zinc Tin Gold Lead
Chem. Symbol (OZ) Al (13) Ti (22) Fe (26) Cu (29) Zn (30) Sn (50) Au (79) Pb (82)
Steel Stainess Weathering Construction Tombac Titanium-
Alloy steel steel bronze zinc
Density [g/cm3] 2.7 4.51 7.87 7.8 7.98 8.92 8.73 8.5 7.2 7.2 7.29 19.32 11.34
1
Modulus of elasticity [kN/mm2] 65 110 210 210 200 200 132 100 85 90 80 50 75 15
Specific heat capacity [J/(kg K)] 900 530 460 400 390 380 380 390 398 230 130 130
Thermal expansion coeff. 2 [10-6m/(mK)] 23.8 10 12.1 11.7 17.3 11.7 16.8 18.5 19 36 20 20.5 14.2 28.3
Thermal conductivity [W/(mK)] 160 22 80.4 65 15 305 67 50 116 109 35.3 317 34
Standard potential [V] -1,69 -0.44 +0.35 -0.76 -0.16 +1.38 -0.13
Electrical conductivity [m/mm2Ohm] 35 1.25 10.3 10.2 60 9 16 16.9 17 8.7 45.7 4.82
1
1 kN/mm2 = 1 GPa 2
at 20 °C
Corrosion behaviour
Forms a protective
oxide coating • • ° ° ° • • • • • • • ° •

Extra corrosion
protection required ° ° • • ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
Colour continues
to develop ° ° • • ° • • • • • • • ° •

Discolours in runoff water ° ° • • ° • • • • ° ° ° ° °

Semi-finished sheet metal products for facades
Standard thicknesses mm 0.3 –1 0.35 – 3 0.5 – 3 >3 0.6 – 0.8 0.7–1.5 2.25 – 3.0
Recommended minimum t = sheet metal
2t 1– 2 t 2t 1.75 t
inner bending radius thickness
• yes ° no B 5.19

163
Metal

Continuous casting Permanent mould (no model)

Casting
Mould casting Lost mould with permanent model
Lost mould and model
Forming

Single sintering
Sintering Double sintering
Powder forging

Electroforming

Free forming
Pressure forming Drop forging
Drawing Indentation forming
Impact extrusion
Tensile- Deep drawing Extrusion
Extrusion moulding
compressive Pressing Rolling
forming Plunging
Upset bulging
Shaping

Roll bending
Die bending
Drawing Round bending
Expanding (internal Turning
Roll straightening
high pressure forming) Milling, countersinking, reaming
Bending
Stretching Milling
forming
Drawing (stretch Shaping, slotting These primary processes can be subdivided
forming /drawing) Broaching
Shear forming
Twisting
Sawing further into many other processes that are
Displacement undergoing constant development. Figure
Filing, rasping
Cutting Machining with brush tools B 5.20 shows the relationships between manu-
Wedge-action cutting With geometrically Scraping, chiselling facturing techniques and individual product
Cutting
Tearing defined cutting
groups in terms of their use in facades.
Breaking

Machining With geometrically Grinding Forming and shaping methods are used to
Water jet
undefined cutting Abrasive blasting make semi-finished products in continuous or
Abrasive
Honing
Separating

water jet cyclical processes. Products are then further

Lapping
Thermal Blowtorch cutting
processed using techniques such as folding,
Material
removing Plasma jet drilling, drawing or pressing to make even
Laser more complex products. As well as creating
Electron beam specific optical effects, processing is usually
Detachable Friction sawing
designed to optimise certain properties, e.g.
Electric discharge
machining Electro-chemical improve stability.
Etching Metals are often combined with other mater-
Cleaning Chemical Pickling ials to create composite materials such as the
multilayer sheeting shown in Fig. B 5.22. Steel
In clearance holes
Screwing Anti-slip pretensioning
and aluminium as well as copper are the main
Inserting With dowel screws Cold pressing~ Spot~ metals used.
Clamping Ultrasonic~ Projection~
Braiding, stranding Friction~ Roller seam~ Sheet metal sandwich elements
Reversible Splicing Arc~ Butt seam~ Metals’ properties (e.g. high strength and
Joining

Resistance~ Inductive~
Pressure welding Gas press~ good workability) make them especially
Permanent Welding Fusion welding Gas~ suitable for making complete composite com-
Soldering Soft soldering < 450 °C Laser~ ponents, so-called sandwich elements (see
Riveting Brazing 450 – 900 °C Plasma~ Fig. B 5.21 and “Surfaces – structural prin-
Shrinking Hi-temp. brazing > 900 °C Electron beam~
Adhesive Pressure welding Arc~
ciples”, p. 27ff.). To make these, two sheets
Manual arc~
bonding Fusion welding Wolfram of metal are usually joined to both sides of
inert gas~ a shear-resistant insulated core to form a
Dipping Metal rigid construction unit (like the cross section
Liquid Spraying inert gas~ of a bone). Their specific properties can be
Painting, roller application Metal
active gas~
enhanced by first shaping the sheet metal,
Electrostatic powder coating which can increase its ability to bear structural
Solid
Coating

Enamelling loads in one direction (e.g. by folding it) or in

two directions (e.g. by deep drawing).
Gaseous Vapour deposition

Galvanising These structural components’ size is generally

Anodic oxidation only limited by transport requirements and the
Ionised
Electrolytic dip galvanisation available sheet metal widths. Their high rigidity
Chemical dip galvanisation Diffusion annealing
Coarse-grain annealing
Changing material props.

Normal annealing
Annealing Soft annealing
Thermal Hardening Stress-free annealing B 5.20 Metalworking and production techniques
Tempering Recrystallisation annealing B 5.21 Various steel sheeting sandwich panels
B 5.22 Various aluminium multilayer panels
Thermo- Diffusion of non-metals Heating to red heat B 5.23 Relationship between manufacturing techniques
technical Diffusion of metals Nitriding and products
B 5.24 Surfaces of metal materials with natural and artifi-
Magnetised cial forms of corrosion and patina (selection)
B 5.20

164
 Metal

B 5.21 B 5.22

Forming, Rolling
shaping Casting Extrusion Drawing
(hot / cold)
methods

Product or
semi-finished Bar, Hollow Bar, Hollow Hollow
Cast part Foil Sheet Wire
product open profile section, pipe open profile section, pipe section, pipe

Products Profiled Perforated Expanded

Grating sheeting sheeting metal Pipe Mesh Cable

B 5.23

Weathering steel Bronze Lead

Aluminium Copper Titanium-zinc

B 5.24

165
Metal

means that even relatively thin, light elements

can be used to build long spans in short con-
struction times, while their insulation properties,
vapour-tightness and mechanical stability mean
that the sandwich element principle is often
expedient for use in a facade surface. Sand-
wich element joints and edges do, however,
require especially careful handling. Aluminium,
steel and stainless steel are the metals usually
used in the outer layers.

Metal facades – basic forms

Building on the systematic description of gen-

eral basic principles of facade construction
(see “Surfaces – structural principles”, p. 26f.),
figure B 5.26 shows a selection of the most
common forms of metal facades.

As well as the treatment of construction joints,

the type of attachment to the substructure is
important in curtain wall facades depending
on the material involved. In metal facades,
these are generally detachable (e.g. screws
and bolts) and can be in or around the joints
or elsewhere. Some soft metals, such as lead,
can be nailed. Self-tapping screws are used
to join sheets of metal to each other or to the
substructure. Visible joint rivets, which for a
long time predominated in metal construction
application designs, are now very rarely used.
A distinction is also made between ventilated
and unventilated structures and those with
and without additional elements to cover or
close joints.
Another essential criterion is the way facade
elements are stabilised, which can be done
by choosing a suitable format based on the
material and its thickness, or by taking add-
itional measures (e.g. folding, corrugation
or deep drawing) or by using sandwich elem-
ents. Certain shaping methods, such as
extrusion, can also produce elements with
stable forms.

Metals may be perhaps the most suitable

material for use in highly prefabricated fa-
cades. The sizes of metal sheets available,
shaping techniques and their relatively low
weight and robustness in resisting weather-
ing (especially aluminium) make it possible
to use large-format elements in the form of
panels, coffers or louvres to produce very
economical solutions. Traditional manual
metalworking techniques involving the use of
bending or folding equipment on site are also
still used.

Metal facade planners must take installation

and structural tolerances and accommodation
for considerable expansion due to changes
in temperature into account. No restraining
B 5.25 forces that could damage the structure and
Residential and commer-
cial building, London
cause acoustic disturbances can be allowed
(GB) 1991, Michael to develop, so joints must be adequately
Hopkins and Partners dimensioned and connections able to slide.

166
 Metal

H+V H+V H+V V V H+V

Panels with open joints Sheet metal folded Coffers Louvres Overlapping planar Overlapping planar elem-
around a frame elements (sheet metal) ents with stabilised forms
• Fastenings visible or • Edges on all sides • Linear folds or extruded
concealed • Hard to maintain tension stabilise the form elements • Fastenings concealed • Manufacturers offer
• Second, airtight water • Second, airtight water • Detachable joints • Louvres should be under overlapping varying formats
runoff layer required runoff layer required spaced so that no water elements • Stability not even in both
can get in through them • Size of elements limited directions
• Butt joints require • Steel can corrode if
backing water gets in (stainless
steel only)
• Lead, zinc, copper
typically used

H+V H+V V H+V H+V H+V

Cross welt seam Standing seam
• Can also be combined • Also possible without
with fastenings fastening
• Folded on site • Folded on site
• Detachable joints • Lends surfaces a definite
structure
• Detachable joints
Overlapping panels with
additional local fastening
element
• Risk of contact corrosion
from unsuitable material
combinations
• Local fastening element
visible on the surface
Fastening concealed in Special extruded forms
insert
• Cells must be ad-
• Individual elements equately ventilated
cannot be replaced • Not possible to make
an adequate joint
between elements in
the other direction
• Substructure must
be perpendicular to
the webs
• Individual elements
cannot be exchanged
Stable individual elements
joined with a third element
concealing the butt joint
• Tensile-compressive
forming (deep drawing)
creates a stable form
• Individual elements can
be exchanged

H+V H+V H+V H H H

Sandwich elements with Sandwich elements joined Panels joined by means Sheet metal backing Strip covering a vertical Multipart clamped joint
attachments in joints with a third element con- of additional sealing butt joint over a local attachment
cealing the butt joint elements • Supplementary edge element
• Attachment is concealed folds stabilise forms • Cannot be used for
• Substructure in only one • Can be integrated into • Individual elements can • Individual elements can horizontal joints because • The element's folds
direction required post-and-rail structures be exchanged if sealing be exchanged it disrupts water runoff stabilise its form
• Individual elements • Individual elements can element can be opened • Individual elements can • Individual elements can
cannot be exchanged be exchanged be exchanged be exchanged
(installation sequence)
• This method requires
either a continuous H = Horizontal cross section V = Vertical cross section
sealing strip or good
ventilation
• Second airtight layer
required

B 5.26 Metal facades – basic forms (selection)

167
Metal

B 5.27 Stainless steel sheeting embossed with pyramid-

shaped studs
B 5.28 Sheet metal with studded surface
B 5.29 Sheet metal embossed with lozenges
B 5.30 Sheet metal embossed with a lozenge-grid
pattern
B 5.31 Sheet metal embossed with a herring bone
pattern
B 5.32 Sheet metal with a fine rib panel
B 5.33 Sheet metal with trapezoidal corrugations
B 5.34 Sheet metal with asymmetrical corrugations

B 5.27 B 5.28

B 5.29 B 5.30

B 5.31 B 5.32

B 5.33 B 5.34

168
 Metal

B 5.35 Square perforations, stainless steel

B 5.36 Triangular perforations, stainless steel
B 5.37 Offset slits, stainless steel
B 5.38 Aluminium expanded metal
B 5.39 Aluminium expanded metal
B 5.40 Circular perforations, folded, tombac
B 5.41 Lanced perforations, stainless steel
B 5.42 Grating (bars/wires), stainless steel

B 5.35 B 5.36

B 5.37 B 5.38

B 5.39 B 5.40

B 5.41 B 5.42

169
Metal

Metallic textiles (meshing)

Diaphanous (translucent) metallic textiles have

their origins in industrial applications (e.g. filter
and food technology). Like perforated sheet
metal, they offer options for building perme-
able building envelopes. The effect achieved
depends greatly on the distance at which they
are viewed and is largely determined by the
reflective properties of the material used, mesh
size and the material’s thickness and structure.
Besides their striking appearance, metallic
textiles can be functional (e.g. offer protection
from the sun, weather and wind, screen out
views, refract light, offer protection from light-
ning and radar, and improve security etc.).
Interiors can be more or less screened from B 5.43
view by varying the size of openings and relief
depths in metal surfaces [3].

Similar to membrane materials, metal mesh can

be installed in a prestressed state (i.e. stabil-
ised in the plane). Springs are often used to
maintain this prestressing as temperatures
change (Figs. B 5.44 and B 5.45). Connections
can also be made to be re-tensioned.
Manufacturers can now produce materials
of almost unlimited sizes that expand in both
directions without visible joints and seams.
Woven materials are, however, usually avail-
able with a maximum sheet width of 8 metres.
Figures B 5.46 a – h show various methods of
joining metal meshes like those used in the
classic textile industry. Metal knits and meshes B 5.44 B 5.45
(nets) are also now available [4].
Metallic textiles can be made of various metal
materials or combined with plastics. Among
the special textiles available are:
• Illuminated textiles with fibre-optic fibres
woven into them
• Textiles with graphics and texts woven into a b
them (e.g. company logos)
• Textiles whose translucency can be varied
(in steps or gradual)

c d

Notes:
[1] Among the works on Jean Prouvé, those by Peter e f
Sulzer are authoritative, e.g. Sulzer, Peter: Jean
Prouvé, Œuvre complète. 4 Vols. Basel 2008; Sulzer,
Peter: Jean Prouvé. Highlights 1917– 44. Basel /
Boston / Berlin 2002
[2] Karl Täumer & Söhne GmbH (ed.): Dachdecker- und
Spenglerarbeiten. Munich 1993, p. 95
[3] Use of two-ply metal textiles such as that used in
the altar wall of the Herz-Jesu church in Munich by
Allmann Sattler Wappner (2000) is a rarity.
[4] Schäfer, Stefan: Fassadenoberflächen aus metalli-
schen Werkstoffen. In: Detail 01– 02/2003, p. 90f. g h
B 5.46

170
 Metal

B 5.43 Cologne-Bonn airport multistorey car park (DE)

2000, Murphy /Jahn
B 5.44 Two sections joined with tensioning springs
B 5.45 Example of fastenings using tensioning springs
(Vertical cross section and elevation of a top
attachment point)
B 5.46 Types of metal meshes
a Plain weave
b Plain Dutch weave
c Twill weave
d Twilled Dutch weave
e Reverse plain Dutch weave
f Long-mesh weave
g Multiplex weave
h Five-heddle twill weave
B 5.47 Net made of round, stranded cable, stainless
steel, tinned copper pressed sleeves
B 5.48 Stainless steel, rounded wire knit
B 5.49 Plain Dutch weave (warp and weft), stainless steel
B 5.50 Plain weave (warp and weft), stainless steel
B 5.51 Stainless steel double wire long-mesh weave, B 5.47 B 5.48
stainless steel
B 5.52 Plain weave, stainless steel
B 5.53 Plain weave with stainless steel strands and bars
B 5.54 Spiral-woven mesh made of flat strands and
round bars, stainless steel

B 5.49 B 5.50

B 5.51 B 5.52

B 5.53 B 5.54

171
Metal

Semiconductor assembly plant

Wasserburg am Inn, DE 1968

Architect:
Von Seidlein, Munich
Peter C. von Seidlein with Horst Fischer
Responsible for the facade:
Thomas Herzog

º db 01/2002
Grube, Oswald W.: Industriebauten
international. Stuttgart 1971
Von Seidlein, Peter C.: Zehn Bauten
1957– 97. Exhibition catalogue,
Architekturgalerie Munich, 1997

• 1.50-metre grid system used throughout

• Heavy rolled profile sections used instead of
single-member systems
• Application of a directional system resulting in
a
varying column connections
• Columns and wind bracing between exterior
uninsulated and interior insulated metal shells
• Bent vertical aluminium sheeting with con-
cealed fastenings
• Auxiliary building with cooling hood slits in the
aluminium facade for ventilation

a
aa

172
 Metal

12
1 13 1

12
2
3

4 11 15
16
5

bb cc

7 8 7 8

4 10 10

5 11

3 6

Cross section • Floor plan Scale 1:750

Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
17 Scale 1:20

A Elevation of the long side showing closed areas of

the facade
B Front side with windows

1 Steel column, IPB 200

2 Steel angle, 80/40/5 mm
3 Hollow steel section, 60/60/5 mm
b b c c
4 Steel Z-section, 30
5 Anodised aluminium sheeting cladding, 250 mm
6 Insulated panel, 25/500 mm
7 Steel secondary beam, IPE 550
8 Insulation panel
9 Steel beam, IPE 360 mm
10 Insulated, suspended ceiling
11 Steel T-section, T 50
12 Steel angle, 100/50/5 mm
13 Steel angle, 40/40/4 mm
14 Steel angle, 100/50/5 mm
15 Tubular steel roller blind clamping pot, Ø 30/2 mm
15 19 16 Flat steel or T-section for attaching a radiator
14 17 Fixed glazing frame, 50/50/5 mm
18 18 Steel angle, 100/50/6 mm
A B 19 Steel angle, 40/20/5 mm

173
Metal

Technical college

Brugg-Windisch, CH 1966

Architect:
Fritz Haller, Solothurn
Facade design:
Hans Diehl, Neuenhof Baden

º Bauen + Wohnen 08/1968

Detail 01/1969
Wichmann Hans (ed.): System Design
Fritz Haller. Bauten – Möbel – Forschung.
Basel 1989

• An early example and model of perfect sheet

metal shaping by machine
• The facade elements were specially designed
for this building
• No notable ageing thanks to the structural
solution applied and use of stainless steel
• Vertical joints between facade components
and rounded elements are unifying details

Floor plan Scale 1:1,500

Vertical cross section • Horizontal
cross section
Scale 1:20
Details Scale 1:5

1 Sheet metal roof capping

2 Sheet metal storey slab cover
3 Closed facade element:
deep drawn stainless steel sheeting
Thermal insulation,
smooth stainless steel sheeting
4 Louvre blind
5 Insulating glazing
6 Horizontal stainless steel muntin
7 Hollow tubular steel column,
Ø 318 mm
with fire-resistant cladding
8 Condensation drain, Ø 8 mm
9 Air-conditioning unit, sprayed a
cladding
10 Primary ventilation duct a
11 Sprayed edge covering metal sheet
12 Steel angle, 70/70/6 mm
13 Vertical stainless steel mullion
14 Support structure for the curtain
wall facade
15 Stainless steel glazing rebate strip
16 Stainless steel capping

174
 Metal

13 14 15

2
3

3 5 16

bb cc

6
7

8 9

b b

10

11

c c
7 a 9

È 31 6

12

aa
16 a 5

175
Metal

Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts

Norwich, GB 1978

Architects:
Norman Foster & Associates, London
Structural engineers:
Anthony Hunt Associates, Cirencester

º L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 09/1991

Foster, Norman: Foster Associates Buildings
and Projects, Vol. 2. Hong Kong 1989
Von Busse, Hans-Busso et al.: Atlas Flache
Dächer. Nutzbare Flächen. Munich /
Basel 1992

• Exhibition spaces, restaurant, offices and

common areas in a large neutral space
• Roof and facade built with similar elements
• Services (technical building services, sani-
tary facilities) housed in a 2.40-metre wide
peripheral area

1 3 a

4
2

1 Plain roof edge panel 6 Steel pipe with diagonal bracing,

2 Glazed roof edge panel Ø 120 mm
Floor plan 3 Plain panel: ribbed 7 Flat steel, ¡ 180/45/12.5 mm
Scale 1:1,500 aluminium sheeting welded to No. 6 and No. 8
Vertical cross section Thermal insulation, 75 mm 8 Flat steel, ¡ 180/100/3 mm
Scale 1:50 flat aluminium sheeting 9 Aluminium profile substructure
Vertical cross section • 4 Glazed panel: 10 EPDM sealing
Horizontal cross section tinted laminated glass with a UV filter 11 Connecting bolt
Scale 1:5 5 5 Panel with ventilation louvres 12 Steel profile section, fi 50

176
 Metal

3
2

b b

3
11

10
6

12

6 7 8

cc

7
c
8

aa 3 9 c 12 10 4 11 bb

177
Metal

Art museum

Ahrenshoop, DE 2013

Architects:
Staab Architekten, Berlin aa
Structural engineers:
ifb frohloff staffa kühl ecker, Berlin

º Architektur Aktuell 11/2013

Bauwelt 37/2013; 40 – 41/2015
db 12/2013
Detail 11/2004

• Museum housing paintings, graphic works

and sculptures from the local Ahrenshoop
artists’ colony
• Museum design based on the local building
tradition
a
• Facade and roof cladding made of irregularly
corrugated brass sheeting
• Skylights illuminate the interiors

b
b

cc

10

15

11

14

16

178
 Metal

1 2 3

5 4

7 6

1 Galvanised steel sheeting maintenance walkway

2 Triple insulating glazing, toughened safety
glass 8 + space between the panes 20
(with prisms) + toughened safety glass 6 mm +
space between the panes 16 + laminated safety
glass 20 mm, bottom pane satin-finished
3 Painted steel section, welded from flat steel,
¡ 60/15 mm and ¡ 85/15 mm
4 Cable-operated anti-glare blind
5 Painted steel sheeting, 5 mm, folded
6 Power rail for object beam lighting
7 Fluorescent lighting
8 Untreated brass sheeting, 0.7 mm, corrugated
9 Roof:
Untreated brass sheeting, 0.7 mm, corrugated
Rear ventilation cavity, 85 mm / substructure,
corrugated aluminium sheeting
Tensioned membrane
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 200 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete with building
component activation, 200 mm
Render, 15 mm
Fine plastering, 3 mm
10 Facade:
Untreated brass sheeting, 0.7 mm, corrugated,
Rear ventilation cavity, 85 mm / substructure
corrugated aluminium sheeting
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 140 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete wall 250 mm
Render, 15 mm 10
Fine plastering, 3 mm
11 Oiled oak-frame door with triple insulating
glazing, toughened safety glass 6 + space
between the panes 12 + toughened safety
glass 6 + space between the panes 12 +
laminated safety glass 18 mm
12 Concrete outside step with white cement c c
aggregate, made on site
13 Concrete slab, 50 mm
11 14
Drainage mat, 20 mm
EPS thermal insulation, 120 mm
Two-ply bitumen sealing,
Steel-reinforced concrete, 250 mm
14 Timber-frame door covered with cheesecloth
15 Oiled oak planks, 28/135 mm, butt-jointed 12 13
Rear ventilation cavity / battens 28 mm,
Wooden studs, between them
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 140 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete wall, 250 mm
Render, 15 mm, Cross section • Floor plan
Fine plastering, 3 mm Scale 1:500
16 Untreated brass corner plate with several folds, Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
0.7 mm bb Scale 1:20

179
Metal

House

Sottrum-Fährhof, DE 1995

Architects:
Schulitz + Partner, Braunschweig

º Bauzeitung 04/2001
DBZ 12/1997
Schulitz, Helmut C. et al.: Stahlbau Atlas.
Munich / Basel 1999

• Steel-frame system building based on a 1 Lightweight metal clamping profile, 45/26 mm

7 6
rigorous grid 2 Insulating glazing, 24 mm
• Post-and-rail exterior wall structure 3 Glulam post and rail structure
• System grid 1.80 ≈ 1.80 metres 4 Lightweight corrugated metal sheeting,
18/76 mm
Battens / ventilation cavity, 45 mm
Wind and rainproof membrane
Particle board, 19 mm
Battens with mineral fibre insulation
between them, 50 mm
Mineral fibre insulation, 70 mm
Vapour barrier
Plasterboard, 2≈ 12.5 mm
5 Hollow steel section, ¡ 50/100/2.9 mm
Isometric view Not to scale 6 Hollow steel section, | 80/80/2.9 mm
Horizontal section, skylight area 7 Squared timber
Scale 1:5 8 Folded steel sheeting –
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section spacer for ventilation
Scale 1:20 4 8 9 1 2 9 EPDM sealing

2
3

1 2

4
5

a a
7

aa

180
 Metal

Office building

Dornbirn, AT 2012 a

a 1
Architects:
Hermann Kaufmann Architekten,
Schwarzach
Structural engineers:
Merz Kley Partner, Dornbirn

º DBZ 12/2012
Detail 12/2012
2
Competition 306/2012

• Eight-storey, 26-metre high prototype for
a composite timber modular system used
to build a multistorey building
• Prefabricated timber facade elements with
exterior aluminium cladding
• Composite timber-steel-reinforced storey
slabs
• Concrete staircase core poured on site
Floor plan, upper floor
Scale 1:400
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20
1 Gravel, 50 mm, fleece, plastic sealing sheeting
Sloping insulation, 500 – 580 mm
Bitumen sheeting
2 Prefabricated timber-concrete hybrid slab,
2.70/8.10 m:
Steel-reinforced concrete panel compression chord,
80 mm
Glulam beam, 240/280 mm
Installation cavity, covering panel 3
Perforated steel sheeting, 2 mm, with heating /
cooling pipes b b
3 Thermal insulation glazing, toughened safety
glass 4 + space between the panes 18 +
toughened safety glass 4 + space between the
panes 18 + toughened safety glass 4 mm
in a timber-aluminium frame
4 Aluminium sun protection blind
5 Ceiling element attachment on supports:
Steel bolts Ø 40 mm
Joints poured with concrete
6 Prefabricated facade element, 10.80/3.30 m:
Brushed aluminium sheeting, 3 mm
Substructure /rear ventilation cavity, 86 mm 5
Cement-bonded particle board, 18 mm
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 320 mm
OSB panel, 18 mm, vapour barrier
Facing shell, 33 mm, plasterboard panel, 15 mm 4
and spruce glulam columns, 2≈ 240/240 mm
6

6 bb aa

181
Metal

Pavilion

Amsterdam, NL 2000

Architects: 1 Steel T-section, lation panel, 80 mm

60/60/5 mm Sand-lime brick,
Steven Holl, New York
2 Flat steel, ¡ 100/6 mm 150 mm
Rappange & Partners, Amsterdam 3 Perforated, patinaed Timber section,
copper sheeting, 60/55 mm
º Architectural Record 10/2000 Element size, Steel section, fi 120
Baumeister 09/2000 1,000/2,100/4 mm, Perforated, birch-
Attached with stainless veneer MDF panel,
DBZ Sonderheft Büro + Architektur, 2001 steel screws to a 16 mm
domus 830, 2000 powder-coated support 4 Transparent
Schittich, Christian (ed.): Gebäudehüllen. structure insulating glazing
2nd ed., Munich / Basel 2006 Glass-fibre panel coat- 5 Translucent
ed with synthetic resin insulating glazing
Rigid foam thermal insu- 6 Lighting
1

• Perforated copper sheeting used inside

and out 2
• Three overlapping layers interspersed with
cutouts offer varying levels of permeability
• Very thick facade – approx. 120 cm
• Stark contrast between day and night
• Interior walls partially painted with fluorescent
paint, indirect lighting

b b

Floor plan Scale 1:750

Vertical cross section Scale 1:50
Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20

a a

4 5

aa 3 bb

182
 Metal

The Nordic embassies

Berlin, DE 1999

Architects:
Berger + Parkkinen, Vienna
Pysall Ruge, Berlin
Structural engineers:
IGH, Berlin
Facade technology (copper band):
DEWI, Vienna

º AIT 12/1999
A+U 384, 2002
domus 07–08/2000
L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 07– 08 /2000

• A permeable autonomous copper louvre

wall with various angles forms a connecting 1
“curtain” linking the six Nordic country 2
embassy buildings
3
• Differentiated openings refer to the buildings 5
behind them 4
• Opening and closing louvres regulate levels 6 5
of light and air and views
• Copper band 226 metres long in total
• Total of 3,926 copper louvres

a a 4

6 3
2

8 7 8 7 aa

9
Partial cross section Scale 1:750
Facade – vertical cross section 12
Louvres – horizontal cross section 13
Scale 1:20 10

1 Anti-pigeon wire
2 Hollow stainless steel section, | 100 mm
3 Stainless steel profile section, fi 120/50/3 mm
4 Stainless steel sheeting, 4 mm
5 Copper sheeting louvres, pre-patinaed
6 Stainless steel guy rope
7 Sandblasted stainless steel hollow section,
| 120/120 mm, screwed onto No. 2 with
a stainless steel angle fi
8 Sandblasted stainless steel web plate, 10 mm 11
9 Wind protection for the lower facade sections,
glazing fixed at discrete points
10 Stainless steel screw attachments with sliding
sleeves on one side
11 Copper sheeting louvres, pre-patinaed
Air cavity, 100 mm
Sealing
Mineral wool thermal insulation,
120 mm, clad with black fleece
Steel-reinforced concrete, 200 mm
12 Stainless steel Z-profile
13 Copper sheeting

183
Metal

Kalkriese Museum

Bramsche, DE 2002
a c
Architects:
b b
Gigon & Guyer, Zurich
with Volker Mencke

º Architecture 09/2002
A+U 10/2000
Casabella 706 –707, 2002/2003
DBZ 06/2002
Detail 01– 02/2003 a c
El Croquis 102, 2000

• Located at the presumed site of the “Battle

of Teutoburg Forest” in the 9th century AD
• Weathering steel used throughout, including
in the design of the surrounding landscaped
park
• Material that develops a patina was chosen
to symbolize the passing of time

d
e e

Floor plan • Cross section Scale 1:750

Vertical cross section – facade Scale 1:20
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Stair tower Scale 1:20 aa bb

184
 Metal

1 Perforated sheet metal ventilation Vapour barrier

outlet
2 Steel T-beam, IPE 300
3 Load-bearing steel beam, HEB 300
4 Fixed toughened safety glass
glazing, 15 mm
Steel angle frame 90/60/8 mm and
flat steel ¡ 90/5 mm
5 Insulating glazing, 2≈ 5 laminated
safety glass + space between the
panes + 8 mm float glass,
Steel angle frame, 65 mm, welded
to sheet metal with a foam core
6 Weathering steel sheeting facade
panel, ¡ 5,900/3,100/15 mm,
sandblasted surface,
horizontal edges with 10 ° chamfer,
20 mm joints
Mineral fibre insulation, 100 mm
Precast aerated concrete element,
175 mm
Steel sheeting, hot-rolled or pickled
(depending on the section of build-
ing), painted with a clear lacquer
¡ 400/120/3 mm, 4 mm joints,
positioned 100 mm in front of the wall
7 Tubular steel handrail, Ø 37 mm
8 Steel sheeting landing element,
10 mm
9 Weathering steel sheeting facade
panel, 15 mm, sandblasted surface
10 Horizontal fastener, steel bracket
6 for each panel, joined to the load-
bearing structure and facade panels
with threaded bolts welded on
11 Vertical fastening, 2 adjusting screws
hold each panel

1
3

3 2

9
4
6

10

11

dd

10

cc ee

185
Metal

Museum of Contemporary Art

Chicago, US 1996

Architect:
Josef Paul Kleihues, Berlin / Dülmen
Local contact architect:
A. Epstein and Sons, Chicago

º Architectural Record 08 /1996

DBZ 03/1997
Mesecke, Andrea; Scheer, Thorsten (eds.):
Museum of Contemporary Art
Chicago. Josef Paul Kleihues. Berlin 1996

• The proportions defining the design are

based on a square; they are integrated into
the facade in a grid of bands
• Facade made of light pyramid-shaped, cast
aluminium panels blasted with iron filings and
hung on stainless steel screws
• Irregular shading (patination) of the facade is
due to corrosion of the small iron particles left
in the soft aluminium surface after blasting

aa

186
 Metal

11

2 1

cc

6 Cross section • Floor plan of the 2nd floor

2 Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
7 Scale 1:20

1 Facade panel:
Square cast aluminium panels
with a textured surface,
attached with visible specially-
made
stainless steel screws
Air cavity
Galvanised steel sheeting
Extruded rigid polystyrene foam
thermal insulation
Mineral fibre thermal insulation
5 Steel sheeting
4 2 Hollow steel section frame,
| 65/65 mm
3 Flat steel for attaching the steel
frame to the primary load-bearing
structure
8 4 Grating to cover heating pipes:
anodised aluminium in timber
frames
5 Aluminium-frame window
with insulating glazing
toughened safety glass 16 +
space between the panes 12 +
toughened safety glass 6 mm
6 Electrically-operated anti-glare
roller blind
c c 7 Suspended plasterboard ceiling
8 Fire protection seal
9 EPDM sealing strip in an
open joint
1 10 Plinth area:
11 Limestone panel, attached
with visible specially-made
stainless steel screws
11 Plasterboard partition wall
9

10
bb

187
 Glass

B 6 Glass Glass is one of humanity’s oldest materials.

The use of naturally occurring volcanic glass
to make knives and arrowheads, as well as the
production of opaque glass, has been dated
back to 5,000 BC. One major developmental
step towards the glass we use today was the
invention of the glassblowing pipe in the 2nd
century BC in Syria, which first made it pos-
sible to make hollow vessels. The Romans
were the first to successfully develop a pouring
technique for producing flat, although barely
transparent, sheets of glass.

From natural glass to universal building

material

Flat sheet glass

In the 1st century AD improved glass formu-
lations and blown cylinder sheet glass was
used to produce the first flat, transparent B 6.2
B 6.2 Sainte-Chapelle, Paris (FR) 1248
sheets of glass. The invention of the crown B 6.3 Crystal Palace, London (GB) 1851, Joseph Paxton
glass method in the 4th century AD meant B 6.4 Fagus factory, Alfeld (DE) 1911, Walter Gropius
that clear panes with very smooth surfaces B 6.5 National library, Paris (FR) 1997, Dominique
could be made. These processes, developed Perrault
in Syria, were further optimised over time and
continued to be the main glass production
methods well into the late 19th century [1].

The next major developmental step along the

way to flat glass production was the drawn
glass process, which emerged after 1905. It
involves drawing the hot, still viscous glass
mass over rollers or through a fired clay nozzle
and then cooling it. This technique made it pos-
sible for the first time to inexpensively produce
large quantities of high-quality sheet glass.

Alastair Pilkington’s invention of the float pro-

B 6.3
cess in 1959 was the most significant step
towards the cost-effective production of high-
quality sheet glass. His technique entails pour-
ing molten glass onto a molten tin “bath” at
about 1,000 °C. Its lower specific gravity means
that the glass spreads perfectly evenly over
the tin’s surface. The glass mass comes out
almost solid with parallel planes, is transported
over rollers, gradually cooled, then cut. This
process is now used all over the world to pro-
duce a wide variety of glass types [2].

Glass bricks and blocks

B 6.1 Bauhaus Dessau (DE), 1926 /1976 /2011,
Walter Gropius
One interesting late-19th century invention
was the hand-blown glass brick, which was B 6.4
developed in 1886 by Frenchman Gustave
Falconnier and used by renowned architects
such as Hector Guimard, Auguste Perret
and Le Corbusier. The reinforced concrete
glass block, a solid form used after 1907,
had grooved sides for forming an interlock-
ing bond between the glass and concrete,
making it possible for the first time to make
large, load-bearing, transparent panels. Hollow
glass blocks made of two concave sections,
which can be built in with their openings facing
inwards or downwards, were used in the con-
struction of glass-roofed arcades in Prague,
B 6.5

189
Glass

Budapest and other European cities. The glass
block familiar today was developed around
1930 as two concave glass sections perman-
ently joined by means of heat and pressure –
a technique still used to make them today.
Material properties
Fire safety properties
Glass is not flammable, but it begins to soft-
en at around 700 °C, and its low resistance
to changing temperatures means that it
barely withstands temperature differences
of more than 60 K. Glass is also almost
entirely permeable to the heat radiation
generated by fire.

Composition Acoustic properties

Glass consists mainly of silica sand, soda, lime Compared with other building materials,
and other additives, which are melted together glass conducts sound well due to its low
at temperatures over 1,000 °C (Fig. B 6.7) for mass, but this effect can be counteracted by
production. The melt gradually solidifies with- installing multiple panes. The space between
out crystallising at temperatures under about the panes creates an acoustic decoupling
680 °C (float glass). Its transition from a fluid between inside and out that inhibits sound
to a solid state remains reversible. Its high transmission. Multi-pane glazing units are
degree of transparency is due to its lack of a available in varying thicknesses, and the
crystalline molecular structure, enabling light spaces between their panes can be filled
to pass through glass without diffusing. Glass’s with a heavy gas.
molecular structure makes it an amorphous,
isotropic material, so its physical properties are
independent of direction. Types of glass used in facades
B 6.6
Optical properties Float glass
The spectral transmittance of glass for solar Float glass (plate glass) is a high-quality,
radiation ranges from about 300 to 2500 nm. clear flat glass with even, plane-parallel
Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 69 –74 % Glass is impermeable to long-wave radiation surfaces. It is the basic material used in most
Calcium oxide (CaO) 5 –12 % in the infrared range above 2,500 nm and single and multiple-pane glazing units now
to biologically effective UV radiation below made for facades. The maximum pane size
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 12–16 %
315 nm (Fig. B 6.8). Most short-wave solar is 321 ≈ 600 cm, although more expensive,
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 0–6% radiation passes through glass and heats longer panes are also available. This glass is
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) 0–3% surfaces behind it, which in turn release heat available in thicknesses up to 19 mm [3].
in the form of long-wave radiation that can
EN 572-1 stipulates this composition for Europe.
B 6.7
barely penetrate the glass. This type of heating Sheet glass
of a room is referred to as “the greenhouse Sheet glass is a machine-drawn, transparent
effect”. flat glass of slightly higher quality than float
glass due to the drawn glass process used to
Transmittance [%] Thermal properties make it. Corrugations in the glass perpendicu-
100 Soda-lime-silica glass is the main type of glass lar to the drawing direction, which are visible
80 used in construction. Its rate of thermal expan- when you look through it and in reflections, are
sion is similar to that of steel, although well characteristic of this kind of glass.
60
below the coefficient of thermal expansion of
40 aluminium, which must be taken into account Antique glass
20 in designing glazed facades. Glass’s high ther- Antique glass is made by hand-blowing glass
mal conductivity means that a 4 mm thick pane into a hollow cylindrical form that is then cut
200 1000 2000 2800 of float glass has a heat transfer coefficient of open and flattened (blown cylinder sheet glass
Wave length [nm] 5.75 W/m2K. process). Pane size is therefore limited but
2 mm 4 mm 6 mm 10 mm small quantities of coloured glass can be made
B 6.8 Mechanical properties and strength in this way.
The silica in glass gives it its hardness and
strength, as well as a marked brittleness. In Cast glass
contrast to more elastic materials, such as A continuous rolling process is used to make
Properties Symbol Value and unit metal, glass breaks as soon as the limits of its cast glass (patterned glass). Profiled rollers
Density at 18 °C r 2,500 kg/m3 elastic deformability are exceeded. Glass’s are used to make panes of glass with tex-
Hardness 6 units
compressive strength, 1,000 N/mm2, is compar- tured surfaces that can be used to create a
on the Mohs scale able with that of steel but the bending strength wide range of design effects. This kind of
Modulus of elasticity E 7 ≈ 1010 Pa
of standard float glass ranges from just 30 up glass can be used to screen out views from
to a maximum of 60 N/mm2. outside or evenly diffuse daylight. Maximum
Poisson’s ratio m 0.2
pane sizes vary from manufacturer to manu-
Specific heat capacity c 0.72 ≈ 103 J/(kg ≈ K) Chemical properties facturer.
Average coefficient The silica in glass also makes it highly chem-
of thermal expansion a 9 ≈ 10-6 K-1
ically resistant to aggressive substances, apart Wired glass
Thermal conductivity l 1 W/mK from hydrofluoric acid, hot alkaline solutions Like cast glass, wired glass is produced in a
Average refractive index in and water. Water is a particular risk if glass is continuous rolling process, with wire mesh
the visible wavelength range exposed to it for a long time, as horizontal outer inserted during the rolling process to improve
of 380 nm to 780 nm n 1.5
panes are. its resistance to break-ins and its fire protec-
B 6.9

190

Cast glass
Pressed glass
(rolling process)
Profiling of the Profiling of the
cross section surface
Hollow glass Cast glass,
Profiled
blocks, solid patterned
glass
glass blocks glass
tion properties. Wired glass can be polished
to make plane-parallel surfaces with better
optical properties. The maximum pane size
is 198 cm wide and 382 cm long. Wire is at
risk of rusting along the pane edges, which
require special protection to prevent dis-
colouration and the breaking of glass due
to increases in the steel wire’s volume as a
result of corrosion.
Profiled glass
Profiled glass is produced in a second rolling
process that bends a hot ribbon of glass to
form a u-shaped profile. This form gives the
glass a high load-bearing capacity so that it
can be used to build glass facades without
glazing bars. Profiled glass is available in
widths of 22, 25, 32 and 50 cm and a maximum
length of 600 cm.
Hollow glass blocks
Hollow glass blocks are made by fusing two
hot half-blocks together. As the air between
them cools, a partial vacuum is created in
the sealed cavity that improves their thermal
insulation properties and prevents condensa-
tion from forming in them. Due to the many
thermal bridges, their thermal insulation values
are much worse than that of modern insulating
windows. Hollow glass blocks cannot bear
vertical loads so they can only be used as
non-load-bearing elements. Standard sizes
are 15 ≈ 15 cm and 30 ≈ 30 cm, with depths
of 8 –10 cm.
Solid glass blocks
Solid glass blocks are made in a pressing pro-
cess and in contrast to hollow glass blocks
can bear structural loads. They are available in
square, rectangular and round forms but their
applications are limited due to their low thermal
insulation properties.
Glass products for facades
Float glass
Metal inlay
Prestressing
Toughened
Normal
Wired glass safety glass / heat-
glass
treated glass
Modifying the specific material properties
of glass
Glass’s properties can be adapted to meet
specific requirements in a diverse range of
ways by changing the glass formulation, by
thermally or chemically treating the glass, by
modifying the glass’s surface, or by producing
laminated and insulating glazing units.
Modifying the composition of float glass
Slight impurities in float glass (such as iron
oxide) give it a slight greenish cast that is
particularly noticeable in thicker panes and
multi-pane and multilayered glazing. The
chemical composition of glass melt can,
however, be changed to produce completely
colourless glass and glass with specific phys-
ical properties.
Special metal oxides can be added to glass
to slightly colour it in shades ranging from
green or blue to bronze and grey. Colouring
reduces glass’s radiation transmission and with
it the heating of spaces behind the glass and
can to a certain extent screen out glare. Glass
can be coloured in almost any shade by the
addition of certain metal compounds. As well
as solid-coloured glass, the flashing technique
can be used to make glass with different-col-
oured layers.
Thermal treatment
To improve glass’s bending strength and
ability to resist changing temperatures, flat or
bent flat glass can be thermally prestressed
by heating. This also makes it stronger.
Toughened safety glass (ESG)
Toughened safety glass is made by heating
glass to over 640 °C then immediately blast-
ing it with cold air. The glass surface contracts
Glass
Plate glass 1st stage
(forming)
(sheet glass)
2nd stage
(forming during the
production process)
3rd stage
(refining,
tempering)
Laminating
Bonding with
spacers
Laminated Insulating
safety glass glass
B 6.10
and solidifies while its inner core remains
hot and soft. As its core cools and solidifies,
compressive stress builds up on the glass’s
surface, which increases its bending strength
(approx. 90 –120 N/mm2) and ability to with-
stand changes in temperature (float glass
40 K, toughened safety glass 200 K). Ther-
mally prestressed glass cannot be mechan-
ically worked after treatment. Toughened
safety glass breaks into small, blunt shards,
which greatly reduces the risk of it causing
injury (Fig. B 6.15 c, p. 193).
Heat-treated glass
Heat-treated glass is also heated to over
640 °C but less intensively blasted with cold
air so there is less compressive stress on
its surface. Its bending strength (approx.
40 –75 N/mm2) and resistance to changes
in temperature are not quite as high as that
of toughened safety glass (float glass 40 K,
heat-treated glass 100 K, toughened safety
glass 200 K), and it disintegrates into larger
shards when it breaks (Fig. B 6.15 b, p. 193).
Used as laminated safety glass, heat-treated
glass retains a certain structural effective-
ness when it breaks, which can be a posi-
tive effect in facades and overhead glazing.
Like toughened safety glass, panes of heat-
treated glass cannot be subsequently mechan-
ically worked.
B 6.6 Sainsbury Centre, Norwich (GB) 1978,
Norman Foster & Associates
B 6.7 Composition of glass
B 6.8 Spectral transmission curves for various thick-
nesses of float glass with an average iron oxide
(Fe2O3) content of 0.10 %.
B 6.9 General physical characteristics of glass
B 6.10 Manufacture of glass products for facades
191
Glass
Bent glass
Bent glass is made by thermally treating float
glass in a tunnel or muffle furnace. It can then
be bent into cylindrical or spherical forms or
into two superimposed panes. Its bending
radius depends on the thickness of the pane
of glass.
Fire-polished glass
Fire-polished glass is heated to 500 to 700 °C.
Surface tension makes the plastic, viscous
glass surface shrink and become shiny.
Mechanical treatments
The processes outlined below can be used
to cut to size and finish the edges of panes
of glass.
Scoring
Glass can be scored then broken with a ma-
terial harder than glass (e.g. diamond). Apply-
ing various liquids (petroleum, oil) can reduce
the likelihood of the glass splitting along the
score line.
Cutting
Thick glass and armoured or bulletproof glass
is usually cut with a (diamond-blade) cutting
disk or a laser.
Abrasive water-jet cutting
Glass can be cut or – by reducing the jet’s
pressure – notched using a very high-pressure
water jet. Unlike scoring, almost any shapes
can be cut in panes of glass up to 7 cm thick.
This method can also be used to cut laminated
glass. The cut can be started in the solid ma-
terial, which reduces the cutting gap compared
with other cutting methods.
Edge treatments
Glass edges can be treated to reduce the risk
of injury, although they can be left untreated
if there is no risk of injury from the specific
installation situation. Grinding and polishing
can smooth edges to a range of different qual-
ity standards. Edges cut to fit can have some
imperfections, but the ground edges of tables
or mirrors must be absolutely smooth.
Glass surface treatments
A pane of glass’s properties can be modified
by changing its chemical composition or by
treating its surface in various ways.
Matt glass
Chemical and mechanical processes can be
implemented to reduce glass’s transparency.
Etching involves treating a glass surface with
B 6.11 Peckham Library, London (GB) 1999, Alsop +
Störmer
192
pure hydrofluoric acid or its vapours, which
can create a finely nuanced, smooth, matt
surface with a very even appearance. Wax can
be applied before etching to create patterned
glass. Etching does not make glass harder to
clean and maintain.
Sandblasting can also roughen or abrade a
glass surface to a lesser or greater extent
depending on the grain size used. It creates
a rougher surface structure than etching,
which could allow grease or cleaning agents
to adhere to the pane of glass and perman-
ently impair its appearance.
Chemical strengthening
Another surface treatment is the chemical
strengthening of glass, which involves dip-
ping a pane of glass in a hot molten salt.
The replacement of ions increases the glass
surface’s compressive strength and improves
its resistance to thermal and mechanical
loads. Unlike thermally strengthened panes
of glass, chemically strengthened glass can
be cut.
Coatings applied during glass manufacture
Some coatings are applied during glass manu-
facture in an online or offline process, such
as the cathode-ray process (sputtering). Such
coatings include those containing metal oxides,
which reduce radiation transmission. Heat
gains or losses through panes can be reduced
by modifying the configuration of coatings.
Anti-reflection coatings on glass decrease the
amount of radiation it reflects and can reduce
the mirror effect of a single pane of glass from
8 to 1 %.
In contrast, dichroic coatings break up inciden-
tal light into its spectral colours. Depending on
the light’s angle of incidence, it is then transmit-
ted or reflected in different colours. This play of
colours offers interesting design possibilities.
Online processes
Online processes apply a coating material
in a liquid, vapour or powder form that bonds
permanently with the glass surface in a chem-
ical reaction. Glass treated with this hard-
coating process resists wear and tear and
chemical impacts and can be used as single
glazing.
Offline processes
Glass treated with an offline method is coated
in an immersion or vacuum process. The
immersion process coats both surfaces of a
pane of glass, while a vacuum process can
coat just one side. Applying different individual
layers in several operations can specifically
modify glass’s radiation transmission proper-
ties. Coatings applied using an offline method
are usually softer and less robust than the fired
coatings of online methods, so panes of glass
treated in this way are used only as insulating
and laminated glass.
Other coatings
Other forms of coating, such as enamel,
screen-printing or painting, can modify
glass’s design and radiation transmission
characteristics.
Enamelling
Applying an enamel frit (ground glass, addi-
tives and colour pigments) to glass then re-
firing it gives the glass a ceramic, corrosion-
resistant coating. Only thermally strengthened
glass can be enamelled because only it can
absorb the increased thermal stresses caused
by the colour pigments.
Screen-printing
Glass can also be screen-printed. After
printing with colour pigments, the glass is
fired in an enamelling furnace. This tech-
nique can be used to reproduce coloured
B 6.11

graphics and photos. Pane size depends on
the screen size and is generally a maximum of
2.00 ≈ 3.50 metres.
Painting
This technique involves painting finely ground
coloured glass dissolved in a liquid (e.g. tur-
pentine) onto glass and then firing it at 550 °C.
Multilayer laminated glass
Multilayer laminated glazing consists of two
or more panes of glass bonded together with
a viscoplastic synthetic foil or casting resin.
Depending on the glass used, multi-pane glaz-
ing units offer many possible combinations
enabling the glazing’s properties to be adapted
to specific requirements. Laminated glazing
can be flat or curved.
Laminated safety glass
When several panes of glass are bonded
together with foil, shards of glass stick to
the viscoplastic foil when the glass breaks,
greatly reducing the risk of injury. Lamin-
ated safety glass is made of ordinary float
glass, toughened safety glass or heat-treated
glass.
Bonding with printed or coloured foils
Using coloured adhesive foils is an inexpen-
sive way to make coloured laminated glass.
Printed foils can also be used for this pur-
pose. Panes of laminated glass with holo-
graphic optical elements (HOE) offer various
forms of light refraction, creating effects like
those of prisms and lenses. The high lumi-
nous intensity of holograms is due to the
directional emission of light within a specific
angular range, which is determined by the
diffraction grating used in the hologram’s
creation.
Glass
Fire-resistant glazing
Fire-resistant glazing uses adhesive foils and
aqueous gels to protect glass from fire based
on the evaporation heat of water. When the
pane on the side exposed to fire breaks, the
gel on the side not directly exposed to the fire
remains bonded to that pane and gradually
releases water vapour in the direction of the
fire so that most of its radiant energy is con-
sumed. When combined with safety glass,
these panes can resist fire for a long time
(Fig. B 6.16, p. 194). G-class glass prevents
the passage of flame, smoke and gas for a
specific period of time but not the transmis-
sion of radiant heat. F-class glass, in contrast,
prevents the passage of all of them.
B 6.12
Sound insulation glazing
Varying the thicknesses of laminated glass and
inserting a heavy gas in spaces between the
panes can greatly improve the sound reduc-
tion index of insulating glazing. While ordinary
double glazing (4 mm + 16 mm space between
the panes + 4 mm) has a sound reduction
index Rw of 30 dB, a unit with asymmetrically
configured panes (4 mm + 16 mm space
between the panes + 8 mm) and an appropri-
ate gas filling can achieve a sound reduction
index of 35 dB [4]. An increase in the sound
reduction index of over 47 dB can be achieved
by using several panes of laminated glass
and increasing the space between the panes
(Fig. B 6.17, p. 194), although the unit’s greater
weight will require special frame and fitting B 6.13
systems. Individual panes above a certain B 6.12 Laminated safety glass with ceramic printing,
Neue Messe (new trade fair grounds), Leipzig
thickness will block out a certain frequency
(DE) 1996, Gerkan Marg und Partner
range of exterior noise, so the sound insula- B 6.13 Grooved glass facade, university institute building,
tion properties of glazing can be specifically Paris (FR) 1998, Brunet & Saulnier
adapted to meet requirements. B 6.14 Etched glass, Kunsthaus Bregenz (AT), 1997,
Peter Zumthor
B 6.15 Fracture patterns (not to scale):
Thermotropic glass
a Normal glass
Thermotropic glazing units use a liquid consist- b Heat-treated glass
ing of two components, e.g. water and a gas c Toughened safety glass
c
B 6.14 B 6.15
193
Glass

Glass (thick)
Heavy gas
Glass filling
Gel Glass (thin)

B 6.16 B 6.17

Clear state Activated state (hydrogel), that is fixed between two panes because these gases conduct less heat and
(low temperature) (high temperature) of glass or foils. Up to a specific temperature tend to have lower convection levels than air.
the mixture remains homogeneous, and the Argon is preferred to more expensive krypton
trapped layer is transparent. If the limit tem- and xenon for economic reasons, although the
perature is exceeded, the two constituents other gases offer the best thermal insulation. To
separate, causing the layer to turn cloudy and prevent water from condensing on the insides
reflect most light in a diffuse manner, which of the panes, the sealed edges of such units
reduces the amount of radiation the panes contain a desiccant.
transmit (Fig. B 6.18).
Evacuated space between the panes
Electrochromic glass There is no thermal conductivity in a vacuum,
Homogeneous Scatter Electrochromic glass is made by applying a so evacuated insulating glazing units with
mixture material
microscopically-thin tungsten oxide or polyan- a total thickness of 6 – 8 mm can achieve a
Covering layer / Matrix material iline coating to the inside of a pane of laminated U-value of approx. 0.6 W/m2K. The strong
substrata
glass and activating it with a low-voltage elec- vacuum in the space between the panes
B 6.18
tric current that causes it to change colour. means, however, that spacers are required at
When it is not activated, the glass is a light regular intervals to prevent contact between
grey-blue colour, but when a current is applied, the inner and outer panes, and such units’
g-value Translucency Appearance it darkens and looks blue-grey. The glass’s bonded edges must be reliably hermetically
Thermotropic 0.18 – 0.55 0.21– 0.73 white to transmission of daylight changes from around sealed (Fig. B 6.23, p. 196).
glazing clear 70 % when the current is off to around 7 %
Electrochromic 0.14 – 0.49 0.07– 0.69 blue to when the current is on. Its g-value ranges from Fillings with translucent thermal insulation
glazing neutral 0.49 down to 0.14 (Fig. B 6.19) [5]. Installing translucent thermal insulation in the
Gasochromic 0.15 – 0.53 0.15 – 0.64 blue to space between the panes of a glazing unit
glazing neutral Laminated glass with photovoltaic cells (PV glazing) prevents convection and improves its thermal
These figures for switchable sun protection glazing may Very thin layers of solar cells can be fixed insulation properties. Transparent and trans-
change significantly over time due to ongoing develop- between two panes of glass with an adhesive lucent materials, such as glass, acrylic glass,
ments.
B 6.19 foil or casting resin, providing optimum pro- polycarbonate, aerogel and quartz foam in
tection from weather for the cells and wiring. various forms, can be used as translucent ther-
Depending on the configuration, type and mal insulation (Fig. 6.24, p. 196; see also “Solar
spacing of solar cells, transparent, translucent energy”, p. 294ff). The common characteristic
Four means of heat transfer and opaque modules can be produced (see of these materials is that they are translucent
“Solar energy”, p. 294ff.). when installed but not completely transparent.

Fillings that improve protection from the sun

Insulating glazing
1. Radiation 67 %
Insulating glazing units consist of two or more
panes of glass with an airtight space between
the panes of 8 to 24 mm (Fig. B 6.20). Their
U-values and g-values can be improved in
2. Convection many ways by adding special fillings or extra
foils in the space between the panes or by
coating the surface of the innermost pane.
3. Heat transfer
33 %
through fillings Filling the space between the panes with gas
The space between panes of glass can be
filled with dried air or with an inert gas for
4. Sealed edges
better thermal insulation. Using argon, krypton
or xenon can reduce a glazing unit’s U-value
B 6.20
Different sunshading, anti-glare and daylight
refraction elements can be integrated into the
space between panes of glass, where they are
protected from weather. These include elec-
tronically controlled shading systems such as
blinds or foil roller blinds and fixed systems
such as sun shading grids, reflective surfaces
or prism panels (Fig. B 6.25, p. 196).
B 6.16 Configuration of panes of fire-resistant glazing
B 6.17 Configuration of panes of sound insulating glazing
B 6.18 Configuration of panes of thermotropic glazing
B 6.19 Properties of switchable functional glazing
B 6.20 Heat transfer in insulating glass

194
 Glass

Main applications / functions

Better breakage behaviour (safety)

Greater resistance to breakage (robustness)
Fire-resistance
Sound insulation
Thermal insulation
Permanent sunscreen
Adjustable sunscreen
Self-regulation sunscreen
Protection from electromagnetic radiation
Light filtering
Light diffusion
Light refraction
Light transmission
Views in
Views out
Flat glass
Basic production methods
B 6.21
Float glass • • •
The use of glass in facades
Plate glass • • •
Antique glass • • •
Most glass facades are now made of various
Modified production methods
kinds of flat, insulating toughened safety
glass or laminated safety glass units in a wide Flashed glass • •
range of combinations. The glass’s weight Metal-coated glass (online) • • • • •
acting on the plane of its surface and wind UV-permeable glass • • •
and impact loads perpendicular to the plane Radiation protection glass • • • •
of the pane must be taken into account to Phototropic glass • • •
ensure that loads are transferred into the sup- Low-expansion sheet glass • • • •
port structure and panes of glass are fastened Coloured glass • • • • • •
securely [6]. Opaque sheet glass • • • •
Wired glass • • •
Load transfer
Profiled glass • •
Loads acting on a pane of glass can be trans-
Patterned glass • •
ferred to the support structure in three different
First processing stage
ways depending on the type and magnitude
Thermally toughened glass
of the load. (toughened safety glass, heat-treated glass)
• • • • •

Chemically toughened glass (toughened safety glass) • • • • •

Contact
Etched glass • •
Only compressive forces acting perpendicular
Sandblasted glass • •
to contact surfaces can be transferred into
the support structure by means of contact, Second processing stage
so contact surfaces must be large enough Enamelled glass • •
to ensure a sufficient distribution of stresses. Metal-coated glass (offline) • • • • •
This is especially important in planning small Broadband anti-reflective glass • • •
contact surfaces (e.g. punctiform supports). Space between the panes filled with
Hard supports, such as glass on steel, must Gas • • • • •
be avoided or compensated for by the use Vacuum • • • • •
of elastic interlayers (EPDM or plastic). Panes Hydrogel • • • • • •
can be fixed in the plane of the glass and per- Thermotropic layer • • •
pendicular to the plane either continuously Electrochromic materials • • • •
or at discrete points (Fig. B 6.26, p. 196).
Laminated safety glass made with
Loads can be transferred through glazing bar
Foils • • • • •
clamps, clamp plates, point holders and /or
Printed and coloured foils • • • • • •
holding and spacing blocks.
Casting resin • • • •
Friction
Loads can be transferred through the mechan- Moulding resin
ical interlocking of two contact surfaces and Glass blocks • • • • •
by adhesion. To prevent local stress peaks, Solid glass blocks • • •
glass should not be in direct contact with other
hard materials such as steel. The interlayer’s Glass fibres
elasticity and fatigue strength is crucial to the Membrane • • •
Glass wool • •

B 6.21 Glass foyer, Herrenhäuser Gardens, Hanover (DE) Foamed glass

1966, Arne Jacobsen Aerogel • • •
B 6.22 Glass products and their main applications and
Foamed glass • •
functions
B 6.22

195
Glass
B 6.23
durability of a friction bond. Soft metals such
as pure, annealed aluminium, fibre-rein-
forced plastic or natural materials (e.g. cork,
leather or fibreboard) can be used as inter-
layers.
Adhesive bonds (material bonding)
Adhesive bonds are now common in glass
structures, as long as bonds need to absorb
only relatively minor forces. Planners must
make sure that an adhesive surface, whose
permanent bond is ensured with elastic adhe-
sives, is large enough for this purpose. The
magnitude of forces to be absorbed, tempera-
tures and load duration are the most important
influencing factors here. Heat usually causes
adhesive bonds to fail in the event of fire. In
Germany adhesive bonds are permitted in
facades higher than 8 metres only if additional
mechanical brackets are provided to prevent
structural components from falling out.
Joints
Joints between individual glass elements must
accommodate mechanical movements (such
as those caused by linear expansion) and per-
manently withstand the effects of weather such
as rain and wind.
Contact seals
Contact seals between glass surfaces and
structural components supporting them can
be created with a permanently elastic sealing
profile, which can be a solid block or have
sealing “lips”. Sufficient contact pressure and
clean glass surfaces are required to ensure a
tight seal (Fig B 6.27 a).
Putty
The traditional way of fixing and sealing glass
with putty is now less commonly used because
once putty hardens, it forms a very rigid bond
that is unable to absorb movement or deform-
ation. The resulting cracks can then allow mois-
ture to penetrate joints (Fig. B 6.28 b).
Adhesive seals
Permanently elastic “putty” (silicone) can
be used to form elastic joints and the sub-
196
a a
b b
B 6.24 B 6.25
stance’s adhesion enables such joints to
remain fairly stable, even when subject to ten-
sile forces. The joint width and adhesive used
determine the joint’s flexibility and resilience
(Fig. B 6.27 b).
Glazing
Window and facade glazing usually incorp-
orates the following functional elements:
• Glazing element (e.g. pane of glass)
• Support structure (e.g. posts, rails, frames)
• Fastening (e.g. glazing bead)
• Joints (e.g. EPDM, silicone joints)
These elements can be combined in differ-
ent ways depending on the type of joint and
load transfer. A classic glazing bar construc-
tion combines different functional elements,
while punctiform fastenings separate joining
and load-transfer functions and allow for
separate installation operations. Other types
of glazing, such as “structural sealant glaz-
ing” combine both “joint” and “fastening”
functions.
Leadlight glazing
Leadlight glazing is the oldest way of making
large areas of glass. Small individual glass
pieces are laid in an H-shaped lead came and
tapped into place. Metal completely encloses
the piece of glass, while the subsequent appli-
cation of putty provides an additional bond
(Fig. B 6.28 a).
Rebate and putty
Traditional glazing used a pane of glass laid
in an open rebate and sealed with putty. The
rebate is either directly in the masonry, in a
timber frame or in a cast or rolled metal section
(Fig. B 6.28 b). Over the centuries this way of
bonding a pane of glass and a load-bearing
section meant that this simple type of glazing
could be used to build large delicate struc-
tures, as the many 19th century glasshouses
still standing today demonstrate.
Rebate and glazing bead
The glazing bead was designed to ensure
the necessary reliable fastening of panes of
a b
c d
B 6.26
glass and secure them against wind suction.
It also separates the functions of sealing
and mechanical fastening, so it offers more
scope for optimising the two functions
(Fig. B 6.28 c) as well as making it much
easier to replace panes if they break. The
surfaces of glazing beads need no further
treatment after installation.
Glazing bar mounts
Curtain wall facade systems make use of spe-
cial load-bearing structures to which panes
of glass can be attached by retaining strips
or bars. These kinds of glazing bars mean
that two adjoining panes can be fastened with
one element, making assembly easier and
allowing for slender structural components
(Fig. B 6.28 d). Preformed, permanently elas-
tic sealing profiles seal the inner and outer
layers. If insulating glazing is used or a greater
insulating effect required, it must be ensured
that glazing bars and support structure are
thermally separated.
Linear support without a glazing bar
Panes of glass can also be installed with linear
support but without a glazing bar, with two
opposing sides of a pane of glass held in
place by glazing bars and the other two sides
joined flush with adhesive silicone. If laminated
safety glass is used, it is essential that the
adhesive foil and joint materials are compat-
ible. If insulating glazing is used, it is advisable
to integrate two layers of sealing and provide
separate drainage for the inner void between
the two joints.
Mounting glass along points at its edges
Mounting panes of glass at points along the
edges combines the advantages of glazing
bars and pointwise fastening. Small brackets
that have only a minimal impact on the facade’s
appearance absorb loads in the plane of the
pane of glass through narrow setting blocks,
while clamping plates absorb forces acting
perpendicularly on the plane of the pane. Ther-
mally toughened glass is used to withstand the
heavy mechanical loads around the brackets,
which increases the costs of such structures,

a a
b d
B 6.27
although this type of glazing makes drill holes in
the glazing unnecessary. Unsupported edges
only have to function as sealing.
Fastenings at points with drill holes
Fastening panes of glass by means of drill
holes at various points completely separates
load-bearing from sealing function. Loads are
transferred into the plane of the glass through
the drill holes, while unsupported edges per-
form a sealing function. Such structures can
appear delicate and offer greater scope for
creative design, although the quality of seals
around the fastening points (especially in insu-
lating glazing) and along unsupported edges
is crucial here (Fig. B 6.28 e).
Structural sealant glazing – SSG
The adhesive bond between the glass and
support structure in this type of glazing has
both a load-transfer and a sealing function. This
kind of bond is only suitable for transferring
short-term loads such as wind loads. Mechan-
ical mounts hold the pane’s own weight in place
(Fig. B 6.28 f).
Notes on insulating glazing
Spacers and panes of glass are normally
bonded with Thiokol polymer, which ensures
a very high-quality, gas-tight edge seal. Thiokol
is not, however, UV-resistant, so these edge
seals must be completely enclosed, either with
glazing bars or UV-impermeable printing or by
sealing the edge with adhesive silicone. Units
made with these methods may not be gas-tight,
so it is not advisable to use noble gases in this
type of glazing [7].
b c
e f
Notes:
[1] Staib, Gerald: Von den Ursprüngen bis zur klassi-
schen Moderne. In Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau
Atlas. Munich, 2006, p. 10 –29
[2] Button, David; Pye, Brian (eds.): Glass in Building.
A Guide to Modern Architectural Glass Performance.
Oxford 1993
[3] Compagno, Andrea: Baustoff Glas – Entwicklungen
und Tendenzen. In: Kaltenbach, Frank (ed.): Trans-
luzente Materialien. Munich 2003, p. 10 –25
[4] Saint Gobain Glass (pub.): Memento Glas Handbuch.
Aachen 2000, p. 32
[5] These figures refer to double insulating glazing with
a single-sided pane of laminated safety glass. Data
provided by Gesimat GmbH, January 2016
[6] Sobek, Werner et al.: Konstruieren mit Glas – Festig-
keit und Tragverhalten. In: Schittich, Christian et al.:
Glasbau Atlas. Munich 2006, p. 93–94
[7] For a detailed overview of different types of glazing
and specific drawings of them, please see Schittich,
Christian et al., Glasbau Atlas. Munich 2006,
p. 160 –183
B 6.23
B 6.24
B 6.25
B 6.26
B 6.27
B 6.28
B 6.29
Glass
B 6.28
B 6.29
Diagram of vacuum glazing
Principles of translucent thermal insulation:
a Cell-like structure
b Tubular structure
Insulating glazing with integrated elements for
controlling levels of daylight:
a Acrylic glass light-refracting elements,
b Louvres with a highly reflective coating
Methods of supporting panes of glass and
transferring forces:
a Supported in the plane of the pane of glass,
forces transferred via the edge
b Forces transferred perpendicular to the
plane of the pane of glass, supported by
holes along the edge
c Supported in the plane of the pane of glass,
forces transferred along the opening edge
d Forces transferred perpendicular to the
plane of the pane of glass, supported along
the opening edge
Means of joining glass:
a Contact seal, movement accommodated
by sliding and deformation of sealing lips
b Adhesive seal with permanently elastic
(silicone) “putty”, movement accommodated
by the material compressing or stretching
Left: outside / Right: inside
a Leadlight glazing
b Rebate with putty
c Rebate with glazing bead
d Glazing bar
e Fastening at points with drill holes
f Structural sealant glazing (SSG)
Dichroic glass (glass coated with coloured
crystals whose colours change depending
on the angle of incidence and direction of
oscillation of light), New York (US) 1999, James
Carpenter
197
Glass

Office building for Willis Faber & Dumas

Ipswich, GB 1975

Architects:
Foster Associates, London
Structural engineers:
Anthony Hunt Associates, Cirencester
Facade consultants:
Martin Francis and Jean Prouvé

º Architectural Review 09/1975

A+U 02 /1974
Bauen + Wohnen 02– 03/1976
Wigginton, Michael: Glas in der Architektur.
Stuttgart, 1996

• One of the earliest examples of a single-

glazed curtain wall facade
• Panes of glass fastened with clamping
plates
• Facade braced with glass fins
• Size of joints between slab edges and panes
of glass minimised with EPDM seals
• Grey-tinted solar glazing

Floor plan Scale 1:2,000

Isometry facade Scale 1:50
Glass mounting Scale 1:20

1 Roof terrace safety 5 Threaded bar,

railing posts Ø 38 mm
2 Chamfered flashing 6 Glass mounting:
3 Steel channel, horizontal glazing bar
‰ 230/100 mm with EPDM seal
4 Flat steel, 7 Toughened 12 mm
¡ 570/750/22 mm safety glass with solar
bolted onto steel-rein- tint, fastened at discrete
forced concrete slab points

3 5
4

198
 Glass

Information, communications and

7
media centre

Cottbus, DE 2004

Architects: 9
Herzog & de Meuron, Basel
Structural engineers:
Pahn Ingenieure, Groß Gaglow 10
8
º Architektur Aktuell 06/2005
Archithese 02/2005
Hochparterre 05/2005 3
cc
Werk Bauen + Wohnen 04/2005
Xia Intelligente Architektur 51/2005
1

• Media library (books, magazines, CD-ROM
files, etc.) with 700 workstations.
• Its enclosing multilayer facade of printed and
curved glass maximises the use of daylight.
• The printed white text on the glass signals its
function as a university building and regulates
incident light.
• Circular, compact service cores allow for
spacious, interconnected usage zones.
Floor plan, ground floor • Cross section
Scale 1:1,000
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20
a
1 Laminated safety glass capping sheet, 10 mm
2 Gravel, 16/32 50 mm, polymeric bitumen roof sealing,
bonded at edges
Mineral fibre thermal insulation, 200 mm
Vapour barrier, steel-reinforced concrete 250 – 300 mm
3 Curtain wall facade: toughened safety glass
8/1,000/1,000 mm 3 2
White screen-printing 40 %, open joints
4 Painted plaster, 20 mm
Mineral fibre thermal insulation, 120 mm
Reinforced concrete, 250 mm
5 Insulating glazing opening sash (7th floor only)
4
6 Metal mesh suspended ceiling, 20 mm,
74 % ventilation cross section
7 Insulating glass facade: float glass 6 + space between
the panes 16 + toughened safety glass 8 mm,
Structural glazing inner pane
Elements 1,500/3,500 mm, screen-printing 30 – 40 %,
U = 1.46 W/m2K, aluminium post-and-rail facade
8 Aluminium spider bracket with stainless steel
countersunk point fasteners
9 Galvanised hollow steel section, Ø 127 mm
10 Galvanised hollow steel section, Ø 70 mm

b
b

aa
a
6

8
7

c c

10

bb

199
Glass

Herz Jesu Church

Munich, DE 2000

Architects:
Allmann Sattler Wappner, Munich
Facade planning:
R+R Fuchs, Munich
Glass entrance portal design:
Alexander Beleschenko

º Bauwelt 47/2000
DBZ 03/2001
Detail 02/2001
GLAS 02/2001
aa

• External skin is a post-and-rail structure with

insulating glazing, outer panes are stepped
so that glazing bars are flush with the panes
• Horizontal and vertical glass fins brace the
glass facade against wind
• Panes of glass printed with varying intensity
ranging from transparent in the portal area to
translucent around the altar
• Entry portal made from 14-metre-high printed
glass walls
• Inner shell made from light-coloured maple
lamella
• Steel frame made from square hollow sections

Cross section • Floor plan

Scale 1:750
Vertical cross section Scale 1:50
Horizontal cross section through corner / door
Scale 1:20 a

200
 Glass

2
3

6 5 16

15

1 Aluminium hinged panel for exhaust air /

7 9
8 9
smoke extraction
2 Hollow steel section, 80/80/4 mm
3 Height-adjustable facade suspension
mount
4 Welded hollow steel edge beam
¡ 420/500/20 mm, with integrated 20 21
lighting
5 Double box beam, consisting of 19
2≈ flat steel, 170/60 mm and
2≈ flat steel, 300/30 mm
6 Insulating glazing, laminated safety
glass 8 + space between the panes 16 +
toughened safety glass 10 mm, printed
(acetone screen-printing), printed
outer panes of glass, stepped (crystal 18
granulate screen-printing)
7 Glazing bar, flush
8 Hollow steel section, 50/70/5 mm
9 Bracing glass fin 36/300 mm
10 Steel bracket to support glass fins
11 Convector
12 Aluminium hinged panel for incoming air
13 60 mm sandstone panel with ventilation
slits
Grating 60 mm, steel bracket 17
14 Solid maple threshold, 240/50 mm
15 Maple lamella attached to frames
5
with dowels
16 Solid maple frame 240/120 mm
17 Steel profile, 170/90/10 mm
18 Door glazing:
Toughened safety glass 5 + space
between the panes 20 + toughened
safety glass 5 mm
Panes printed on both sides, 9
755/767 mm
19 Aluminium glazing bar 70/40/8 mm
20 Secondary frame:
Hollow steel section, 100/60/4 mm
21 Primary frame:
Hollow steel section, 280/150 mm 8 7 6

13 14

10

12 11

bb

201
Glass

Rodin Museum

Seoul, KR 1997

Architects:
Kohn Pedersen Fox Associates, London /
New York

º Architecture 11/1998
Kennon, Kevin: The Rodin Museum, Seoul.
New York 2001

• High-profile location in central Seoul

• Double glass skin for facade and roof in
translucent laminated safety glass with
variably-spaced panes attached at discrete
points
• Rustproof steel frame
• Space between the panes ventilated with
incoming air pre-warmed in winter and cooled
a a
in summer

b b

aa

Floor plan • Cross section Scale 1:750

Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:50
Details Scale 1:5

1 Coated laminated safety glass, 2≈ 10 mm

2 Stainless steel glass mount, rigid
3 Stainless steel glass mount, flexible
4 Silicone sealing
5 Hollow stainless steel section, 100/40/4 mm
6 Hollow stainless steel section, 60/40/4 mm
7 Bracing steel bar, Ø 20 mm
8 Hollow stainless steel section, 100/60/4 mm
9 Folded stainless steel sheeting, 2 mm
Thermal insulation
Powder-coated aluminium sheeting
10 Aluminium flashing, 3 mm
11 Hollow stainless steel section, 450/250 mm
12 Insulating glazing
Toughened safety glass 8 + space between the
panes 12 + laminated safety glass 2≈ 7 mm
13 Hollow stainless steel section, 300/150 mm
14 Suspended laminated safety glass ceiling, 2≈ 8 mm
15 Insulated stainless steel panel, 83 mm
16 Hinged stainless steel grating,
17 Lighting
18 Stainless steel sheeting, removable
19 Ventilation duct cover,
stainless steel grid 35/35 mm

202
 Glass

2 3
1

16 17 cc 1 4

1 4

1 7 1 10 11 12

5
13
6
8

14

c c
16

17
15 18
19

bb

203
Glass

bb
Elbphilharmonie

Hamburg, DE 2017 a
8

Architects:
Herzog & de Meuron, Basel
Structural engineers:
Schnetzer Puskas, Basel 1 5 7
Facade technology: Type 1: Loggia mono-facade
a
Gartner, Gundelfingen

º Bauwelt 35/2010
db 06/2011
El Croquis 01– 02/2006
Glaswelt 11/2008
Hochparterre 06 – 07/2010

• This new concert hall building, which can

seat 2,150 people, was added to a 1960s
warehouse
• 110 metres high
• Its facade features concave and convex
panes of glass up to 5 metres high 9
• Strongly modulated glass facade made from
sculpturally-formed, coated panes of glass
with screen-printing
• Density of printing depends on solar protec-
tion requirements

Cross section Scale 1:2,000

Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
Horizontal cross section Scale 1:50

1 Solar protection / thermal insulation glazing, hot-

worked and flat, concave or convex, h = 3,350 mm,
w = 2,150/2,500 mm:
Laminated safety glass 2 ≈ 8 + space between 8
the panes 16 + laminated safety glass 2 ≈ 6 mm
U = 1.1/1.3 W/m2K, g < 25 %
2 Insulating aluminium sandwich panel, 80 mm
3 Manually operated opening sash
4 Cover plate for central mullion, bent stainless steel 8
5 Black aluminium profile, (RAL 9005) b b
6 Aluminised anti-sun /glare blind
7 Hot-worked single pane of glass, curved outwards,
axial dimension h = 3,350 mm w = 2,150/2,250/
2,500 mm: Laminated safety glass 3 ≈ 8 mm
8 Parapet with integrated glazing bar,
prefabricated glass-fibre-reinforced plastic part
with Gelcoat coating, white (RAL 9016)
9 Suspended ceiling, organic fine plaster on plaster
base board
10 Planed oak planks, 30 mm
11 Loggia drainage

10

11

aa

204
 Glass

dd

c
4

3
5 2
1
Type 2: Insulating facade
c

6 1

d d
3

cc

205
Glass

Faculty of Law
1 1

Cambridge, GB 1995

Architects: 2 3
Sir Norman Foster and Partners, London
Structural engineers:
Anthony Hunt Associates, Cirencester
Facade planning:
Emmer Pfenninger Partner, Münchenstein

º Architectural Review 03/1993

Bauwelt 35 /1995
Foster Catalogue 2001. Published by
Norman Foster et. al. Munich / London /
New York 2001
6
• Barrel-shaped, arched north facade with
silicone structural glazing to maximise the
use of daylight on all floors
3
• Substructure in double-shell, curved hollow
steel section design with triangular geometry
for reinforcement
• Panes of glass can be adjusted in all three
dimensions, pane side lengths 280 cm and
380 cm 4
• Movement due to changes in temperature
accommodated by sliding bearings
• Insulating glazing with solar protection and
Low-E coatings 5

Cross section Scale 1:500

Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
Detail Scale 1:5

1 Primary load-bearing hollow steel section frame,

Ø 140 mm, welded nodes, painted white
2 Hollow steel section horizontal bracing, Ø 140 mm,
painted white
3 Stepped glass – toughened safety glass 10 + space
between the panes + laminated safety glass 2≈ 8 mm,
stepped rebate bonded to aluminium frame
4 Specially formed frame member
5 Inspection opening for district heating
6 Silicone seal

206
 Glass

Warehouse

Marktheidenfeld, DE 1999

Architects:
schneider+schumacher, Frankfurt am Main

º Archithese 04/1999
Baumeister 04/2000
GLAS 05/2000

• Main facade of two layers of translucent pro-

filed glass 0.24 ≈ 7.30 m along the long side
• Continuous strip of skylights in the flat roof
running parallel to the glass facade makes 1
the facade look bright and light
• Primary load-bearing steel structure on a
steel-reinforced concrete plinth

3 9
1 4
a
7

2 1
5 5

6 a 8

Floor plan Scale 1:1,500 10

Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
of profiled glass facade Scale 1:20 11

1 Existing building
2 New warehouse
3 Insulated panel, 80 mm,
concealed screws
4 Support column, HEA 140 4 8
5 Aluminium-zinc corner plate
6 Aluminium-zinc flashing
7 Steel-reinforced concrete plinth
8 Profiled glass
9 Flat panels, 250 mm, laid horizontally
10 Chamfered flashing on retaining profiles
11 Bracket to hold the top of profiled glass sheeting,
folded metal d = 3 mm

aa

207
Glass

Hermès store

Tokyo, JP 2001

Architects:
Renzo Piano Building Workshop, Paris
Structural engineers: 5 15
Ove Arup & Partners, London / Tokyo 16
17
º Detail 07/2001
Fassade / Façade 03/2002
GLAS 02/2002

b b

aa

• Floor-to-ceiling glazing with a curtain wall

facade out of specially developed 45 ≈ 45 cm
glass blocks
• Glass blocks attached with square steel sec-
tions fitted into the joints to absorb vertical
and horizontal loads and improve safety in
the event of an earthquake
• Steel sections encased with EPDM with lip
seals join the glass blocks, providing elastic
support for blocks and absorbing movements
up to 4 mm

208
 Glass

a a
13
5 14
15
16
17

Cross section Scale 1:600

Horizontal cross section Scale 1:5
4 Vertical cross section, glass block edge
Scale 1:5
bb Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

1 Glass block, 450/450/120 mm fire-resistant coating, 25 mm

2 Double floor with parquet surface 10 Articulated support with Ø 140 mm
3 Steel-reinforced concrete slab on steel spherical head, 1
permanent corrugated sheet metal in fire-resistant design
formwork, 150 mm 11 Suspended plasterboard ceiling,
4 Insulated steel sheeting panel, 12.5 mm
50 mm 12 Tubular steel column, Ø 180/40 mm
5 Steel beam IPE 375/300 mm with with fire-resistant coating, 10 mm
fire-resistant coating, 25 mm 13 Hollow steel section, 100/50/5 mm
6 Steel section, HEA 200 14 Steel angle ∑ 140/140/15 mm
7 Ø 16 mm steel bar with threaded ends 15 Steel section, 80/53/3 mm
and fire-resistant coating 16 Permanently elastic silicone seal
8 Inspection hatch 17 EPDM seal
9 Steel beam, IPE 250/125 mm with 18 Glass block edge element
18

3 2

9 5

10

8 6

11

12 7

209
Glass

Kempinski Hotel entrance lobby

(now Munich Airport Hilton)

Munich, DE 1994

Architects:
Murphy /Jahn, Chicago
Structural engineers for the cable net facade:
Schlaich Bergermann und Partner, Stuttgart

º Arch+ 124 –125, 1994

A+U Extra Edition 293, 1995: Helmut Jahn
– Hotel Kempinski Munich Airport
Knaack, Ulrich: Konstruktiver Glasbau.
Cologne, 1998

• Suspended cable net structure, 45 metres

wide and 25 metres high
• Wind loads transferred through horizontal
prestressed stainless steel cables, 22 mm
in diameter
• Vertical loads borne by prestressed stainless
steel cables, 22 mm in diameter
• Laminated safety glazing with 10 mm thick
panes measuring 1.50 ≈ 1.50 m
• 45° chamfer at the edges to accommodate
cable clamping plate screws
• Panes mounted “floating” in clamping plates
to compensate for facade movements of up
to 90 cm

Cross section Scale 1:750

Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20
Detail of clamp Scale 1:5

210
 Glass

24 24

28 29

1 2 21 3
20
18
19
4
21
5
9

6 7
22
24

23 b 5

24 25
24 24 26

27

a a
8 29

aa
24
9

1 HEB 220 and recess Ø 106/2 mm 20 Bearing plate, 100/80/40 mm,

2 End plate 220/220/15 mm, 12 Steel frame Ø 40 mm hole at the centre
welded on both sides, 240/220/15 mm, 21 Ø 70/10 mm hollow steel tube
100/100/10 mm Ø 120 mm hole, Ø 127/3.2 mm with EPDM ring inside
3 Flat steel, ¡ 175/200/20 mm steel tube, welded on 22 Double clamp ring
4 Flat steel, welded to tubular 13 Steel sheeting assembly part 23 Steel sheeting transverse
10
16 steel section and web plates ¡ 240/220/15 mm, with bulkhead
11 12 5 Bottom flange, 265/20 mm Ø 120 mm hole in the centre, 260/40 mm, Ø 120 mm hole
6 Flashing, 265/5 mm steel tube 24 Stainless steel cable,
7 Steel channel, 40 Ø 127/3 mm, welded on, bolts, Ø 22 mm
8 Laminated safety glass, 10 mm 4≈ M 18 25 Threaded fitting M 36,
9 Cable clamp 14 Threaded bars 4≈ M 16 M 36 lock nut
10 Steel tube Ø 101.6/71/2.6 mm 15 Sheet metal frame, 70/15 mm, 26 Threaded rod, M 22
with screw-on mounting plate holes 4≈ Ø 17 mm 27 Steel sheeting anchor plate,
17 13
welded to it 160/160/4 mm, 16 Brushed stainless steel air 300/70/20 mm,
screwed onto the clamping plate nozzles 2≈ Ø 23 mm holes,
14 with 4 x M 6/15 after tensioning 17 Ventilation duct M 22 nuts on both sides
15 11 Clamping plate, 210/190/40 mm 18 Top flange, 500/20 mm 28 EPDM bearing
bb with countersunk hole Ø 65/52 mm 19 Flat steel 560/100/10 mm 29 Cylinder screw, M 10/20

211
Glass

Circulation towers for the Museo Reina Sofia

Madrid, ES 1990

Architect:
Ian Ritchie, London
with José Luis Iñiguez & Antonio Vázquez
Structural engineers:
Ove Arup & Partners, London a a
b b Floor plan, standard storey •
º Architectural Design 11–12/1991 View from roof • Cross section
Scale 1:500
Architectural Review 12/1991 Isometries, not to scale
Baumeister 09/1991 Vertical cross section
DBZ 10/1992 Scale 1:20
l’ARCA 11/1991
Progressive architecture 02/1994

• Glass and cable network walls 36 metres high

• Glass panes fixed at points along their edges
to mounts with articulated connections to spe-
cially shaped “dolphin” brackets
• Changes in the length of panes of glass due
to temperature variations are absorbed by
spring-like equalising elements at the foot of
the steel cable guys
• Bracing elements at the edges transfer wind
loads into the main load-bearing structure

aa

212
 Glass

1 Stainless steel “dolphin” bracket

2 Connection plate
3 Shim
4 Stainless steel plate, 6 mm
5 Round stainless steel end plate
to secure a spring element bb

213
Glass

Extension to a glass museum

Kingswinford, GB 1994

Architects:
Design Antenna, Richmond
Structural engineers:
Dewhust Macfarlane & Partner, London

º Detail 01/1995
Knaack, Ulrich et al.: Konstruktiver
Glasbau 2. Cologne, 2000
a

• Structure made entirely of glass

• Demonstration of glass's technical capabilities
• Load-bearing structure of triple-glazed,
casting-resin-bonded, toughened glass
• Beam spacings 1.10 m, spans 5.70 m
• Bridle joint connections between columns
and roof beams
• Insulating and solar protection glazing
• Ceramic coating on the underside of the roof
glazing screens direct sunlight
• Roof can be walked on for cleaning

Floor plan Scale 1:500

Axonometric view Not to scale
Detail of a door lintel Scale 1:5
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:5
7
9

1 Insulating glazing
toughened safety glass –
solar protection glass
16
8 + space between the panes 10
+ toughened safety glass 8 mm
2 Silicone seal
3 Hole for door pivot
4 Acrylic glass corner profile
5 Stainless steel door fitting
6 Glass door 15 mm
7 Insulating glazing
toughened solar protection safety
glass 10 + space between the
panes 10 + laminated safety glass
2≈ 6 mm 1 8
8 Laminated safety glass column,
32 ≈ 200 mm
9 Silicone-filled joint 1
10 Silicone seal
11 Stainless steel angle,
150/150/10 mm
12 Cork board 5 mm
13 Steel support bracket
14 Acrylic glass mount
15 Toughened safety glass, 10 mm 10 13
16 Laminated safety glass beam, 14
300 ≈ 32 mm 11
15

214
 Glass

1 8

2
3
4
5

bb 6

16

b b

9
15

10

11
14

12

13

aa

215
216
 Plastics

B 7 Plastics The majority of plastics now used in construc-

tion were invented between 1931 and 1938
and further developed for use on an industrial
scale. PVC was being marketed as a material
for pipes and fittings by 1935.
Plastics were initially used to make interior
fittings and furniture (Fig. B 7.2). In the late
1950s intensive developmental work began
on constructing entire buildings out of these
materials [1], something made possible by
new processing methods, such as laminating,
and the production of moulded glass fibre-
reinforced components.

The development of plastics for use in

building external walls B 7.2

Shells and panels

Richard Hamilton and Marvin Goody began
work in cooperation with the Monsanto com-
pany in 1957 to build the distinctively de-
signed “House of the Future”, an example
of the new production potential of plastics
(Fig B 7.3).

In 1968, Matti Suuronen designed the “Futuro

House”, made from self-supporting glass fibre-
reinforced plastic sandwich elements with a
polycarbonate shell and polyurethane foam
core insulation (Figs. B 7.4 and B 7.5).
The Olivetti Training Centre, designed by James
Stirling and built in 1973 in Haslemere in south-
ern England, is another striking example of B 7.3
the use of plastics from this period. Stirling
combined plastic’s various material properties
to create shell-like, self-supporting structural
elements. The Centre’s external walls and roof
merge seamlessly and contribute to its overall
insulation (Fig. B 7.8, p. 218).
The roof of Munich’s Olympic stadium, which
was completed in 1972, is an outstanding ex-
ample of a transparent building envelope and
the first large-scale use of large 3 ≈ 3 metre
elongated acrylic glass panels (Fig. B 7.10,
p. 219). Further milestones in this development
were the temporary IBM Pavilion, designed
in 1984 by Renzo Piano, and the exhibition
pavilion for BMW completed in 1999 (Fig. B 7.12,
p. 220).
B 7.4
Tensile-stressed structures
As panels and shells were being developed,
synthetic fabrics and films were also soon
used to make light, often translucent and ten-
sile-stressed shell structures.

B 7.1 Air-filled (pneumatically stabilised) cushion struc-

ture, Eden Project, St Austell (GB) 2001, Nicholas
Grimshaw & Partners
B 7.2 Stackable chair, 1960, Verner Panton
B 7.3 “House of the Future”, Part of “Tomorrowland”,
Disneyland, California (US) 1957, Richard Hamilton
and Marvin Goody
B 7.4 “Futuro House”, 1968, Matti Suuronen
B 7.5 “Futuro House”, interior
B 7.5

217
Plastics
Pneumatic structures
In 1948, Walter Bird designed the first air-filled
pneumatic structure to protect sensitive radar
equipment. Based on his design, pneumatic
structures were further developed for civilian
uses, such as roofs over swimming pools and
tennis courts.
Buckminster Fuller caused a furore in 1950 with
his proposal to build a dome over Manhattan
(Fig. B 7.6) [2]. In 1959, Frei Otto started work
with Kenzo Tange on plans to roof over resi-
dential complexes in the Arctic. These devel-
opments peaked in 1970 at the World Expo in
Osaka, which resembled an exhibition of the
possibilities for pneumatic structures available
at that time [3].
B 7.6
Tent structures
From around 1950, Frei Otto worked inten-
sively on further developing applications for
tensile-stressed structures, which until then
had been almost exclusively produced from
natural materials (Fig. B 7.7) [4], and laid the
foundations for the use of plastics in such
structures. Synthetic fabrics and films are now
among the leading materials used to build tent
structures due to their outstanding material
properties.
Plastics manufacture
Plastics consist of materials that do not exist in
B 7.7 nature in their final form. They are usually made
from petroleum-derived products and their
main characteristic is a macromolecular struc-
ture. Plastics are made in a controlled chemical
reaction in which hydrocarbon molecules are
split and recombined to form long macromole-
cules in the following processes [5]:
• Polymerisation
• Polycondensation
• Polyaddition
Classification of plastics
Whatever process is used to make them, the
macromolecules of plastics can be structured
in long molecular chains, be ramified or form
a network.
The following types of plastics are differenti-
ated based on their degree of cross-linking
(Fig. B 7.9):
• Thermoplastics
• Elastomers
• Duroplasts or thermosetting plastics
Material properties
General characteristics
The construction sector is now the second-
largest market for plastics manufacturers
after the packaging industry. It uses more
than 30 different types of plastics, with PVC
predominating, although polystyrene foam,
B 7.8
218
polyethylene and polypropylene are also
often used.
Plastics have become important in construction
because of their advantageous properties for
individual applications:
• Sufficient compressive and tensile strength,
rigidity, hardness and wear resistance
• High levels of transparency
• Can be coloured in shades ranging from
crystal clear through to black
• Adequate to outstanding resilience
• High elasticity
• Low density
• Satisfactory temperature resistance
• Good electrical insulation properties and low
thermal conductivity
• Weather resistance
• Low water absorption
• Highly resistant to chemicals
• Easy to process and work
• Very good surface qualities
• Surfaces can be painted
The material properties of plastics can be
extensively modified by changing the manu-
facturing process and formulation used to
make them so that construction materials with
the same designation can be designed in
various ways to meet specific requirements.
With regard to their resistance to ageing, it
should be noted that many plastics products
are much younger than the life expectancy of
buildings. This aspect should be particularly
taken into account in planning building elem-
ents that are highly exposed to various risks,
such as facade elements and roof seals.
Reaction of plastics to fire
Fire safety properties become especially
important when plastics are used in and
around a building envelope. The main criteria
here are:
• Flammability
• Ignition temperature
• Disintegration temperature
• Smoke and gas formation
• Toxicity of decomposition products
• Corrosion caused by decomposition
products
As well as producing highly toxic gases, the
smoke caused by fire can greatly impede visi-
bility, so the choice of a suitable plastic must
depend on its potential toxicity and smoke
release. Decomposition products from smoke
may also have a very corrosive effect on other
materials. Flammability can be reduced by
using a fire retardant.
Semi-finished products for exterior walls
A wide range of semi-finished plastic products
for use in exterior wall structures is available
on the market. Depending on the planned
load, they can be used to build rigid (resistant
to mechanical loads) or flexible (stable under
 Plastics

compression or when subjected to tensile

stresses) structures. Plastics in facades (synthetic plastics)
Plastics can have a variety of physical prop-
erties because a targeted combination of
various materials or the modification of mate- Thermoplastics,
Elastomers,
Thermoset plastics,
rial properties can produce a great diversity open cross-linked
not cross-linked tightly cross-linked
structure
of characteristics. Further processing raw
materials in certain ways can produce a wide
range of different semi-finished products
Silicone rubber Formaldehyde
(Fig. B 7.11, p. 220). Polystyrene (PS)
(SIR) resin

Flat, corrugated and multi-wall panels Polyurethane Unsaturated

Polyethylene (PE)
Plastic panels are usually produced by extru- (PUR) polyester (UP)
sion, calendering (rolling) and pressing, tech-
niques that can produce flat, corrugated and Polypropylene (PP) EPDM Epoxy resin (EP)
multi-wall sheets.
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and poly-
Polyvinyl chloride Polysulphide Cross-linked
carbonate (PC) are usually used to make flat, (PVC) rubber polyurethane (PUR)
transparent panels. Their high level of trans-
parency and resistance to weather and impact Polymethyl meth- Chloropropene Vinyl ester resin
makes them well suited for use in facades. The acrylate (PMMA) rubber (VE resin)
common commercially available panel format
is 205 ≈ 305 cm. The light transmission level Fluoroplastics PMMA,
(ETFE, PTFE) crosslinked
through material 4 mm thick is about 90 %. This
material is classified in building material class
B 2 in terms of its behaviour in fire. Polyamide (PA)
Flat thermoplastic polyester (PET, PETG)
panels withstand breaking well and are clas- Polycarbonate
sified in building material class B 1. Plastics (PC)
reinforced with glass fibre (GFRP) can be
used to produce opaque, free-form panels. Saturated
polyesters
Their corrugated cross section and the result-
ing greater rigidity mean that corrugated B 7.9
PMMA panels can be made in sizes up to
104.5 ≈ 700 cm and polycarbonate panels
up to 126.5 ≈ 400 cm. Corrugated panels up
to 300 ≈ 2,000 cm in size can be produced
with the addition of GFRP.

PMMA, PC and GFRP can also be used to make

panels with a wide range of different cross
sections (Fig. B 7.16, p. 221). Their webs and
additional diagonal structuring can make them
more rigid. PMMA and PC panels are available
in lengths up to 700 cm. Integrating cavities
into panels gives them a relatively low thermal
transmittance coefficient of about 2.5 W/m2K
for single-layer panels and up to 1.6 W/m2K
for double-wall panels. Using triple or multi-
wall panels or filling cavities with insulation can
further improve this figure. Applying protective
coatings or forming multilayer cavities makes it
possible to modify the panels’ sound insulation
and lighting properties to meet specific require-
ments. GFRP panels are especially suited to
this purpose. They are available in a wide range
of cross sections and lengths up to 1,500 cm.

B 7.6 Dome over Manhattan (US), 1960, Buckminster

Fuller
B 7.7 Tanzbrunnen, Cologne (DE) 1957, Frei Otto
B 7.8 Olivetti Training Centre, Haslemere (GB) 1973,
James Stirling
B 7.9 Classification of plastics according to degree of
crosslinking and resulting material properties [6]
B 7.10 Tent roof made from prestressed acrylic glass
panels, Olympic Stadium Munich (DE) 1972,
Günter Behnisch + Partner, Frei Otto and others
B 7.10

219
Plastics
Processing methods used in making plastic products for facades
1st stage Calendering
Extrusion Pressing Casting
(Forming) (rolling)
2nd stage
(Semi-finished product) Monofilaments Films Panels
3rd stage
(Shaping, Blowing,
Weaving Laminating
further processing) deep drawing
Multi-wall and corrugated Laminate panels, Flat sheeting,
Fabrics Films
Product sheet sections, pipes moulded parts
Moulded parts (casting and laminating)
Casting and laminating techniques can
produce structural components of almost
any shape in virtually all dimensions. Some
are manufactured industrially, but a signifi-
cant proportion are also made by hand,
which does however entail high production
costs.
Among the best-known manufactured
products are glass-fibre-reinforced plastic
moulded parts. Reinforcing materials (fibres,
knits or fabrics) can be added to greatly
improve the mechanical properties of plas-
tics used in the structural components made
from them.
B 7.12 Synthetic resins are also used to make struc-
tural components. The constituents of the resin
are mixed and hardened together with rein-
forcing substances (laminating materials).
The type of reinforcement (fibres, knits, fab-
rics) and material (glass, carbon, aramid)
determines the strength, elasticity and costs
of structural components made using them.
All laminating processes require a mould in
which the structural component must remain
until it is completely hardened.
Exterior walls made from panels and moulded parts
The high coefficient of expansion of semi-
finished panels and plastics used to make
moulded parts means that all clamps and holes
must have flexible seals to ensure uncon-
strained attachments.
The wide range of available materials and
semi-finished products make it possible to
adapt materials and cross sections to spe-
cific requirements. Among the criteria to be
considered in selecting them are:
• Structural requirements
• Thermal insulation
• Sound insulation
• Weather resistance
• Lighting properties
• Fire safety classification
• Mechanical loads
• Chemical resistance
• Prevailing temperature range
• Working and assembly options
• Recycling
B 7.13
220
Hollow-mould Injection
Foaming
casting moulding
Injection-
Hollow elements Foams
moulded parts
Foamed
Moulded parts
panels sheeting, panels
B 7.11
Joining moulded parts and attaching them
to a substructure usually requires individually
developed connections. Depending on the
materials used, these can range from mech-
anical fastenings and butt joints through to
bonded and welded joints.
In contrast, planar semi-finished products can
be connected and joined using familiar tech-
niques commonly used in timber, metal and
glass facade construction [7].
Plastic foils and fabrics
PVC, polyester, PTFE and ETFE plastic films
and fabrics are often used in combination to
consolidate the advantages of the individual
materials. Figure B 7.18 (p. 222) shows an
overview of properties of the plastics currently
used in membrane structures.
The development of new plastics that are
transparent, resilient and promise greater
durability (e.g. ethylene tetrafluoroethyl-
ene or ETFE) means that they can now be
used to build single and multilayer exterior
walls.
These types of film structures have a range
of advantages that make it possible to
build light exterior walls with long spans
and hitherto unknown levels of transpar-
ency. The advantages of ETFE foils are spe-
cifically:
• Low weight (dead or self-weight)
• Highly permeable to light and UV radiation
• High levels of transparency
• Highly resistant to chemicals
• Long life cycles
• Largely recyclable
Surface coatings
In contrast to films, fabrics are often used
in membrane structures in several layers,
with a PVC-P, PTFE or silicone “coating” to
protect the fabric from damp, UV radiation,
microbes, mould and fungus. This greatly
improves the resistance of membrane fab-
rics to water permeation and soiling as well
as their durability. PTFE and silicone age
much better than PVC-P, with no identifiable
changes over 25 to 30 years. PVC-P, in con-
trast, is much less durable because of its
sensitivity to UV light.
 Plastics

W
W

H
Sealing Sealing compound

B 7.14
Exterior wall structures subject to tensioning
Forces from wind and snow loads that impact
membrane structures are usually transferred
by pretensioning the film or fabric as evenly
as possible. This can usually be done by build- a b c
ing pneumatic or mechanically pretensioned
structures [8].

Pneumatic structures
The development of gas-tight, flexible, load-
bearing plastics has made it possible to build f
pneumatic, air-inflated structural envelopes
that can cover large spans with a minimum
d e B 7.15
amount of material, which is due in particular
to the use of translucent, PVC-P coated poly-
ester fabrics.

An alternative type of structure can be made

with UV-permeable fluoropolymer film cush-
ions, which were developed for greenhouses.
Coated ETFE, polyester or aramid fibre fabrics, a f
which have a much greater tensile strength
than unreinforced films, are usually used
to absorb the mechanical loads imposed by
longer spans.

Mechanically prestressed structures b g

The prestressing of material required to sta-
bilise it to withstand external loads is achieved
by restraining membrane or film materials
along a defined edge of high and low points,
or – for flat edges or those curved in only
one direction – by intermittent or linear high
c h
and low points in the surface [8]. The sur-
face’s curvature results in two effective direc-

B 7.11 Processing methods for making plastic products

for exterior walls
B 7.12 Temporary exhibition pavilion (BMW Bubble),
1999, ABB Architects, Bernhard Franken with d i
Bollinger + Grohmann
B 7.13 House, Tokyo (JP) 1996, FOBA
B 7.14 Profile cross sections of a selection of available
transparent or translucent plastic corrugated
sheeting
B 7.15 Methods of attaching multi-wall sheeting using
glazing bars (a), rebates and screws (b – f)
B 7.16 Profile cross sections of a selection of available
transparent or translucent plastic semi-finished
sheeting products e j
B 7.16

221
Plastics

tions for every point on the membrane’s sur-
face. Depending on the effective load, one
direction takes on a load-bearing function,
while the other has a tensioning function [9].
The smaller a membrane surface’s curvature,
the greater the stresses will be in the mem-
brane. This should be considered when
using films with a lower load-bearing cap-
acity because there is a smaller surface to
be spanned.
One major advantage of tensioned structures
is the small amount of material required to
cover large areas. However, this can also be
a major disadvantage, because such exterior
wall structures may offer relatively poor thermal
and sound insulation due to their thin, single-
B 7.17
ply membrane material. These structures
can be optimised by the use of multilayer
films, which can greatly improve their sound
insulation properties. Much better thermal
insulation properties can be achieved with the
use of multi-ply films or fabrics with mineral
fibre fillings [10].
B 7.17 Olympic shooting venue, London (GB) 2012,
Magma Architecture
B 7.18 Overview of materials now used in membrane
construction [11]

Fabric material Material Weight per Minimum Fabric’s Tear Kink UV Material class Translucency Expected
(not incl. meshes) type unit area tensile elongation resistance resistance resistance for fire safety [%] life span
[g/m2] strength at break [%] [N] classification (a)
acc. to [N/5 cm] warp / weft warp / weft acc. to
DIN 55 352 warp / weft acc. to acc. to DIN 4102
acc. to DIN 53 354 DIN 53 363
DIN 53 354

Cotton fabric 350 1,700/1,000 35/18 60 very good adequate B2 varies <5
520 2,500/2,000 38/20 80

PTFE fabric 300 2,390/2,210 11/10 about very good very good A2 up to > 25
520 3,290/3,370 11/10 500/500 approx. 37
710 4,470/4,510 18/9

ETFE fabric, 250 1,200/1,200 very good very good B1 up to > 25

THV-coated approx. 90

Polyester fabric, Type I 800 3,000/3,000 15/20 350/310 very good good B1 up to > 20
PVC-P-coated Type II 900 4,400/3,950 15/20 to approx. 4.0
Type III 1,050 5,750/5,100 15/25 1,800/1,600
Type IV 1,300 7,450/6,400 15/30 580/520
Type V 1,450 9,800/8,300 20/30 800/950
1,400/1,100
1,800/1,600

Glass fibre fabric, 800 3,500/3,500 7/10 300/300 adequate very good A2 up to > 25
PTFE-coated 1,150 5,800/5,800 up to 2 /17 to approx. 13
1,550 7,500/6,500 500/500

Glass fibre fabric, 800 3,500/3,000 7/10 300 adequate very good A2 up to > 20
Silicone-coated 1,270 6,600/6,000 bis 2 /17 570 approx. 25

Aramid fibre fabric, 900 7,000/9,000 5/6 700 good adequate B1 basically zero > 20
PVC-P-coated 2,020 24,500 /24,500 4450

Aramid fibre fabric, project-related, limited adjustability good adequate A2 basically zero > 25
PTFE-coated

Film material Material Weight per Tensile Elongation Tear Kink UV Material class Translucency Expected
type unit area strength at break resistance resistance resistance for fire safety [%] life-span
[g/m2] [N/mm2] [%] [N/mm] classification (a)
acc. to acc. to acc. to acc. to acc. to
DIN 55 352 DIN 53 455 DIN 53 455 DIN 53 363 DIN 4102

ETFE film 50 μm 87.5 64/56 450/500 450/450 adequate very good B1 up to > 25
80 μm 140 58/54 500/600 450/450 approx. 95
100 μm 175 58/57 550/600 430/440
150 μm 262.5 58/57 600/650 450/430
200 μm 350 52/52 600/600 430/430

THV film 500 μm 980 22/21 540/560 255/250 good good B1 up to > 20
approx. 95

PVC-P films good adequate B1 up to <5

approx. 95
B 7.18

222
 Plastics

B 7.19 Various types of seams and joints used in

exterior membrane material walls
a HF welded seam in PVC polyester fabric
b HF welded seam in PTFE glass fibre fabric
with intermediate PTFE film a b c d
c Sewn seam with sealing strip in PVC poly- B 7.19
ester fabric
d Butt joint with clamping strips
B 7.20 Various types of reinforcement used in exterior
membrane material walls
a Double layer to bear low loads
b Double layer to bear high loads
c Cable in pocket
d Strap in pocket
B 7.21 Various types of edge joints for exterior walls
made from membrane materials
in pockets: a b c d
a Edge strap sewn on
b Cable B 7.20
c Edge cable and strap
d Tube in pocket
clamped edge:
e Edge clamping strip with perforation of the
membrane, without tensioning option
f Edge with no perforation of the membrane,
can be tensioned
g Edge with clamping strip and connecting
straps a b c d
tied edge:
h Tied edge
B 7.22 “Airquarium” temporary structure, 2000, Axel
Thallemer

e f g h
B 7.21

Notes:
[1] Eisele, Jo; Schoeller, Walter: Kunststoffe in der
Architektur. In: Detail 12/2000, p. 1,540 –1,543
Knippers, Jan et al.: Atlas Kunststoffe + Membranen.
Munich 2010, p. 10 – 27
[2] Krausse, Joachim; Lichtenstein, Claude (eds.): Your
private sky. R. Buckminster Fuller. Design als Kunst
einer Wissenschaft. Baden 1999, p. 436 – 437
[3] Herzog, Thomas: Pneumatic Structures. Handbook
of Inflatable Architecture. New York 1976
[4] Otto, Frei: Das hängende Dach. Gestalt und Struk-
tur. Berlin 1954
[5] Weber, Anton: Kleine Werkstoffkunde der Baukunst-
stoffe. In: Bauen mit Kunststoffen. Published by the
Institut für das Bauen mit Kunststoffen e. V. Berlin
2001, p. 44 – 45
[6] This overview was drawn up in conjunction with
Rainer Letsch, research assistant at the Centre for
Building Materials at TU Munich.
[7] Kaltenbach, Frank: Kunststoff – Transluzente Platten-
halbzeuge. In: Kaltenbach, Frank (ed.): Transluzente
Materialien. Munich 2003, p. 40 – 56
[8] Koch, Klaus-Michael: Bauen mit Membranen.
Munich 2004
[9] Rein, Alfred; Wilhelm, Viktor: Das Konstruieren mit
Membranen. In: Detail 06/2000, p. 1,044 –1,049
[10] Moritz, Karsten; Barthel, Rainer: Bauen mit ETFE-
Folien. In: Kaltenbach, Frank (ed.): Transluzente
Materialien. Munich 2003, p. 70 –78
[11] Moritz, Karsten: Membranwerkstoffe im Hochbau.
In: Detail 06/2000, p. 1,050 –1,058

B 7.22

223
Plastics

Factory building

Bobingen, DE 1999

Architect:
Florian Nagler, Munich

º db Sonderheft 06/2000
Detail 03/2001
GLAS 05/2000
Schwarz, Ulrich: Neue Deutsche
Architektur. Stuttgart 2002

• Translucent external skin of double-walled

polycarbonate panels, 10 metres high
• Panels are the same height as the building,
fixed at the bottom, but with sliding fastenings
at the eaves to accommodate temperature-
related changes in length
• Concealed metal clips fasten panels to
suspended facade rails
• Ventilation of the building via doors, emer-
gency exits and smoke extraction vents in
the ceiling

16 17 3

a a b b
15 2

Axonometric view – not to scale 1 Mill-finished aluminium sheeting folded to fit, 9 Door shaft
Cross section Scale 1:200 2 mm 10 Door drive gear
Detail of corner Scale 1:5 2 Polycarbonate double-wall sheeting 40/500 mm, 11 Counterweight
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section U-value 1.65 W/m2K 12 Solid polycarbonate panel, 8 mm
Scale 1:50 3 Spruce glulam rail, 60/280 mm 13 Impact barrier: 27 mm facing board on
4 Round steel bar, Ø 12 mm galvanised steel frame
5 Glulam double column, 2≈ 120/400 mm, 14 Glulam facade post, 160/400 mm
joined with 3-ply panels, 40 mm 15 Polycarbonate angle, 80/80 mm riveted to
6 Spotlight double-wall polycarbonate panels (no. 2)
7 Steel section, IPE 330 16 Spacer
8 Vertical door lift motor 17 Mill-finished aluminium wind suction anchor

224
 Plastics

14 c

11
12
2 3

13 aa 7 c bb
1

10

b b

11

12

13

cc

225
Plastics

Laban Centre

London, GB 2003

Architects:
Herzog & de Meuron, Basel
Structural engineers:
Whitby Bird & Partners, London

º Architectural Record 06/2003

Arkitekten 15/2007
Detail 07– 08/2003
Domus 858, 2003 a a
Werk, Bauen und Wohnen 04/2003
1

• Rear-ventilated double facade Floor plan, ground floor

• Outer facade of three-ply polycarbonate Scale 1:1,000 aa 3
panels backed with a coextruded coloured Vertical cross section • Horizontal
cross section
layer Scale 1:20
• Inner facade of translucent double insulating
glazing 1 Plastic sealing sheeting 5
• Concave curved entrance facade Polyurethane thermal insulation, 6
50 mm
• Light wells allow daylight deep into the build- 2
2 Anodised aluminium ventilation louvres
ing’s interior 3 Anodised aluminium sheeting, 2 mm 4
4 Three-ply polycarbonate panel,
40/500 mm, transparent,
backed with coextruded coloured layer
5 Anodised aluminium frame for poly-
carbonate panel, 55/80 mm
6 Wind suction anchor bracket, 8
square aluminium hollow section,
20
50/50/4 mm
7 Steel section L 60/60/4 mm
8 Grey rock wool thermal insulation, 18
100 mm, coated 9
9 Galvanised hollow steel bar, 10 12
80/80/4 mm
10 Galvanised hollow steel post
11 14 18 19
80/80/4 mm
11 Hollow aluminium post 50/120 mm
12 Square aluminium hollow section,
50/60 mm
13 Insulating glazing, 15
toughened safety glass 10 + space 7
between the panes 16 + laminated
safety glass 2≈ 6 mm with matt foil 5
14 Aluminium clamping plate, Ø 60 mm
15 Galvanised grating, 40 mm
16 Aluminium panel, 100 mm
17 Perforated aluminium sheeting, 2 mm 13
16
18 Textile cover
19 Plywood panel, 20 mm b b
20 Sound insulation, 50 mm

bb

14

13

16

17

13

226
 Plastics

Gordillo’s artist’s studio

Madrid, ES 2002 b

Architects:
Abalos & Herreros, Madrid a a
Facade design:
Jesús Rodríguez
b
º Arquitectura 331, 2003
Detail 12/2002
El Croquis 118, 2003

Floor plan • Cross section

• Facade, skylights and exterior doors from Scale 1:500
double translucent corrugated polycarbonate Vertical cross section •
panels Horizontal cross section
• Even diffuse light important as the building is Scale 1:20
an artist’s studio
• Opaque facade areas made from insulated 1 6
steel-reinforced concrete panels clad with
single-layer corrugated sheeting 2
• Rear of the building set into a slope

7 8 4 cc

c c

aa

1 Steel section, IPE 80 5 Hollow square steel

2 Rectangular hollow steel section | 100/100 mm
section, 100/50 mm 6 Green wall
3 Double corrugated poly- Reinforcing mesh mat
carbonate panel with Rigid foam 5
UV-resistant coating, Polyethylene 50 mm
screwed down Filter fleece
4 Corrugated polycar- Thermal insulation
bonate panel with Extruded rigid poly-
UV-resistant coating, styrene foam panel,
screwed to rectangular 40 mm
hollow steel section, Sealing, 1.2 mm
100/50 mm Steel-reinforced con-
Thermal insulation crete, 250 mm
Extruded rigid poly- Ventilated cavity /
styrene foam panel battens, 46 mm
30 mm Plasterboard 2≈ 13 mm
Sealing 7 Rectangular hollow steel
Steel-reinforced section, 100/50 mm
concrete 250 mm, 8 Door opening
ventilated cavity / Steel frame / double
battens, 46 mm polycarbonate panel
Plasterboard, 2≈ 13 mm with UV-resistant coating bb

227
Plastics

Institute building

Grenoble, FR 1995/2001

Architects:
Anne Lacaton & Jean Philippe Vassal, Paris

º Bauwelt 16/1996
Detail 12/2002
Hintergrund 19, published by Architektur-
zentrum Wien. Vienna, 2003

• North and south-facing buffer facades

resembling conservatories, full of plants
• Outer skin made from corrugated poly-
carbonate sheeting
• Inner skin consists of sliding aluminium
windows
• Exposed concrete structural elements with
insulation on the inside
• Facade cavity ventilated by a strip of
opening panels at the top of the outer skin

aa

b b
a

228
 Plastics

1 6 2 7

Cross section •
Floor plan
Ground floor
Scale 1:800
9
Horizontal cross
section •
Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20

16
c c
1 3 2 4

10

11 12 13 14 5

15

cc
17

1 Transparent polycarbonate edge ate panel (as in 2) on a steel frame 4

trim with UV-resistant coating, 50/50/5 mm with square steel
hot-formed hollow section bracing, 20/2.3 mm
2 Transparent corrugated polycarbonate 9 Electric motor for opening panels
panel with UV-resistant coating 10 Steel grating, 40 mm
177/51/3 mm 11 Galvanised steel sheeting, folded
3 Galvanised rectangular hollow steel 12 Galvanised steel beam, IPE 140
section substructure, 70/50/4 mm 13 Galvanised steel beam, HEA 100
4 Galvanised steel column, HEA 120 14 Heating pipes
5 Steel-reinforced concrete beam 15 Aluminium sliding window with
6 Galvanised rectangular hollow steel insulating glazing
section, 100/50 mm 16 Spandrel element with insulating
7 Galvanised steel beam, HEA 120 glazing
8 Opening panel, corrugated polycarbon- 17 Plant container bb

229
Plastics

Unilever headquarters

Hamburg, DE 2009

Architects:
Behnisch Architekten, Stuttgart

º db 12/2009
Detail Green 01/2010
Opus C 05/2012
RTS Magazin 05/2010
wettbewerbe aktuell 11/2009

• Office building in Hamburg that is exposed

to strong winds
• Polygonal floor plan with graduating project-
ing storeys Site plan Scale 1:2,500
• Double facade with transparent, single-ply Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
ETFE film as external weather protection;
preload of outer facade skin by means of
centrally arranged rear-tensioned pressure
props
• Opening lights in the inner glass facade 1
provide natural ventilation
2
• Sheltered, mobile sun protection in the facade
cavity

3
5
1 Grating maintenance walkway on steel brackets
100/50/6 mm 4
Pin-ended horizontal hollow steel section support
120/5 mm, 6
thermally separated attachment to steel-reinforced
concrete projection
2 ETFE membrane
3 Hollow square steel panel frame, 140 mm
4 Stainless steel pressure rod, crosswise rear-
tensioned
5 Solar protection slats
Box mounting bracket with acrylic glass cover,
sheathed stainless steel tensioning cable
6 Window glazing
Safety glass ESG-H 8 + SZR 6 with argon filling +
laminated safety glass 10 mm
7 Aluminium panel on thermally separated frame
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 140 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete, 200 mm
8 Embossed aluminium sheeting, 3.5 – 5 mm
24 mm multiplex board on
aluminium profile sections, 50/30/3 mm
Sealing
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 140 mm
Steel-reinforced concrete, 350 mm

230
 Plastics

Gerontology technology centre Flinthöhe

Bad Tölz, DE 2004

Architect: aa
Diethard Johannes Siegert, Bad Tölz
b a
º db 02/2005 b
Glaswelt 01/2008

• A single-ply ETFE film “climate control

envelope” protects the reception area facing
the building’s courtyard from the weather and 1
3
forms a zone of intermediate temperature
• Film printed with a matrix of silver dots pro-
vides solar protection and disperses light
• ETFE film fastened with special aluminium
sections
• Reception area is naturally ventilated by 4
adjustable glazed flaps in the floor and roof
areas 5
• Main building consists of a steel-reinforced 2
concrete frame and modular facade

Cross section • Floor plan

Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20

1 Flashing, chamfered
2 Welded seams in the membrane
3 Tubular steel section, Ø 160 mm
4 Hydraulic cylinder
5 Ventilation opening,
laminated safety glass, 2≈ 5 mm
6 Square steel hollow section,
40/40/2 mm

bb

231
Plastics

Bavarian Mountain Rescue Service

training centre

Gaißach near Bad Tölz, DE 2008

Architects:
Herzog + Partner, Munich
Structural engineers:
Sailer Stepan and Partners, Munich
Facade technology planning:
Hightex, Rimsting

º a+w 12/2008
Baumeister 07/2009
Kunststoffatlas p. 260 –261
Tec 21 05/2009
Umrisse 02/2009
UED 06/2016

• Minimal structural requirements make this 3

simple, transparent protection from the 1
weather sufficient 8
5
• Facade made of mechanically tensioned 6 3
ETFE film panels
• Panels pretensioned by curved vertical
compression struts
• Self-cleaning effect of the ETFE film keeps
maintenance and cleaning costs low

7
Top view • Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section b b
Frame panel
9
Scale 1:20
Cross section detail
Scale 1:2.5

1 Steel profile, 240 mm

2 M12 screw
3 Steel Z-bracket, 3 mm
bolted on to form part of the frame
4 Hollow EPDM weather strip, Ø 8 mm
5 ETFE film, 0.20 mm, 0.25 mm or 0.30 mm,
depending on structural requirement
6 Hollow steel compression strut, Ø 35 ≈ 8 mm
7 Hollow steel chord, Ø 8 mm
8 Flat steel section, 60/120/5 mm
9 Steel profile section, HEB 240 mm

a 6
5
2
4 1
3
3

5 9

8
6
7 a
A bb aa

232
 Plastics

Allianz Arena

Munich, DE 2005

Architects:
Herzog & de Meuron, Basel

º Archithese 04/2005
Arquitectura viva 91, 2003
Baumeister 06/2005
Hochparterre 08/2005

• 66,500 m2 two-ply pneumatic foil cushion

building shell made of fire-resistant ETFE
• The ETFE structure has a high level of
daylight transmission and an extremely low
dead weight of less than 1.0 kg/m2
• Ventilators create a nominal internal pres-
sure of 450 Pa (facade) and 300 Pa (roof) 4
to stabilise the forms of the diamond-shaped
cushions, which can measure up to 4.60 ≈
17 metres. 5 7 8
10
• Internal pressure can be adjusted to with-
stand varying wind conditions and snow
loads.
• LED lights mounted behind the foil cushions
can evenly light up the membrane cushions in 9
all the colours in the spectrum. The standard 6
lighting is restricted to red, blue and white.
11
1 LED lights – 24 for each cushion 2
2 Sun protection roller blind
3 Insulating glazing cladding a post-and-rail facade 3
4 Prefabricated spun concrete supports, Ø variable
5 Screw connection for spun concrete support 4
6 Smoothed and painted fibre-cement panel,
2≈ 12.5 mm, mineral wool 100 mm, steel-reinforced
concrete edge beam
7 Hollow steel section, 200/300 mm, with rails for
lift system
8 Flat steel facade bracket, 2≈ 100/80 mm
9 Compressed air for facade cushion, Ø 100 mm 13
10 PE compressed air pipe, Ø 50 mm
11 ETFE foil facade cushion, 0.2 mm
12 Ladder for lift system
13 Hollow steel section secondary structure, 1
120/220 mm
14 Galvanised steel sheeting rainwater gutter, 6 mm 12
15 Polyolefin profile gutter sealing around the joint,
with profiling to absorb movement
16 Flat steel binding piece, 2≈ 250/30 mm
17 Hollow steel section secondary structure, 120/220 mm 5

1
17 11

15

16 Vertical cross section

14 Scale 1:50
Detail cross section
Scale 1:20
aa bb

233
Plastics

Hotel Burj al Arab

Dubai, AE 1999

Architects:
Atkins, Epsom
Facade technology:
Hightex, Rimsting

º Bauwelt 44/1998
DBZ 07/2000
Fassade / Facade 01/2001
b

• 7,500 m2, 200 metre-high, double membrane

structure made from PTFE-coated fibreglass
fabric
• Structure is divided into twelve individual
bays over a steel frame
• 50 % less dead weight than a comparable
glass structure
• Translucent membrane facade lets through
10 % of daylight
• Membrane surface can be used as a projec-
tion screen at night

a a

aa

234
 Plastics

2 1 2
3
12 13
14
4
15

5
6

16

11
10
7
6 17

19

8
Floor plan of a standard floor • Cross section
Scale 1:3,000
c c Floor plan with curving trussed girder 1:500
Vertical cross section of membrane facade Scale 1:20 18
Horizontal cross section of the interface between the
membrane facade
and residential wing Scale 1:20 cc

1 Horizontal beam, special channel section, 8 Horizontal steel cable supporting the membrane
9 500/120 mm 9 Trussed girder made of rectangular hollow
2 Aluminium clamping rail, screwed down steel sections, 125/270/12 mm bolted to a
3 Angle, 60/60/4 mm T-section, 150/10 mm
4 Inner and outer layers 10 Tubular steel section, Ø 400 mm
Sandwich panel 120 mm: 11 Steel angle, 100
Aluminium 4 mm 12 Aluminium panel, 215 mm
Vapour barrier with integrated vapour barrier and
Thermal insulation, 60 mm thermal insulation
Aluminium 4 mm 13 Steel channel, 152/76 mm
Thermal insulation between panels, 200 mm 14 Brush seal to keep dust out
5 Flat steel, 150/10 mm 15 Moveable connection
6 Tubular steel rails for cleaning equipment, Extruded aluminium section with
Ø 80 mm, on a flat steel bracket EPDM sealing
7 Two-ply PTFE fibreglass fabric membrane 16 Steel channel, 280
panel, 0.6 – 0.7 mm, white with fluoropolymer 17 Insulating glazing
protective coating on both sides, UV-resistant, 18 Special aluminium section corner trim
bb 500 mm air cavity 19 Tubular steel column, Ø 280 mm

235

Tsinghua University Campus, Beijing (CN) 2006,
Mario Cucinella
Part C Special topics
Interest in facades specifically designed to
take on specific functions is growing. This inter-
est is of an experimental nature, on the one
hand because building envelopes are being
assigned entirely new functional characteristics
for which different architectural solutions are
currently still being sought. Sufficient experi-
ence with such solutions, with their long-term
durability, for example, is still lacking. On the
other hand, this interest opens up completely
new design opportunities whose cogency in
terms of the “logic of form” has yet to be proven.
Technical correctness, construction methods
suitable for specific materials and manufactur-
ing technologies are all fundamentally import-
ant issues in this context.
237
 Multilayer glass facades

C 1 Multilayer From storm windows to multilayered

glass facades
glass facades
The development of multilayer, transparent
building envelopes was closely connected
with the increasing use of glass in construc-
tion in the 17th and 18th centuries, when
progress in glass production and the inven-
tion of the cast-glass process in 1687 made
it possible to make better-quality flat panes
of glass with less cost and effort [1]. First
mentions of the use of multilayered window
systems date from around 1690 [2] in texts
advising on ways to improve the thermal
insulation of windows and recommending
the use of double windows to cover windows
during the cold seasons of the year. These C 1.2
types of “storm windows” were frequently used
in Central Europe from the early 18th century
and can often still be found in rural areas.
Many types of multilayered windows such
as the double box-type casement window
and glazed loggia were developed in the
18th and 19th centuries and some are still
in use today.

The technique of improving the functional

qualities of single glazing by adding an
extra glass skin was also used in the glaz-
ing of large facade openings, such as those
in the “Iron House” in the Nymphenburg
Schlosspark in Munich, which was rebuilt
in 1867 after a fire, and in the late 19th-cen-
tury “Galerías Gallegas” in La Coruña, the C 1.3 C 1.4
entire exterior wall of which is clad with a
second glass skin (Fig. C.1.11, p. 241). Other
forms of double glazing such as bay windows,
glazed loggias, integrated atria and lean-to
conservatories were also developed at this
time with the common goal of improving
thermal insulation and using the greenhouse
effect to heat the air in rooms. One of the best
known historical examples of such a double
facade is the buffer facade of the Steiff factory
in Giengen an der Brenz, built in 1903. Its
completely enclosing double glass skin makes
maximum use of daylight and improves the
building envelope’s thermal insulation (see
p. 247). Such window and facade systems
were commonly used until the 1950s, when
the development of coupled windows and
later insulating glazing improved windows’
thermal insulation properties in a simpler way
that also saved space.

Shortages of raw materials beginning in the

mid 1970s and resulting discussions on
finite resources led planners to return to
ways of improving thermal insulation and
solar energy use, such as adding external
glass skins to buildings. The invention of

C 1.1 Post Tower, Bonn (DE) 2003, Murphy / Jahn

C 1.2 Storm window, farmhouse, Flims (CH)
C 1.3 Storm window
C 1.4 Exhaust air window
C 1.5 Double casement window, Krems (AT)
C 1.5

239
Multilayer glass facades

Multilayer, transparent glass facade systems

Position of Window systems in fenestrated Facade elements added in Double-skin facade systems
the second facades (second glass skin within front (second glass skin in front (second glass skin extends over
glass skin the exterior wall) of areas of the exterior wall) the entire building envelope)

Position of Ventilation openings Ventilation openings No ventilation Ventilation openings Ventilation openings Ventilation openings No ventilation
ventilation in both skins in the inner skin openings in both skins in both skins in the inner skin openings
openings

Lean-to
Storm window Exhaust air Coupled Double-skin Exhaust air
conservatory, oriel, Buffer facade
Casement window window windows facade facade
glazed loggia

Segmenting Facade cavity Facade cavity Facade cavity vertically

of the facade not segmented horizontally segmented and horizontally segmented
cavity

Unsegmented Integrated Building-within-a- Double casement

Corridor facade Shaft facade
double-skin facade atrium building principle window facade

C 1.6

insulating glazing led to the further develop- Design-specific features of facades

ment of existing forms such as the lean-to
conservatory and integrated atrium.
In the 1980s, new systems came into use,
such as exhaust air windows and facades
with windows or facade cavities that were
combined with the building’s ventilation
system to support interior air conditioning.
Multilayered glass facade systems were
further developed in the 1990s as increasing
thermal insulation requirements and user
demands favoured their development. Double
glass facades are of interest because they
can potentially reduce energy consumption
and optimise user comfort. Their common
feature is the ventilated glass skin in front
C 1.7 of the actual glass facade that allows for a
natural exchange of air, even in very polluted
or windy locations. Double glass facades
with unsegmented or segmented facade
cavities are an important type of this facade.
Their structural and functional characteristics
will be described below. As well as users’
increased awareness of energy consumption
and greater comfort requirements, one main
reason for the swift spread of these types
of double glass facades may be discussions
on “sick building syndrome” [3], which has
been associated with completely air condi-
tioned buildings. Naturally ventilated, individ-
ually adaptable, multi-layered glass facades
have clear advantages in this context and can
improve users’ comfort.
C 1.8
enclosed in glass skins
Structural features largely determine the func-
tional and design characteristics of multilayer
glass facade systems. Starting with the cat-
egorisation shown in Figure C 1.6, these struc-
tural features and their impact on the functional
properties of various double glass facade sys-
tems are described below [4].
Position of the second glass skin relative to the
exterior wall
The position of the two layers of glazing rela-
tive to the exterior wall has a major influence
on a facade’s functional and design charac-
teristics.
Second glass skin within the exterior wall
structure
In window systems in facades with two panes
of glass, one behind the other (double win-
dows), loads are usually transferred through
a solid exterior wall so the positioning and
size of openings in the wall will depend on
structural requirements. The relatively low
proportion of glass in such facades means
that their design is very different from that of
glazed double skin or curtain wall facades.
Storm windows, double casement windows,
exhaust air windows (Fig. C 1.2 –1.5, p. 239)
and coupled windows are all forms of double
windows. The development of insulating glaz-

240

C 1.9 C 1.10
ing and resulting improvement of thermal
insulation means that these types of window
systems now play only a minor role in con-
struction. Exhaust air windows for example,
are only installed in air-conditioned buildings
such as museums.
Second glass skin in front of areas of the
exterior wall
The main feature of the double facade is
a second glass skin in front of the exterior
wall at some distance from it, which creates
a zone with an intermediate temperature
that can accommodate various temporary
usages [5]. Installing a glass skin in front
of areas of a facade greatly influences
its appearance, although the exterior wall
proper usually remains identifiable. Lean-to
conservatories, bay and oriel windows and
glazed loggias are some of the different
structures that can be used to form facade
envelopes. Many of these types of facades
are still built today to make use of the options
offered by zones with an intermediate tem-
perature.
Second glass skin extending across the entire
exterior wall
Completely glazed facades have a second
glass layer in front of or behind the actual
glass facade. Such multilayer glass facade
structures are generally referred to as double
facades without linking them with any specific
functional properties. Double facades include
double glass facades, exhaust air windows
and buffer facades. Although these types of
facade often have very similar designs, they
differ greatly from each other in terms of the
natural ventilation options they offer.
Positioning of ventilation openings in inner and outer
facade skins
The following systems can be classified based
on the arrangement of their ventilation openings:
Window systems in fenestrated facades – venti-
lation openings in both skins
Storm windows
Storm windows consist of a second single
glazed window installed in front of a single
glazed window, usually flush with the exterior
wall, to improve the window’s thermal insula-
tion properties (Fig. C 1.3, p. 239). Their main
characteristic is the way in which the window’s
thermal insulation properties can be adapted to
different times of year, although they are less
able to accommodate fluctuations in tempera-
ture during the day [6].
Double casement windows
Double casement windows have two opening
window sashes, usually single-glazed, pos-
itioned one behind the other about 10 – 20 cm
apart. In many cases, separate opening sashes
in the frame or tilting sashes at the top of the
window openings allow for ventilation at night
while maintaining protection from rain or break-
ins. Their thermal insulation and soundproofing
properties and the rate of air exchange can be
easily adapted to varying external conditions
over the course of the day.
Window systems in fenestrated facades – venti-
lation openings in the inner skin
Exhaust air window
Exhaust air windows combine a window’s
conventional and air-conditioning functions
by allowing a room’s exhaust air to escape
through a space between the double win-
dow panes. To prevent transmission heat
loss, the outer panes are usually made of
insulating glass. The inner pane’s surface
temperature is higher due to the preheated
interior air that flows through the space
between the panes. This greatly improves
comfort for users near windows, especially
during the cold seasons of the year. The
space between the panes can also accom-
modate solar protection, which can be low-
ered in adverse weather conditions, such
as strong wind. If solar protection systems
are installed inside the glazing, the absorbed
solar radiation and its conversion into long-
wave thermal radiation can cause undesir-
able heating of interiors. Installing solar
protection in the space between the panes
means that this does not happen with ex-
haust air windows, because ventilation pre-
vents any overheating. Such windows do
however always require the use of mechanical
Multilayer glass facades
C 1.11
energy to force air through the space between
the panes, which usually involves greater
investment and operating costs needed by
buildings without air-conditioning equipment
(Fig. C 1.7).
Window systems in fenestrated facades –
no ventilation openings in the skin
Coupled windows
Coupled windows consist of two consecu-
tive window frames directly joined together
with very little space between them. The two
sashes are not separated, except for cleaning,
so in contrast to double casement windows,
they offer no options for adapting to changing
outside conditions over the course of the day
or year.
Structures in front of facades – ventilation open-
ings in both skins
Structures built in front of facades usually have
ventilation openings in the outer and inner skin
that ensure a natural exchange of air. They can
include the following types.
Lean-to conservatories
Lean-to conservatories are formed by installing
a single glass skin in front of the exterior wall
at a considerable distance, creating a space
with intermediate temperatures that can be
used for a wide range of purposes (Fig. C 1.9).
These zones can serve as a thermal buffer or
airlock, preheat incoming air or make direct
use of solar energy [7].
Bay and oriel windows, glazed loggias
Similar to lean-to conservatories, bay and
oriel windows and glazed loggias are zones
with intermediate temperatures if they can
C 1.6 Types of multilayer, transparent glass facade
system
C 1.7 Exhaust air facade, Museum of Applied Arts,
Frankfurt (DE) 1984, Richard Meier
C 1.8 Integrated lean-to conservatory, private house,
Regensburg (DE) 1979, Thomas Herzog
C 1.9 Lean-to conservatory
C 1.10 Glazed loggia
C 1.11 Glazed loggias, houses, La Coruña (ES) late
19th century
241
Multilayer glass facades
C 1.12
be closed off from the interior with doors.
Their exterior window openings mean that
they can be effectively linked with facade
functions such as exchange of air, thermal
insulation in winter and summer and sound
insulation.
One major difference between these struc-
tures and the lean-to conservatory is their
spatial position relative to the facade proper.
Bay and oriel windows and glazed loggias
usually have a direct functional connection
with the space behind them, with which they
form a unit in terms of heating, ventilation
and soundproofing requirements. These
zones with intermediate temperatures are
directly connected with the heated air of
the adjoining room, making permanent use
possible, unlike the lean-to conservatory
(Figs. C 1.10 and C 1.11, p. 241).
242
C 1.13 C 1.14
Curtain wall facade systems – ventilation open-
ings in both skins
Double glass facades
The main feature of double glass facades is
the positioning of a second skin in front of
the actual exterior wall that does not impede
natural ventilation. The outer skin is usually
suspended in front of the wall as a non-load-
bearing element (Fig. C 1.12). Such facades
usually have better sound and thermal insula-
tion properties than single-skin facades and
allow for natural ventilation even in areas sub-
ject to high wind speeds [8].
Shaft, corridor and double casement window
facades and facades in which the second
skin is positioned at some distance from the
external wall are some subgroups of double-
skin facades (including integrated atria and
the building-within-a-building principle).
C 1.15
Curtain wall facade systems – ventilation open-
ings in the inner skin
Exhaust air facades
As with the exhaust air window, heated inter-
ior air is channelled through the facade
cavity of an exhaust air facade and returned
through the facade to a central air condition-
ing unit [9]. The outer skin functions as pro-
tection from the weather and thermal insulation
and lets in daylight. Its air duct function also
makes it part of the air-conditioning system
(Fig. C 1.13).
The facade’s outermost layer is usually built
with insulating glazing to reduce transmis-
sion heat loss. The advantages of this type of
facade are very like those of the exhaust air
window outlined above.
Curtain wall facade systems – no ventilation
openings in either skin
Buffer facades
Buffer facades with a second suspended
glass skin further screen a building’s
interior from certain exterior conditions
without notably reducing incident daylight
(Fig. C 1.14).
A desire for better thermal insulation is
often the main reason for their construction,
although other environmental influences
such as traffic noise can favour this type
of construction. In terms of ventilation, the
facade cavity is a self-contained unit that
does not allow for any exchange of air.
Instead, air is exchanged through separate,
box-type window elements built into the
buffer facade.
C 1.12 Double-skin facade
C 1.13 Exhaust air facade (air flows from top to
bottom)
C 1.14 Buffer facade
C 1.15 Exhaust air facade: Lloyds headquarters,
London (GB) 1986, Richard Rogers Partnership
C 1.16 Integrated atrium
C 1.17 Unsegmented double-skin facade
C 1.18 Double glazed facade, office building, Munich
(DE) 1997, Steidle + Partner
C 1.19 Glazed atrium, Museum of Hamburg History,
Hamburg (DE) 1989, by Gerkan, Marg
und Partner with Schlaich Bergermann
Partner

C 1.16
Segmenting of the facade cavity
Considering double glass facades in terms
of the space between their glazing, they have
a wide range of practical varieties with very
different functional properties. There are two
main groups of structures:
• Unsegmented double-skin facades
• Segmented double-skin facades
Double-skin facades with an unsegmented
cavity
The following types of facade are among
the types of double facade with unsegmented
cavities:
• Unsegmented double-skin facade
• Integrated atrium
• Building-within-a-building principle
Facade systems with unsegmented cavities
have the following structural properties:
C 1.17
• Soundproofing: Sound can spread unimpeded
through an unsegmented facade cavity, which
may adversely affect adjoining rooms.
• Fire safety: Fire and smoke can spread
unimpeded through an unsegmented facade
cavity in much the same way sound does.
• Thermal performance: Depending on vertical
expansion, a clear temperature gradient
from the cavity’s highest to lowest point can
be created to use thermal lift to improve the
facade cavity’s ventilation in summer. If venti-
lation is insufficient however, this can very
quickly lead to high air temperatures in upper
areas of the cavity and adversely affect ad-
joining spaces. A simple way to control the
rate of air exchange in the facade and its
buffer effect will be beneficial in this context,
as installing ventilation flaps at the facade’s
base and eaves will be sufficient to vary the
sizes of air intake and outlet openings.
C 1.19
Multilayer glass facades
C 1.18
These types of facade have similar functional
properties, although installing a suspended
curtain wall, depending on its connections with
the rest of the building, may result in different
construction, design and specific uses.
Unsegmented double-skin facades
Unsegmented double-skin facades have a
second glass skin installed in front of the
exterior wall and this facade cavity is not seg-
mented for ventilation purposes. This is one
of the simplest types of facade to build. An
unsegmented facade cavity may however
make greater demands in terms of preventing
internal odour and sound transmission and
ensuring fire safety, especially in the facades
of multistorey buildings.
Integrated atrium
Seen as a form of suspended glass skin, the
integrated atrium has similar properties to the
lean-to conservatory but is normally enclosed
by two to four wings of a building.
There is an intensive interaction between
the atrium and surrounding wall surfaces
(Figs. C 1.16 and C 1.19). This type of struc-
ture is often referred to as a glass atrium
or “climate-controlled hall”. In terms of the
building’s interior climate, solar gains and
transmission heat loss from the facades of
adjoining buildings ensure that its inside
air temperature remains higher than that of
the outdoor air all year round. This can expand
the room’s range of potential uses as well as
greatly reducing structural demands on adjoin-
ing facade elements.
Building-within-a-building principle
The building-within-a-building principle makes
use of a multilayer, transparent glazed building
envelope to completely enclose a building
(Fig. C 1.20, p. 244). Solar energy can be
used to directly raise the ambient temperature
of interior building sections to reduce trans-
mission heat losses and ventilation heat losses.
Like the lean-to conservatory and integrated
atrium, the great advantage of the building-
within-a-building principle is the creation of a
zone of intermediate temperatures that can be
used for various purposes. Air can circulate
243
Multilayer glass facades
C 1.20
freely inside the envelope and internal airflows
can result in temperatures much greater than
that of the outside air, even in areas of the
building that receive far less sun [10].
Double-skin facades with segmented cavities
Double-skin facades with segmented cavities
can be classified into the following main types:
• Corridor facades
• Shaft facades
• Double casement window facades
The shared characteristic of these systems
is that they can influence a facade’s func-
tional properties. The type of facade cavity
segmentation, which can be horizontal, vertical
or in both directions, is especially important
because it determines the facade’s fire safety
and soundproofing properties and greatly influ-
ences the type and controllability of the facade
cavity’s ventilation.
Corridor facade
A corridor facade’s cavity is segmented by hori-
zontal walkways in the floors and ceilings of
adjoining storeys, creating a generally access-
ible facade corridor on each floor (Fig. C 1.21).
Fresh air usually flows into the lower section
of each storey and exhaust air exits the facade
corridor at the top. The risk of mixing outgoing
exhaust air and incoming fresh air in corridor
facades can be avoided by laterally offset-
ting ventilation openings or by an adequate
vertical spacing of inflow and outflow openings
(Fig. C 1.23).
A corridor facade involves only slightly more
construction cost and effort than an unseg-
mented double-skin facade and they can
greatly reduce or eliminate a number of struc-
tural problems. Fire safety requirements can
be met by appropriately designed corridor
floors and ceilings. Segmenting prevents heat
from building up at the top of the facade. They
do not entirely solve the problem of interior
sound transmission but appropriate design and
construction can almost completely prevent
it in a vertical direction. Like unsegmented
double-skin facades, a corridor facade’s buffer
effect can be controlled by adjustable ventila-
tion flaps, although they do involve greater con-
244
C 1.21
struction cost and effort than unsegmented
facades due to the number of ventilation open-
ings required.
Shaft facades
The main feature of this type of facade is verti-
cal ventilation or exhaust air shafts extending
over several storeys that use thermal lift (stack
effect) to ventilate the facade. To ensure a
controlled supply of fresh air to interiors and
minimise vertical sound transmission between
storeys, the vertical exhaust air shafts are usu-
ally combined with casement window-type
facade elements along their sides so this type
of facade is also often called a “shaft-box”
facade [11]. Outside air flows into the facade
cavity through ventilation openings in the lower
section of a casement window and into the
interior through ventilation openings. Warm
interior exhaust air is extracted at ceiling level
near the casement window through openings
in the sides of the vertical exhaust air shaft due
to the negative pressure in the shaft that also
causes it to rise (Fig. C 1.25). Unlike corridor
and double casement window facades, sound
or smoke is prevented from spreading verti-
cally through a shaft facade cavity by horizon-
tal partitions in the upper and lower area of
the casement windows. Planners must pay
particular attention to interactions between the
exhaust air shaft, building height and pressure
conditions in the shaft to ensure that these
facades function properly.
Double casement window facade
The double casement window facade is the
most complex and costly type of double facade
to build because the facade cavity is horizon-
tally segmented, storey by storey, into separate
shaft-like sections. Like a traditional casement
window, each window element is a self-con-
tained unit that is not connected to adjoining
panels for ventilation purposes. Each facade
unit has its own ventilation openings. The risk of
short-circuiting flows of incoming and exhaust
air between segments in a vertical direction, as
in a corridor facade, can be reduced by diag-
onally offset ventilation openings. This type of
facade’s main advantages lie in the avoiding of
problems with fire safety and sound insulation
C 1.22
because vertical and horizontal separating
panels are usually aligned with the spaces
behind them. In contrast to unsegmented
double-skin facades and shaft facades, only
limited use can be made of thermal lift to move
air through these facade cavities so ventilation
openings must be large enough to prevent
them overheating (Fig. C 1.26).
Costs and benefits of double facade
systems
Depending on their structural formation, double
glass facade systems can have a wide range
of functional characteristics that make their
construction seem more advantageous than
single-layer facades. Arguments for their use
include:
• Natural ventilation, even in very windy loca-
tions
• Prevention of “sick building syndrome” due
to greater natural ventilation options which
can be individually regulated by users
• Greater user comfort due to the higher sur-
face temperatures of inner facade surfaces
in cold weather
• The energy balance is improved because
buildings with exposed thermal storage
masses can cool down at night
• Improved use and protected position of solar
protection elements
• Better soundproofing in noisy locations
• Floor-to-ceiling glazing can offer optimum
use of daylight
The necessary protection from fire spread
means that floor-to-ceiling glazing can only
be used in the facades of high-rise buildings if
the facade is horizontally partitioned, with a
cantilevered slab, for example. Otherwise, fire-
resistant spandrel elements must be installed.
Not only do these reduce natural light, but
often are not desirable for design reasons. A
cantilevered slab can be an inexpensive way
of partitioning a facade with an insulating glass
outer skin because the glass skin’s better ther-
mal insulation properties make a complicated
thermal separation of the slab unnecessary.
Profitability calculations indicating the insuffi-

C 1.23
cient profitability of a second skin are often
cited to counter arguments for building double
facades, although they usually only take into
account the extra glass skin’s additional costs,
which depend heavily on the building’s type,
construction details and size. To reliably ana-
lyse the costs and benefits of such facades,
investment and operating costs and the build-
ing’s technical systems over its entire life cycle
must be taken into consideration. It must be
noted for example, that a multilayer glass
facade’s interior glass skin can be much sim-
pler to build than a single-skin glass facade
in terms of its construction and subsequent
thermal performance, fire safety and sound
insulation features. Technical construction
issues must be precisely coordinated to fit in
with functional requirements. The accuracy
of general statements on costs must always
be reviewed in terms of the specific individual
solution in question. The following aspects can
play a significant role in optimising the costs
of multilayer glass facades so their relevance
should be examined in each case [12]:
C 1.24
C 1.25
• Use of standard or near-standard structural
components
• Installation of simple, hand-operated opening
elements
• Taking into account the necessity of closable
openings as well as thermal insulation and
soundproofing requirements
• Dimensioning the facade cavity to meet
functional requirements such as integrated
solar protection and maintenance, repair
and cleaning
• Designing the facade cavity floor to be
generally inaccessible or accessible only
for cleaning purposes
• Use of closed exterior wall areas to prevent
fire from spreading
• The number of different construction types
should be as low as possible
• Prefabricated and modular facade elements
can bring further cost advantages to large
construction projects.
Apart from these aspects, the costs of oper-
ations and upkeep, mainly cleaning, services,
Multilayer glass facades
maintenance, inspection and running costs,
must be considered in any comparison of the
costs of single and multilayer glass facades.
Double facades do not need to be cleaned
more often than single-layered structures. Any
greater cost and effort involved in cleaning two
glass surfaces is required only about once
a year. The fact that interior solar protection
is shielded from the weather means that it
needs cleaning far less often than the exterior
solar protection of a single-layer glass facade.
Annual maintenance, inspection and operating
C 1.20 Building-within-a-building principle
C 1.21 Corridor facade
C 1.22 Building-within-a-building principle, training
academy, Herne (DE) 1999, Jourda et Perraudin
with Hegger Hegger Schleiff
C 1.23 Corridor facade, Olivetti company building,
Ivrea (IT) 1940, Figini & Pollini
C 1.24 Double casement window facade
C 1.25 Shaft facade
C 1.26 Double casement window facade, RWE AG office
building, Essen (DE) 1997, Ingenhoven Overdiek
Kahlen und Partner
C 1.26
245
Multilayer glass facades
C 1.27
costs are usually estimated at about 0.5 – 3 %
of investment costs, although the precise
amount greatly depends on the number and
construction quality of moveable structural
components [13].
In calculating the investment costs of solar
protection, it should be considered that solar
protection shielded from the weather in the
facade cavity can be much simpler to install
than exterior solar protection. This can have a
particularly strong impact on the required con-
struction quality of high-rise buildings due to
the heavy wind loads to which they are subject,
because wind loads increase exponentially
with a building’s height.
Interactions between a building’s technical
systems and its facade must also be taken
into account in cost calculations. Given all
these factors, multilayer glass facades can
be very economical if they can reduce the use
of air-conditioning equipment to a minimum.
Depending on the correct design of ventila-
tion openings and the type and quantity of
glazing and solar protection, profitability may
also depend heavily on the behaviour of build-
ing users.
Profitability calculations should not be ori-
ented solely towards investment and operat-
ing costs. Factors such as user satisfaction,
employee productivity and potential savings
in the use of (much more short-lived) air con-
ditioning and heating systems must also be
included to gain a complete picture. The
wide range of systems available requires a
precise definition of the requirements profile
for the functions of a double facade in each
case to ensure a satisfactory solution in all
areas when decisions on forms of design and
construction are made. A double-skin facade
can greatly contribute towards improving a
building’s comfort and energy balance in windy
or polluted locations. The success of double-
skin facades depends heavily on the qualifica-
tions of those involved in planning them. Plan-
ners should see the facade system not as an
isolated subsystem, but as part of the whole
building in its interactions with users, the build-
ing’s technical systems, construction and
energy balance.
246
C 1.27 Deutsche Bank, Berlin (DE) 1997, Benedict Tonon
and Nowotny Mähner Associates
Notes: indoor plantings see also Daniels, Klaus, Technolo-
[1] Staib, Gerald: Von den Ursprüngen bis zur Klassi- gie des ökologischen Bauens. Basel / Boston / Berlin
schen Moderne. In Schittich, Christian et al.: Glas- 1995, p. 194 –197
bau Atlas, Munich / Basel 1998, p. 10 [11] www.baunetzwissen.de/standardartikel/Fassade-
[2] First mention of this type of construction was made Doppelfassaden-Arten_1462707.html, published
in texts on construction written in 1691 (Davilers, 14 September 2016
Cours d’Architecture). It was first mentioned in [12] An interesting treatment of issues around the
German texts dating from 1725 and 1730. See also profitability of double-skin facades can be found
Lietz, Sabine: Das Fenster des Barock. Munich / in Oesterle, Eberhard et al., Doppelschalige
Berlin 1982, p. 123 Fassaden: Ganzheitliche Planung. Munich 1999,
[3] Kröling, Peter: Das Sick-Building-Syndrom in klima- p. 178 –198
tisierten Gebäuden: Symptome, Ursachen und [13] ibid. p. 187
Prophylaxe. In: Innenraum Belastungen: erkennen,
bewerten, sanieren. Published by Friedhelm Diehl.
Wiesbaden / Berlin 1993, p. 22– 37
[4] Lang, Werner: Zur Typologie mehrschaliger
Gebäudehüllen aus Glas. In Detail 07/1998,
p. 1,225 –1,232
[5] An intensive treatment of the topic of zones of
intermediate temperatures und building envelopes
can be found in Herzog, Thomas; Natterer, Julius
et al.(ed.): Gebäudehüllen aus Glas und Holz.
Maßnahmen zur energiebewussten Erweiterung
von Wohnhäusern. Lausanne 1984
[6] Zimmermann, Markus: Fenster im Fenster. In
Detail 04/1996, p. 484 – 489
[7] A detailed description of the main correlations of
energy transmission and storage can be found in
Herzog/Natterer, as for Note 5, p. 4 –11
[8] Depending on the building’s location and design,
it can be assumed that the runtimes of mechanical
ventilation systems in office buildings can be re-
duced to 35 % of the building’s operating period
if they can also be naturally ventilated. See also
Werkbericht 12. Gebäudetechnik für die Zukunft –
“weniger ist mehr”. Published by HL Technik AG.
Munich 1994, p. 39 – 53
Regarding the necessary runtimes of air-condition-
ing systems, it can be assumed that on days when
outside-air temperatures are between 5 and 22 °C,
these systems can be dispensed with altogether.
For Düsseldorf for example, this would be 63 % of
working hours. For 29 % of the year it is colder than
5 °C during operating hours, while temperatures
above 22 °C for only 8 % of working hours over the
year. See also Thiel, Dieter: Doppelfassaden – ein
Bestandteil energetisch optimierter und emissions-
armer Bürogebäude. In conference transcript for
Workshop “Lichtlenkende Bauteile” and the Interna-
tionales Forum Innovative Fassadentechnologie.
Published by the Institut für Licht- und Bautechnik
FH Köln. Cologne 1995, p. 30
[9] Early descriptions of the operational principles and
potential applications of multilayered ventilated
glass walls can be found in Le Corbusier’s essay on
“Die Technik als Grundlage des Lyrismus eröffnet
eine neue Epoche in der Architektur” dated 5 Octo-
ber 1929. In Le Corbusier, 1929 – Feststellungen zu
Architektur und Städtebau. Bauwelt Fundamente 12.
Braunschweig / Wiesbaden 1987, p. 70 –72
[10] For an overview of ways of improving interior air with
 Multilayer glass facades

Steiff soft toy factory

Giengen an der Brenz, DE 1903

Planning:
Eisenwerke München
Richard Steiff, Giengen an der Brenz

º Bauen + Wohnen 07/1970

Baumeister 11/2003
Bauwelt 44/1992
Finke, Barbara: Der Ostbau der Steiff-
Fabrik in Giengen / Brenz. Unpublished
Master’s degree dissertation, TU Berlin
1998

• First known buffer facade fully glazed from

floor to ceiling in Germany. It has better 3
thermal insulation than a single-layer glass 1
c c
facade
• Load-bearing steel frame within the facade
cavity 4
• Facade sections connected with u-shaped 2
steel lugs
• Double casement windows in the facade
allow for air exchange and exterior views
b 4 3

Cross section • Floor plan of the 1st floor Scale 1:500
Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20
Detail of facade post Scale 1:5
aa
5
b
1 Battened columns, steel channel with 8
riveted web connectors (secondary support 9
structure) and fastening lugs
2 Compound corner column (primary
support structure)
3 Steel section facade column, IPE 130/80 mm
with riveted fastening lugs 7 6
4 Fastening lug, riveted to facade columns
5 Steel section longitudinal beam, 60/140 mm 10
6 Steel section cross-beam, IPE 140/70 mm
7 Clay plank ceiling with top concrete layer
11
and wooden floorboards on battens
8 Steel T-section glazing bar, 20/30 and
25/30 mm
9 Putty
10 External glazed curtain wall facade
extends over all floors, Rhenish glass
11 Inner floor-to-ceiling glazing,
cathedral glass (matt glass) 3 mm
bb

6 11

4
a a
5

8 9 10
cc

247
Multilayer glass facades

Office building

Würzburg, DE 1995

Architects:
Webler + Geissler, Stuttgart
Structural engineer:
Rudi Wolff, Stuttgart

º Arch+ 113, 1993

Architectural Review 11/1996
A+U 05/1997
Bauwelt 27/1996
Byggekunst 08/1996
GLAS 06/1996
Techniques + architecture 434, 1997

• Unsegmented glazed double-skin facade with

adjustable ventilation flaps at roof and floor
• Insulating glass used for both layers of the
facade to improve thermal insulation
• Vertical glass separating elements in corners
with integrated axial fans to distribute pre-
heated incoming air throughout the facade
cavity
• Aluminium blinds with different interior and
exterior colours
• Reflective exterior improves the building’s
solar protection
• Absorbent coated inner surface enables solar
energy to preheat cold incoming air

b b

a a

aa

1 Aluminium sheeting with anti-drum coating Summer day Summer night

2 Upper ventilation flap with brush seals at the sides
3 Aluminium ventilation louvres with insect screen
4 Exterior glazing
toughened safety glass 8 + space between
the panes 22 with inert gas filling, float glass 6 mm,
Low-E coating
5 Perforated lightweight metal louvred blind,
upper section coated white on both sides,
lower section has a dark coating on one side,
each section can be independently controlled
6 Aluminium grating
7 Inner glazing:
toughened safety glass 6 + space between
the panes 16 with inert gas filling aa
Float glass 6 mm, Low-E coating
Aluminium frame, thermally separate Winter day Winter night
8 Aluminium post-and-rail frame,
thermally separate
9 Lower ventilation flap

248
 Multilayer glass facades

Floor plan Scale 1:1,500

Cross section Scale 1:500
Isometric view Not to scale
Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20

3
1

4 5

8 7

bb

249
Multilayer glass facades

Gallery for Architecture and Labour

Gelsenkirchen, DE 1995

Architects:
Pfeiffer Ellermann und Partner, Lüdinghausen
with Andrzej Bleszynski, Axel Rüdiger
Structural engineers:
Spiess Schäfer Keck, Dortmund
Interior climate concept:
Kahlert, Haltern

º Bauwelt 27/1996
Byggekunst 08/1998
GLAS 06/1996

• Unsegmented double-skin facade with a

lightweight concrete wall 60 cm behind it
• Casement window-type openings closed off
from the surrounding facade cavity c c
• Facade cavity with top-hung sashes at the 4
top and bottom of the facade that can be
opened outwards 1
• The two glass skins are about 90 cm apart 3
• Ventilation openings between the unseg-
mented double-skin facade and casement 2
window elements can be regulated to make
use of preheated outside air in winter
3

a a

6 7

b b
10
3 6 4
Floor plan upper floor Scale 1:400
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section 8 9
Scale 1:20
10
Details Scale 1:5
11
1 Adjustable facade attachment
2 Electrically operated window opening
3 Steel frame in 60 mm flat steel,
grid size 1,020 ≈ 1,020 mm
4 Frameless fixed glazing,
toughened safety glass, 8 mm,
glass fastened at discrete points
5 Peripheral sealing gasket 10/6 mm 7
11
6 Frameless toughened safety glass 8 mm, 9
fastened with hinges at various points,
can be manually opened outwards
7 Steel-reinforced concrete frame, 200 mm
8 Window stay 12
9 Individually adjustable ventilation opening 8
10 Untreated pine timber window with
insulating glazing
11 Lightweight concrete, 365 mm, exposed
concrete quality
12 Toughened safety glass (as in 6) electrically
operated, opening outwards aa 3 6 4 bb

250
 Multilayer glass facades

Petrol and service station

Lechwiesen, DE 1997

Architects:
Herzog + Partner, Munich
with Arthur Schankula, Roland Schneider

º db 04/1998
Herzog, Thomas: Architektur + Technolo-
gie. Munich / London / New York 2001

1
• Multifunctional double glass facade provides
soundproofing as well as air flow in winter
• In winter stale room air is drawn down through
the facade cavity and fed back into the heat 2
recovery system A 4
• This heats up interior glass surfaces during 5
cold weather and improves users’ comfort
• Roof bar above the double glass facade 6 3
can be raised to allow heated interior air to
escape in summer
• Interior layout and roof incline optimised to
B
enhance airflows
7

Cross section Not to scale

Vertical cross section south facade C
Scale 1:20

A Winter:
mechanical ventilation,
ventilation flaps closed 8
B Summer:
natural ventilation,
ventilation system operating 9 10 11
C Summer: 12
natural ventilation supported
by axial fans powered by a
photovoltaic system 9 13

1 Stainless steel capping sheet,

2 mm
2 Steel angle frame, 100/50/6 mm
3 Lifting mechanism with rack-and-
14
pinion drive electronic motor
4 Frame, 65/115 mm
5 Steel channel frame, 120
6 Cover strip, 50/25 mm
7 Thermal insulation glazing,
28 mm
8 Steel section, 50/38mm
9 Flat steel frame
¡ 120/15 mm and
¡ 147/15 mm, welded
10 Rear anchor bar, tension /
compression strut Ø 30/2 mm
11 Wind bracing, Ø 16/1.8 mm
15
12 Timber support beam with
rear anchoring
13 Glazing, toughened safety glass,
8 mm
14 Horizontal glued maple
glazing bars
15 Steel grating, 20/3/16 mm
above air vent

251
Multilayer glass facades

Office building

Kronberg im Taunus, DE 2000

Architects:
schneider+schumacher, Frankfurt am Main

º Architektur Aktuell 246 – 247, 2000

8
db 03/2000
DBZ 01/2001
Fassade / Facade 04/2001
GLAS 05/2000
Schittich, Christian (ed.): Gebäudehüllen.
Munich / Basel 2001
3 4
cc

• Double casement window-type facade with

single-glazed, frameless side-hung windows
that are motor-driven and open outwards
• Inner facade has fixed insulating glazing
elements that can be opened for cleaning
and maintenance
• Ventilation flaps out of insulated aluminium
panels, thermally separate
• Offices on building’s periphery naturally
ventilated
• Night-time cooling of offices cool in summer

aa

a a

Horizontal cross section at corner Scale 1:20

Cross section • Floor plan Scale 1:2,000
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
Window details, horizontal cross section • Vertical
cross section
Scale 1:5

252
 Multilayer glass facades

3 9 7

8 4 dd

10
1

3 1 Aluminium capping sheet, 5

c c 3 mm
2 Aluminium sheeting, 2 mm
3 Outer pane, toughened
safety glass, 12 mm
4 4 Window frame and sash: 4 3
Press-drawn section
Aluminium, thermally separate
Glazing d d
toughened safety glass 6 +
space between the panes 14
+ laminated safety glass 8 mm
5 Water pipes for
heating / cooling ceiling,
Ø 20 mm
6 Grating for air inlet to hall
7 Slits for equalising
differences in air pressure
8 Ventilation flap:
aluminium sheeting on 7
both sides
with sealing and
magnetic bracket
9 Electric motor
10 Lightweight brick

bb

253
Multilayer glass facades

Stadttor high-rise building

Düsseldorf, DE 1997

Architects:
Overdiek Petzinka und Partner, Düsseldorf
(Design and approvals planning)
Petzinka Pink und Partner, Düsseldorf
(Working drawings and implementation)
Structural engineers:
Ove Arup und Partner, Düsseldorf
Facade consultant:
Erich Mosbacher, Friedrichshafen

º Oesterle, Eberhard et al.: Doppelschalige

Fassaden. Munich, 1990

• Corridor facade with 1.4-metre wide access-

ible facade cavity
• Safety barriers also absorb wind loads
• Adjustable ventilation openings
• Diagonally offset openings prevent mixing of
incoming and outgoing air

A B aa

Principle of airflow through corridor facade

A Winter
Ventilation elements: closed at night (insulation func-
tion) and open during the day (to preheat outside air);
Heated air is fed into the atrium
B Summer
Ventilation elements open: Cooling ceiling is cooled
with cooler air from the ground

Cross section • Floor plan of a standard storey

Scale 1:2,000
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
Horizontal cross section, handrail / facade bracing
Scale 1:5

254
 Multilayer glass facades

1
2

11

3 18
c b 12 13
4

5 19

a 20

6 2
cc

1 Flat steel railing posts, 80/8 mm 10 Stainless steel sheeting, 3 mm

4 7 2 Glazing: toughened safety glass, 11 Tubular hollow aluminium handrail,
12 mm Ø 40/4 mm
3 Alternating ventilation inlets / outlets 12 Cast aluminium, 28/40 mm
3 mm stainless steel sheeting 13 Flat steel railing posts, 100/12 mm
4 Aluminium ventilation louvres 14 Flat steel strut, 15 mm
5 Extruded aluminium airflow guide plate with stainless steel glazing bracket
6 Aluminium ventilation panel 15 Square steel hollow section,
8 a Open 50/50/3 mm
9 b Rain position 16 Special profile with opening for
c Closed condensation
7 Sunblind: 17 Natural stone, 40 mm
electrically operated Ventilation cavity, 80 mm
8 Beech windowframe with insulating Thermal insulation, 60 mm
glazing 18 Clamping sleeve
9 Grating, alternately non-slip steel 19 Solid stainless steel bar, Ø 24 mm
floor plate 20 Stainless steel glazing bar

10

c c

11 12

13 14

15

16

17
bb

255
Multilayer glass facades

Trade fair headquarters

Hanover, DE 1999 Principle of natural air-

flow through the corridor
Architects: facade (inflow from the
Herzog + Partner, Munich, north)
A Winter
with Roland Schneider B Summer

º Detail 03/2000 + Wind pressure

Herzog, Thomas (ed.): Nachhaltige – Wind suction
––o Facade opening
Höhe – Sustainable Height. Munich /
Flow of air con-
London / New York 2000 trolled by tempera-
ture sensors in the
corridor facade
>>> Incoming air
A B ¡ Exhaust air shaft

• Structural framework, facade and building

services technology are interlinked to form a
complete energy system
• High level of comfort and quality workplace
with low energy consumption
• Ventilation tower uses thermal lift to naturally
ventilate the whole building
• Ventilation elements in the outer facade can
be regulated in response to varying air pres-
sure ratios.
• Sliding doors opening onto the double
facade's cavity allow for individual natural
ventilation

256
 Multilayer glass facades

Floor plans • Cross section

Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section • Horizontal
cross section
1 Scale 1:20
2
1 Clear insulating glazing
8 + 16 space between the panes
+ 8 mm
2 Aluminium ventilation element
with louvres to protect against
2 13 weather
3 Cover strip serves as a guide rail
19 25 for the service lift
4 Insulating glazing
d d 8 + space between the panes 16
+ 8 mm, outer pane printed white
12 13 15 20 5 Aluminium section with opening
17 for drainage
6 Cast aluminium bracket
7 Galvanised steel section
c c 100/100/10 mm
14 painted and bolted in place
3 11 14 23 8 Smoke-proof hardwood facade
16
connection, 20 mm
21 22
9 Steel T-section edge trim
8 9 10 40/40/4 mm, flush moulded
10 Reinforced concrete ceiling,
300 mm, with a coated surface
11 Facade post with mounting slot
12 Solar protection:
Aluminium blind
13 Cable conduit with aluminium
flashing
4 14 Reinforced concrete column,
Ø 500 mm
6 7
15 Veneer plywood panel covering
5 plasterboard stud wall (on service
floor only)
16 Hemlock supply air duct with
inspection hatch and air outlet
aa bb
on inside
17 Glass louvres for corridor
b a ventilation
20 24 18 Insulating glazing
8 + space between the panes 16
+ 8 mm
19 Hemlock facade panel
19 coated with a thick varnish
18 20 Fixed glazing
20 19 4 + space between the panes 16
+ 6 mm
9 17 11 21 Hemlock veneer plywood inspec-
tion hatch, 35 mm
cc 22 Hemlock veneer plywood
cladding, 35 mm
23 Skirting board channel with air
outlet for mechanical ventilation
24 Sliding window for natural
2 ventilation
3 4 25 Textile glare protection
dd
b a

257
Multilayer glass facades

RWE headquarters

Essen, DE 1997
1 Safety barrier, clamped white toughened safety glass,
Architects: 12 mm with tubular aluminium handrail, Ø 100 mm
Ingenhoven Overdiek Kahlen und Partner, 2 Grating over drainage channel
3 Cover plate
Düsseldorf 4 Tubular aluminium posts for double-storey terrace
glazing, 50/280 mm, stove-enamelled
º db 04/1997 5 Metal grating
Fassadentechnik 05/1997, 06/1997, 01/1998 6 Heated metal gutter 4 mm, drainage outlets in facade
grid lines in the suspended ceiling
Briegleb, Till (ed.): Hochhaus RWE AG
7 Facade cavity ventilated through perforated alumin-
Essen. Basel / Berlin / Boston 2000 ium sheeting in alternating bays (adjoining bay
Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas. closed), 4 mm, anodised, natural colour
Munich / Basel 1998 8 Solar protection: aluminium louvre blinds
9 Textile glare protection roller blind
10 Multifunctional ceiling panel, stove-enamelled sheet

29
• Building 127 metres high, diameter 32 m
• Reinforced concrete frame
• Floor-to-ceiling glazing allows for optimal use
of daylight
• Ground floor – 8.40-metre high facade made
from clear glass, point-fixed: insulating glazing
with toughened safety glass on exterior and
11
laminated safety glass on interior
• Supply air enters through tubular aluminium
facade posts
• Centrally-controlled solar and glare protection 21 30
Glare protection: room-side 31
Solar protection: in facade cavity
• Standard floor with modular casement window
facade for natural ventilation, 197 ≈ 359.1 cm
• Alternating areas of fixed glazing and sliding,
manually operated door panels
18 19
• Multifunctional ventilation element at ceiling bb
height with laterally offset air inlets and outlets

25

24 23
cc

a Floor plan, standard storey Scale 1:1,000

Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
a Scale 1:20

Horizontal cross section through partition wall

connection
Horizontal cross section, ground floor
Vertical cross section through ground floor entry hall
and upper facade connection

258
 Multilayer glass facades

aa
1
2

metal, partly perforated glazing, clear glass in an aluminium frame 3

11 Floor convector 22 Silicone joint sealing on backer rod
4
12 Closed aluminium sheeting (adjoining bay perfor- 23 Insulating toughened safety glass 10 mm +
ated) 4 mm, anodised, natural colour, upward space between the panes 14 + laminated safety
opening via hinge glass 12 mm
13 Cleaning and inspection walkway 24 Stainless steel point mounting for insulating glazing
14 Butt joint for construction purposes 25 Aluminium facade post
15 Fastener for service lift 26 Metal grating
16 Horizontal ventilation slit with aluminium airflow guide 27 Adjustable column base
louvres, anodised, natural colour 28 Aluminium glazing bar
17 EPDM sealing gasket 29 Modular office partition wall, 175 mm, perforated
18 External facade, clear toughened safety glass, 10 mm beech panels, matt finish
19 Stainless steel point mounting 30 Sliding door panel with crank handle 5
20 Aluminium facade post, 50/120 mm (in alternating bays)
21 Inner facade, floor-to-ceiling thermal insulation 31 Facade divider, clear toughened safety glass

6
9

7
8
11 10

12
13

15
14 16
17

18

19
20
21
b b

22

23

24

7 25

c c

26 28 26

27

259
Multilayer glass facades

Office block facade renovation

Stuttgart, DE 1996

Architects:
Behnisch Sabatke Behnisch, Stuttgart
Project architect:
Carmen Lenz

º Bauwelt 43 – 44/1996
GLAS Sonderheft 02/1997
Knaack, Ulrich: Konstruktiver Glasbau.
a
Cologne, 1998
Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas.
Munich / Basel 1998
a

• Complete refurbishing of a prefabricated

steel-reinforced concrete building built in
1969
• Unsegmented double-skin facade with
external glass skin with glass slats that can
be adjusted storey by storey
• Maximum airflow through the facade cavity
when glass slats are open ensures good
protection from overheating
• Cross ventilation through openings in corridor
walls that can also be used to cool the build-
ing at night in summer

Floor plan, ground floor Scale 1:250

Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

260
 Multilayer glass facades

7 6 5 4 3

2 1 6 mm toughened windowsill
safety glass 11 Dado duct, covered
2 Glass clamp connected 12 Wooden grating
to support structure 13 Plasterboard
3 Aluminium blind cladding
4 Wood soffit 14 Services duct
5 Vertically pivoting 15 Timber cladding
window in timber frame 20/60 mm,
6 Aluminium fins, on a frame
10/140 mm Ventilation cavity,
7 Suspended plaster- 30 mm
board ceiling Closed-cell insula-
8 Toughened safety glass tion, 80 mm
divider, 14 mm Precast concrete
9 Veneered plywood spandrel
panel, 200 mm 16 Precast reinforced
8 10 Aluminium sheeting concrete ceiling

10
9

11

12 13

14

16 15

aa

261
Multilayer glass facades

Event and congress centre

San Sebastián, ES 1999

Architect:
Rafael Moneo, Madrid

º Detail 03/2000
domus 722, 1990
El Croquis 98, 2000: Special issue
Rafael Moneo 1995 – 2000

• Buffer facade with internal steel frame

• Two facade layers 250 cm apart
• Glass protects the spaces behind it from the
salty air
• Windows with insulating glazing integrated
into the buffer facade provide specific views
into the surrounding landscape

Elevation Scale 1:1,500

Vertical cross section, facade
Scale 1:20
Details Scale 1:5

262
 Multilayer glass facades

1
3 7
11
2

3
4 12

5
7
6 8
9
10
13

15
1 Curved glass panels, laminated safety glass,
2,500 ≈ 600 mm
made from translucent profiled glass 4 – 5 mm
and sandblasted float glass, 19 mm,
vertical joints sealed with silicone
2 Extruded aluminium glazing bar,
glass bonded with silicone adhesive
3 Hole for drainage and pressure equalisation,
1 outside opening shielded from the wind
4 Cast aluminium section
5 Translucent silicone sealing
7 6 White silicone sealing
7 Extruded aluminium rail
8 Stainless steel bolts
9 Aluminium connection element,
adjustable in three directions
9 10 Facade posts
Extruded aluminium section, 50/140 mm
11 Sandblasted laminated safety glass, consisting of
11 2≈ float glass 6 mm, pane size 2,500 ≈ 600 mm
12 Aluminium glazing bar cap with cedarwood cover strip
13 Facade posts
14
12 Extruded aluminium section, 50/100 mm
10 14 Steel sheeting frame, welded, with
fire-resistant coating
15 Aluminium sheeting roof edge trim, folded, insulated
13
16 Aluminium profile cladding, 20/40/500/5 mm
17 Cladding cut to fit the curved glass
18 Aluminium plinth trim, 30/250/330/10 mm
19 Cedar soffit
7 20 Insulating glazing consisting of 2≈ laminated safety
glass, 16 mm
16 21 Exposed concrete plinth
19

20
17

21

18

263
Multilayer glass facades

Renovation of the Tour Bois le Prêtre

Paris, FR 2011

Architects:
Frédéric Druot and Lacaton & Vassal, Paris

º Archplus 203/2011
Arquitectura viva 139/2011
Metamorphose Bauen im Bestand 01/2012
Moniteur architecture AMC 209/2011
Ruby, Ilka and Andreas (eds.): Druot,
Lacaton & Vassal. Tour Bois le Prêtre.
Berlin 2012

• Renovation and extension of a 17-storey

high-rise residential building, built in 1961,
with the involvement of its residents
• Existing facade replaced by prefabricated
extension modules faced with multilayer,
transparent and translucent panes of glass
and polycarbonate panels
• Living space extended by weather-protected
intermediate temperature zones and balconies
• Inner glass facade comprises sliding elements
with insulating glazing
• Outer glass facade comprises sliding elem-
ents with single glazing and corrugated poly-
carbonate panels

Cross section Scale 1:750

Floor plan Scale 1:500
Isometries Not to scale
Vertical cross section Scale 1:50

b
aa
a b

264
 Multilayer glass facades

1 Laminated safety glass safety barrier

2 Steel cantilever
3 Main beam, IPE 220 mm 6 8
4 Secondary beam, IPE 100 mm 7
5 Corrugated sheet, 60 mm 9
6 Sliding door with single glazing 1
7 Solar protection
8 Sliding door with insulating glazing
9 Thermal insulation curtain:
reflective material on glass side 5
Thermal insulation
decorative material on inside

2
3 4

bb

265
266

C 2 Manipulators Every building has components designed to
influence the type and extent of outer and inner
factors and their interactions. Solid areas of
an exterior wall separate the interior from the
outside. Yet its colour, materials, dimensioning
and proportions can also enable the same
wall to temporarily store energy flows between
inside and out. Walls also contain openings
that let in light, heat and air and allow for views,
all criteria that determine the quality of the in-
terior climate. Interactions between the outdoor
climate (weather, day-and-night rhythm, sea-
sons of the year, etc.) and interior variables
(heat sources, constant or changing moisture
levels etc.) in the building create conditions
that are usually very different from the extremes
of the outdoor climate and approximate the
comfort criteria usually desired in interiors.
Depending on demands and requirements,
the openings through which air, light, heat
and moisture are preferably exchanged
can be designed to have specifically variable
qualities. Increasing and reducing permeability
then becomes a control measure so a build-
ing’s users can manipulate its interior climate
by means of variable structural components.
The simplest and best-known manipulators [1]
are windows and doors. Their changing states
of openness and closure and outfitting with
specific materials have for a long time funda-
mentally influenced the interior climates of
buildings and the appearance of their facades.
It seems plausible therefore, that effects such
as the greenhouse effect (heating of rooms
by solar energy through transparent surfaces
in the building envelope using natural solar
radiation in temperature ranges well above
the outdoor air temperature) are as achievable
as they are preventable. An unwelcome influx
of heat due to this effect can be prevented by
an appropriate use of solar protection devices.
At the same time, temporary thermal insulation
and shading devices allow users to directly
influence interior thermal and lighting condi-
tions and give them the option of regulating any
changes at any time and as required.
Manipulators have therefore become increas-
ingly important in the context of a targeted use
of environmentally friendly energy, especially
solar energy. Users can now modify interior cli-
mates in response to inner requirements and
outside climate conditions by manually regulat-
ing the building envelope without any notable
external energy input, just as we are used to
doing with our clothing.
If such systems are used correctly, the logical
and desirable outcome will be a drastic reduc-
tion in the need for other interventions in interior
climates from the building’s heating, cooling,
ventilation and lighting systems.
C 2.1 Apartment building on Mozart Square, Paris (FR) Their interaction with the building’s energy bal-
1954, Jean Prouvé ance as a whole means that the further devel-
Manipulators
opment of systems available in the building
envelope is an urgent task. Ideally architects
should be involved in this development
because they have long been responsible for
the overall composition and optimisation of
buildings and for the effective integration of
important subsystems in them.
Translucent components (windows)
Besides glass, other materials such as ala-
baster, marble, horn, animal skins, canvas
and paper have been used for translucent
window surfaces. Window openings first
became a technologically-developed part of
the building with the use of glass in Roman
times, although glazed window openings were
the exception rather than the rule until well
into the 12th century. Early translucent or trans-
parent windows were usually fixed. Although
side-hung sashes were known in the ancient
world, they are widely regarded as a medi-
eval invention. Sliding sash windows, where
the sashes move in parallel and horizontally
to the plane of the window, date back to the
13th century.
Opaque components
The simplest form of closing window openings
with opaque elements is the shutter. Wood,
stone and iron have been used throughout
history to make shutters to close off window
openings and provide additional protection
(Fig. C 2.3, p. 268). Architectural and art histo-
rians differentiate the different types according
to the way they are hung and move [2]:
• Loose shutters: wooden panels wedged in
as required
• Hinged shutters (can be folded and tilted):
attached by hinges above or below windows,
date back to the 12th century
• Folding shutters (moved by pivoting):
attached by hinges at the sides, traced back
to the ancient world
• Sliding shutters (sliding horizontally):
attached at the sides, mainly for smaller
window openings, inside or out, set into a
frame, were used in Ancient Greece
• Sliding shutters (sliding vertically): above
or below windows, usually set into the
facade cladding, appear between the 15th
and 18th centuries, particularly in eastern
Switzerland [3].
Shutters have been used as additional elem-
ents to cover glazing since the 15th century.
From the 18th century on, they usually supple-
mented transparent window closures [4]. As
well as sliding and folding shutters (commonly
called folding shutters) there are:
• Roller shutters or shades, made of slender
slats strung on cords or chains, in use since
the 18th century
• Venetian blinds: folding blinds made of slop-
ing (possibly moveable), horizontal wooden
louvres for regulating incident light and air-
flows; used from the early 18th century, espe-
cially in France.
267
Manipulators

Permeability
Wall surface
properties
(air, radiation)

Permeable (openings) Not permeable

Non-variable properties Variable properties

Element’s Manoeuvrable element

Immoveable element (rigid)
manoeuvrability (manipulators)

Temporarily manoeuvrable
Permanently manoeuvrable
(fixed)

Segmenting of element /
One piece More than one piece
size when stowed

Size when stowed Size when stowed Size when stowed

unchanged reduced greatly reduced

C 2.2
Just as general technological develop-
ment has altered the performance profile
of buildings, the functions of the window
and elements in front of openings in build-
ing envelopes have increasingly become
more sophisticated and complex. In recent
years, the diversity of movement mech-
anisms available for manipulators has grown
considerably.
In this context, window manufacturers also
seem to be offering more diverse movement
mechanisms as alternatives to the turn-and-tilt
C 2.3 windows common in Germany, which are also
problematic with respect to heating energy
consumption criteria.
Classification of manipulators
C 2.6
Manoeuvrability
Elements with variable properties can be
divided into:
• stationary elements
• moveable elements
Stationary elements include thermotropic
coatings and gasochromic or electrochromic
glass. Elements that allow for movement can
be characterised by two adjectives [5]:
• temporarily/seasonally manoeuvrable, i.e.
can be moved – e.g. storm windows
• permanently manoeuvrable, i.e. made to
move
The word manipulator refers to facade compo-
nents with variable properties, with permeability
to air, light, heat and moisture which can be
varied by movement.

The wide range of well-known varieties of
manipulators is classified below and may
serve as inspiration for new functional, geo-
metric and technical combinations. Three
factors can be considered when classifying
manipulators:
• Permeability properties
C 2.4 • Manoeuvrability of the element
• Segmenting and stowing of the element
(changes in volume and /or size)
Segmenting of elements / size when stowed
Changes in the size of manipulators (their
size when stowed) are crucial to various
construction, functional and design aspects
of moveable elements in facades. Possible
changes in the size of manipulators can be
defined as:
• unchanged
• reduced
• greatly reduced

Permeability A manipulator usually consists of one or more

Surfaces permeable to air, light, heat and
moisture are distinguished from those that are
impermeable (or almost so). Permeability may
or may not be variable. The type and extent
of permeability largely determines a surface’s
function. If the functional performance profile
of a surface is designed to be able to assume
different states, the surface’s permeability
must be variable.
C 2.5
parts that can be further subdivided into vari-
ous parts. Together with the type of movement,
this results in different states and a range of
features of surfaces with modifiable properties.
Differences in the size of elements when they
are extended or retracted directly influence
operation and may determine functional prop-
erties as well as construction and design char-
acteristics.

268
 Manipulators

C 2.2 Classification of the word “manipulator”

C 2.3 Stone shutters, Torcello (IT) unchanged unchanged

horizontal
C 2.4 Facade opening with folding shutters and perme-
able arches for refracting light and regulating unchanged
ventilation, Montagnana (IT)

Sliding
C 2.5 Translucent panels, traditional house, Takayama
(JP) unchanged unchanged unchanged
C 2.6 Combination of several manipulators at Palazzo

vertical
Pitti, Florence (IT)
C 2.7 Classification of common manipulators
Figures above the drawings refer to changes in
the size of moveable elements when expanded
or retracted.

of the facade
perpendicular
unchanged

to the plane
Push-out
unchanged unchanged unchanged unchanged unchanged

vertical axis
around a
unchanged

unchanged unchanged unchanged unchanged reduced

horizontal axis
around a
Turning

unchanged unchanged reduced

of the element
around an axis
perpendicular
to the plane

Further distinguishing features

Further aspects of manoeuvrable elements
can be differentiated by taking a fourth factor
into account, e. g.: reduced reduced reduced reduced
horizontal

• Position relative to the climatic border:

outside (at a distance from the opening),
Folding (turning – sliding)

outside, integrated into the plane of the

window, inside
reduced reduced reduced
• Position relative to the opening: above, in
vertical

the middle of, below, at the side of, on one

or several sides

The way components are arranged can directly greatly reduced

influence functional factors. Installing a blind
circular

to prevent glare in an opening’s upper area

can reduce the amount of light reaching deep
into an interior. Installing interior solar protec-
tion may result in an unwelcome input of heat greatly reduced greatly reduced greatly reduced
horizontal

energy.

Types and directions of movement

The fundamental types of movement for elem-
ents in the facade are classified in a list in greatly reduced greatly reduced
Gathering

vertical

the chapter on “Edges, openings” (p. 38)

based on the movement mechanisms used
for windows.

The types of movement of manipulators used greatly reduced

circular

often combine various movement principles.

Figure C 2.7 shows an overview of the wide
range of movement options and directions for
manipulators [6]. The overview covers types of
greatly reduced greatly reduced
movement used in practice but does not claim
horizontal

to be exhaustive.
greatly reduced
Rolling

If a system consists of a combination of vari-

ous manoeuvrable elements, the movement greatly reduced greatly reduced greatly reduced
mechanisms used become fundamentally
vertical

important. Elements can only move independ-

ently if they do not have a mutually adverse
effect on each other [7]. Various aspects can
C 2.7

269
Manipulators
make high demands on facade systems in
terms of the integration of elements. Interior
conditions can only be efficiently regulated
if components regulating levels of lighting,
sound and heating can be separately con-
trolled – as was the case with their historic
forerunners.
Operating manipulators
Manipulators can be manually or mechanic-
ally operated. Building users can operate
them manually as required. Depending on
the movement mechanism and effort needed
to produce movement, it may be possible to
operate several manipulators simultaneously.
A mechanical drive can be used to automat-
ically control manipulators and such systems
can be integrated into the building’s energy
concept. Users can make individual adjust-
ments within certain limits.
Combining various elements to regulate the
permeability of building envelopes can help
to optimise user comfort and energy con-
sumption.
States of manipulators
As well as open and closed states, manipu-
lators can assume intermediate states and
depending on the type of movement, perme-
ability can be regulated in this way. Hinged
shutters and venetian blinds can be men-
tioned in this context: both are used to regu-
late incident light. Exterior contact through
hinged shutters can be adjusted only to a
certain extent, while with louvred blinds in con-
trast, incident light and consequently views
can be varied by changing the angle of the
louvres. The situation is similar when using a
window for ventilation. Sliding windows allow
users to vary the opening gap and adjust it
to provide slot ventilation. This can only be
done with windows with turning or pivoting
sashes if they have appropriate fixing and
adjustment fittings (see also “Edges, open-
ings”, p. 38 ff.).
Applications
Almost all materials commonly used in con-
struction are used to make manipulators. Their
surfaces can be solid in the form of boards,
270
C 2.8
panels, fabrics or foils. Manipulators may also
be perforated or allow for ventilation through
integrated fixed or adjustable louvres. As
shown in figure C 2.7, a wealth of combin-
ations of individual manipulators are possible,
with different possible positions in the plane
of the facade relevant to heating issues:
• Horizontal sliding shutters
• Vertical sliding shutters
• External side-hung shutters
• Internal side-hung shutters
• Shutters pivoting around a horizontal axis
• Shutters folding horizontally to one side
(turning and sliding)
• Shutters folding vertically to one side (with /
without ventilation openings)
• Shutters folding horizontally in the middle
• Blinds, gathered horizontally
• Push-out windows
• Windows with pivoting sashes
• Horizontal sliding windows
• Vertical sliding windows
• Folding windows (turning, sliding)
• Venetian blinds (blinds with horizontal
louvres)
• Gathered awnings
• Roller awnings
The use of manipulators offers a wide range
of design options and can heavily influence a
facade’s appearance by changing the size of
its surfaces and varying their positions.
Notes:
[1] Use of the word “manipulator” for manoeuvrable
elements in a building envelope is based on a disser-
tation by Waldemar Jaensch supervised by Thomas
Herzog. “Verfahren zur Beurteilung kinetischer Manip-
ulatoren an der Gebäudeoberfläche als Maßnahme
zur Regulierung des Gebäudeklimas. Untersuchung
mit Hilfe von Simulationsmodellen” (Procedure for
evaluating kinetic manipulators on building surfaces
as a means of regulating the building’s climate. Inves-
tigation using simulation models). Kassel 1981, p. 28.
The word “manipulator” contains the Latin words
“manus”, meaning “hand”, and “manipulation” mean-
ing, "intervention, to use something to your own
advantage"; borrowed in the 18th century from
the French word, “manipulation”, derived from “ma-
nipuler”, meaning "to influence something to your
own advantage" (according to Kluge, Friedrich:
Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache.
Berlin / New York 1989, p. 459). In the field of technol-
ogy, the word means a "device for handling objects"
(dtv-Lexikon. Vol. 11. Munich, 1997, p. 240).
[2] Reallexikon zur Deutschen Kunstgeschichte. Vol. 7
and 8. Munich 1981
[3] Herzog, Thomas; Natterer, Julius et al. (eds.): Gebäu-
dehüllen aus Glas und Holz. Lausanne 1984, p. 20f.
[4] Gerner, Manfred; Gärtner, Dieter: Historische Fenster.
Stuttgart 1996, p. 68
[5] Krippner, Roland: Entwicklung beweglicher Mani-
pulatoren im Bereich der Außenwände mit wärme-
dämmenden und weiteren Funktionen. In Abschluss-
bericht ISOTEG. TU Munich, Chair of Building Tech-
nology, 2001 (unpublished), p. 88 – 89
[6] Building on graphics in ibid.
[7] This chapter includes parts of the dissertation
“Untersuchungen von Vertikalschiebefenstern als
Komponenten im Bereich von Fassadenöffnungen”
(Studies and trials of vertical sliding windows as
facade opening components) (2005) by Daniel
Westenberger, written at the Faculty of Building
Technology at TU Munich.
 Manipulators

C 2.8 Procuratie Vecchie, St. Mark's Square, Venice (IT)

C 2.9 –16 Examples of building envelopes that can be
changed functionally and aesthetically by manipu-
lators

C 2.9 C 2.10

C 2.11 C 2.12

C 2.13 C 2.14

C 2.15 C 2.16

271
Manipulators

C 2.17 C 2.18

C 2.19 C 2.20

C 2.21 C 2.22

C 2.23 C 2.24

272
 Manipulators

C 2.17–32 Examples of facades that can be changed

functionally and aesthetically by manipulators

C 2.25 C 2.26

C 2.27 C 2.28

C 2.29 C 2.30

C 2.31 C 2.32

273
Manipulators

Dial-Norm factory

Kirchberg, CH 1972

Architect:
Fritz Haller, Solothurn
Facade planning:
Hans Diehl, Neuenhof Baden

º Werk 10/1974

• Round, rotating all-glass sashes in circular Cross section • Floor plan

window openings Scale 1:500
Horizontal cross section •
• Built using the USM HALLER “MAXI” steel 1
Vertical cross section
building system Scale 1:5
• Large facade panels minimise the number
2 3
of joints per unit of area A Fixed glazing
• Prefabricated panels meant shortened B Butt joint between elements
C Moveable element
assembly times
• Facade built without any direct metallic
connections between interior and exterior
(so no thermal bridges)

4
1 Aluminium sheeting 2 mm
r = 150 mm
5 2 Thermal insulation, 40 mm
6 3 Folded steel sheeting 3 mm
4 “USM Haller MAXI” steel frame,
IPE 400 and IPE 220 (on the
short side)
8 5 Load-bearing sandwich panel,
c c 1 mm aluminium sheeting,
stove-enamelled on both sides,
aa 9 plastic core
PU-foam thermal insulation
11 15
Stove-enamelled aluminium
10 sheeting 3 mm
6 EPDM rebate profile
7 EPDM filler profile
a a
8 Reflecting hardened solar
protection glass, 8 mm
9 Central glass bracket, special
chromium-plated steel section
b
10 Chromium-plated steel disk,
Ø 60 mm
b
11 Chromium-plated steel handle
12 Rectangular hollow steel
section, 25/20/2 mm
13 Steel angle, 50/20/3 mm
12 14 Aluminium sheeting
15 Column, IPE 120
13 16 Aluminium clip
17 EPDM cover
14
bb

8 7 6 6 11
15 15

A 16 17 B 10 8 C 17 16 cc

274
 Manipulators

Nakagin Capsule Tower

Tokyo, JP 1972

Architects:
Kisho Kurokawa & Associates, Tokyo

º Detail/jpn 33, 1972

L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 06/2000
Kurokawa, Kisho: From Metabolism to
Symbiosis. London / New York 1992
Detail /jpn 33, 1972

1 Round base plate, Ø 140 mm,

• Fan-shaped window blinds control internal adhered to glass
and external views 2 Two-piece inner guide ring, polished brass,
• Industrially prefabricated room modules screwed onto metal divider
(2.30 ≈ 3.80 ≈ 2.10 m) suspended from two 3 Round inner cover plate, Ø 120/5 mm,
bolted onto fixed glazing
concrete towers 4 Metal divider 1.2 mm
9
• Windows 1.30 metres in diameter 5 Frame for plastic-coated paper:
angled aluminium sheeting, 2 mm
8 6 Plastic-coated paper
7 Aluminium bracket with clip for frames
Floor plan Scale 1:500 8 Outer guide rail
Detail • Vertical cross section Scale 1:5 9 Guide rail bracket, attached to the
window reveal
10 Threaded sleeve, Ø 20 mm
11 Fixed toughened safety glass glazing, 6 mm,
a Ø 1300 mm
12 Rubber seal
13 Aluminium profile section screwed onto aluminium
sheeting, 40/40/4 mm

open state

4 3

10 2 1 10

2
5
closed state
6

11 6

6
b b
9 8 8
8 12
7 7
9
5 13
bb

aa

275
Manipulators

Institut du Monde Arabe

a
Paris, FR 1987

Architect:
Jean Nouvel, Paris
with Gilbert Lezenes, Piere Soria,
Architecture Studio

º Architectural Review 1088, 1987 and

1113, 1989
El Croquis 65 – 66, 1994: Jean Nouvel
l’ARCA 15, 1988 b
L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 12/1998
Progressive Architecture 09/1995
b a

• Multiple opening elements based on the prin-

ciple of a camera shutter control the amount
of daylight entering the building
• Mechanisms and control elements visible
• Repetitive ornamental geometric design
reflects a traditional Arabic architectural motif
(“Mashrabiya”: decorative window lattice)
• Mechanism is delicate and requires extensive
maintenance

aa

Floor plan, 4th floor • Cross section

Scale 1:1,000
Vertical cross section through the facade screen
Horizontal cross section through the facade screen
Scale 1:5

276
 Manipulators

1 EPDM joint
2 Breaks in the seals to ventilate
the cavity
3 Perforated infill panel
4 Toughened safety glass,
6 mm
5 Ventilation opening
6 Polyurethane thermal break
7 “Camera shutter” mechanism
8 Insulating glazing
4 + space between the
panes 12 + 4 mm
9 Toughened safety glass, 8 mm 10 9 1 4
10 Facade mounting bracket cc

1
1

c c

3 4

2
7

8 9

bb

277
Manipulators

Residential and commercial building

Munich, DE 1996

Architect:
Von Seidlein, Munich 1 2
Peter C. von Seidlein, Horst Fischer,
Egon Konrad, Stephan Röhrl
Facade planning:
Stephan Röhrl

º Detail 03/1998
Seidlein, Peter C. von: Zehn Bauten
1957– 97. Exhibition catalogue for the
Architekturgalerie München, 1997
3 4 cc

• External louvre blinds (blinds with horizontal 1 Horizontal sliding windows:

louvres)
• Large, opening sliding elements open up
apartments on the south side to the outside
• Large vertical sliding windows in the pitched
roof
• Metal facade attached to a timber frame in
front of a steel-reinforced concrete structure
to avoid thermal bridges
Cross section • Floor plan, 1st floor
scale 1:750
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross
section
Scale 1:20
laminated niangon wood frames and sashes
Insulating glazing:
laminated safety glass 10 + space between
the panes 15 + float glass 4 mm
2 Internal glazed spandrel panel, toughened safety
glass, 10 mm
3 Flat steel, 10/55 mm
4 Flat steel bracket, 10/120 mm,
connected with the steel-reinforced concrete frame
at floor level
by glulam posts, 100/100 mm,
5 Aluminium louvre blind, cord guides,
not flanged at the sides, operated by electrical motor
5 aluminium sheeting housing, 2 mm
6 Tubular steel handrail, Ø 31/2,25 mm
7 Aluminium sheeting, 3 mm
3
All steel elements spray-galvanised and powder-coated
1

6 2

c c

aa

b b

a a

bb

278
 Manipulators

Development centre

Ingolstadt, DE 1999

Architects:
Fink + Jocher, Munich
Structural engineers:
Schittig, Ingolstadt

º Bauwelt 08/1999
Detail 03/1999
Intelligente Architektur 11–12/2000
L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui 07/2000
World architecture 07– 08/2000

• Louvre blind in the facade cavity (south- 1 Folded aluminium sheeting, 2 mm,
facing facade) hard foam thermal insulation
2 Insulating glazing 6 + space between the panes
• Hall's southerly orientation is part of the 22 + 5 mm,
building's energy concept light-refracting louvres in the space between the
• Facade extends over all four storeys panes, stove-enamelled aluminium b = 16 mm,
white on the outside, silver-grey on the inside
3 Aluminium glazing bar
2
4 Square hollow steel section post-and-rail structure,
| 90/90 mm and ¡ 180/100 mm
with metallic grey coating
5 5 Vierendeel strut,
3 square hollow steel sections, 120/120 mm
4
aa 6 Aluminium grating
7 Steel grating on angled frame
Cross section Scale 1:750 8 Air intake flap:
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section Aluminium sheeting, 2 mm
Scale 1:20 Hard foam thermal insulation, 40 mm
Details Scale 1:5 Aluminium sheeting, 2 mm

a a
4
b b
3

5 4
6

7 4 2

bb

279
Manipulators

University building

Brixen, IT 2004

Architects:
Kohlmayer Oberst, Stuttgart
Shade profile developed in conjunction with
the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy
Systems (ISE), Freiburg

º Intelligente Architektur 07– 09/2005

Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 02/2005 aa
db 02/2005

• Exterior highly reflective rolling sun blinds made

from specially-shaped stainless steel louvres
• Sunblinds provide complete shade when
position of the sun is greater than 20°
• The facade’s special geometry also allows
for external views (surrounding landscape)
• Modular facade with recesses and projections
and push-out ventilation elements in the
recesses

Cross section • Floor plan of the ground floor and

2nd floor Scale 1:1,500
Sunshade louvres Scale 2.5:1
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20
Detail Scale 1:5

1 Aluminium flashing, chamfered 3 mm

2 Aluminium sheeting, 3 mm
Sealing
Extruded rigid foam insulation, 80 mm
3 Insulating glazing, laminated safety glass 8 + 6 + space
between the panes 16 + toughened safety glass 10 mm
4 Push-out ventilation flap, 3,200 ≈ 250 mm
5 Double aluminium sheeting, 3 mm, slits in top cover
6 Solar protection: 6 mm-wide stainless steel bands,
150 mm apart, with stainless steel louvres riveted
to them, operated by an integrated tubular motor
7 Steel fin partition connection
8 Aluminium sheeting, 4 mm, can be walked on
9 Steel sheeting lighting unit, 350 ≈ 180 ≈ 1,280 mm,
with dichroic reflectors
10 Insulating glazing, toughened safety glass 10 +
space between the panes 16 + laminated safety glass
6 + 8 mm
11 Mineral wool insulation, 100 mm
12 Flat steel, 20 mm
13 Sealing
14 Mineral wool insulation 80 mm
15 Folded aluminium sheeting 3 mm
16 Stainless steel inlet pipe, Ø 50/2 mm, with lateral
inlet guides
17 Detachable rail for installing and removing solar
protection

20°

b b

a a
6

280
 Manipulators

3 4 8 10
5

11

6 12

13
14
10
7

15

c c

8 6

16

13

15 17

3
3

3
3

bb cc
5 4 10 8

281
Manipulators

Retirement complex

Neuenbürg, DE 1995

Architects:
Mahler Günster Fuchs, Stuttgart
Structural engineer:
Wolfgang Beck, Neuenbürg

º Architectural Review 06/1997 7

Bauwelt 05/1997
Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas.
1
Munich / Basel 2003
Schunk, Eberhard et al.: Dach Atlas.
Munich / Basel 2002 8
aa
5 6

• Buildings feature sliding timber shutters

• Four identical separate buildings
• Reinforced concrete dividers with thermally
insulated, rear-ventilated timber cladding
• Timber is untreated
• Solar collectors on roof areas under corru-
gated acrylic glass panels
• The roof’s transparent exterior skin leaves its
timber frame visible

Vertical cross sections • Horizontal cross sections

Scale 1:5
A Large sliding shutter 1 5 6 bb
B Small sliding shutter

1 Facade structure around floor / ceiling slabs:

Weatherboard, 100/21 mm, divided by vertical battens
Ventilated cavity, 22 mm
Water-repelling wind paper
Thermal insulation, 80 mm
Reinforced concrete
2
2 Steel T-section, 95/80/5 mm
fastened at points to vertical battens
3 Aluminium guide rail
4 Embedded guide rail 3
5 Sliding three-ply panel element, 25 mm
6 Plastic rollers
7 Safety barrier
8 Steel section, 95/40/5 mm 4
fastened at points to vertical battens

a a b b

6
6

A B

282
 Manipulators

Housing complex

Hanover, DE 1999

Architects:
Fink + Jocher, Munich
Structural engineers:
Bergmann + Partner, Hanover

º A+U 10/2001
db 07/2000
Pfeifer, Günter et al.: Mauerwerk Atlas.
Munich / Basel 2001

• Folding wooden shutters

• Shutters fold back into a niche in the masonry 5 6
• Floor-to-ceiling French windows
• Low-energy building standard
• Top-hung folding windows opening outwards
in staircases 1

Floor plan Scale 1:2,000

Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section 9 7 3 bb
Scale 1:20

a
2
a

b b

1 Peat-fired clinker bricks in a stretcher bond,

NF 115 mm 4
Cavity ventilation 10 mm
Mineral fibre thermal insulation, 120 mm 5
Aerated concrete, 175 mm
2 Rigid foam thermal insulation, 60 mm
3 Quadripartite folding three-ply plywood sheet shutters 6
15 mm edge beading in weatherproof glue, guide
rails top and bottom, painted pale grey, attached at
the sides by
galvanised bands to double-thickness panels
4 Ventilation element 7
5 Timber-frame windows with two sashes and
insulating glazing
6 Galvanised flat steel safety barrier, 8
painted metallic grey, 35/8 mm
7 Precast reinforced concrete window sill
50 mm overhang with drip lip
8 Steel section to support window sill 9
9 Peat-fired clinker bricks NF 115 mm
Cavity ventilation 10 mm
Mineral fibre thermal insulation, 120 mm
Reinforced concrete, 180 mm aa

283
Manipulators

Housing complex

Innsbruck, AT 2000

Architects:
Baumschlager & Eberle, Lochau

º Architectural Record 02/2002

Architectural Review 06/2001
Bauwelt 16/2001
Casabella 698, 2002
Detail 03/2002
Techniques + architecture 454, 2001

• Folding shutters mounted on frames

• Copper patination to prevent glare (neigh-
bouring airport)
• Six compact tower blocks (favourable
A/V ratio) with the same floor plans
• Buildings stepped as they rise to fit in with
the site's slope (and let more light in)
• Although huddled together, the buildings
have a close relationship with the surround-
Floor plan
ing landscape Scale 1:750
• Unusually high standard of construction for Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
subsidised public housing due to simplifica- Scale 1:20
tion and standardisation 1
1 Pine cladding 18 mm,
• Passive building system with controlled
glazed red-brown
ventilation of apartments Mineral wool thermal insulation, 80 mm
Mineral wool thermal insulation, 200 mm
Vapour barrier
Reinforced concrete 180 mm
Interior plaster, 15 mm
2 Quadripartite folding and sliding shutter: 2
pre-oxidised copper sheeting 0.6 mm
adhered and riveted to frames 3
Stainless steel hollow square section,
4
30/20/2 mm
3 Clip to lock shutters in position b b
4 Stainless steel handrail
5 Laminated safety glass parapet, 12 mm, 5 6
matt PVB film 9
6 Balcony partition wall, matt, 8 mm toughened
safety glass
7 French door with triple glazing
a 8 V 100 veneered chipboard
9 Precast reinforced concrete element,
6,000 mm long, 8
a Insulated rebar connection

2
3

9 5

bb aa

284
 Manipulators

Office building

Berlin, DE 1999

Architects:
Sauerbruch Hutton, Berlin
Facade consultants:
Emmer Pfenniger + Partner, Münchenstein

º A+U 09/2002
Architectural Review 12/2000
Intelligente Architektur 21, 2000
Schittich, Christian (ed.): Gebäudehüllen.
Munich / Basel 2001

• Sliding, folding perforated sheet metal shut-

ters, painted different colours on the outside
• Unsegmented, prefabricated, modular west-
facing facade (exhaust-air facade)
• Narrow footprint
• “Wind roof” (aerodynamic wing, Venturi effect)
1 5
to strengthen the lift effect on the exhaust-air
facade

1 3 4

Partial vertical cross 1 Outer facade western side: Insulating glazing

section extruded aluminium section,
Scale 1:20 toughened safety glass infill
Detail panels, 10 mm, 1,800/3,300 mm
Scale 1:5 2 Steel cantilever arm
3 Solar protection shutters,
600/2,900 mm, perforated
aluminium
sheeting 1.5 mm, pivoting
and sliding
4 Inner facade, western side:
suspended extruded aluminium
elements 1,800/3,250 mm,
6 + space between
the panes 14 + 8 mm
Parapet:
perforated aluminium
sheeting, 2 mm,
fleece-laminated mineral
insulation, 20 mm
18 mm fire-resistant panel
on a steel frame
with integrated thermal
insulation, 100 mm
5 Grating

285
Manipulators

House

Amsterdam, NL 2000

Architects:
Heren 5, Amsterdam 10 7 2
with Ed Bijman, Jan Klomp,
Bas Liesker, Dirk van Gestel
Steel facade:
Limelight, Breda

º Architectural Review 06/2001

Werk Bauen + Wohnen 01– 02/1999 8 9 1
Schittich, Christian (ed.): Gebäudehüllen.
Munich / Basel 2001 bb

• Vertical folding and pivoting shutters 1 Pre-oxidised steel sheeting
chamfered and perforated
(fold around a horizontal axis)
485/30 mm
• Weatherproof steel on the north and south 2 Steel T-section,
facades is a reference to historic industrial 70/70/8 mm
buildings 1 3 Prefabricated
facade element:
fibre cement plate 5 mm
2 Insulation 90 mm
Vapour barrier
Plasterboard, 12.5 mm
3
4 Veneered plywood, 18 mm
Insulation 50 mm
5 Aluminium grating,
100/5 mm
6 Drive for rotating /sliding
shutters
7 Insulating glazing
8 Galvanised steel channel
9 Galvanised steel section,
50/70/5 mm
10 Sand-lime brick 115 mm

Floor plans of ground floor and first floor

Scale 1:400
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
south facade
Scale 1:20

5
6

b b

a
aa
a

286
 Manipulators

Office building

Unterschleißheim, DE 2002

Architects:
Baader + Schmid, Munich
with Maurice Mayne

º Baudokumentation. Hameln 2003

• Elements covered with a membrane form a
second skin that screens out sun and glare
• Horizontal pivoting louvres covered with a
membrane on both sides
• Louvres in front of spandrel panels covered
with an open-pore membrane on one side to
allow for views from inside out
a a
4
Floor plan Scale 1:1,000
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20
1 Parapet panel with closed-pore 1
membrane covering both sides
2 Fixed louvres consisting of an aluminium
frame covered with a membrane on
one side: 5
material is open-pored in front of spandrel 2
panels to allow for views and otherwise
close-pored to screen out sun and glare
3 Moveable louvre consisting of an aluminium
frame covered with a PTFE-coated mem-
brane on both sides, glass fibre fabric,
6
13 % translucency,
7
electrical motor integrated into
post, louvres can be centrally and
individually regulated
4 Folded aluminium sheeting
5 Hot-dip galvanised grid flooring,
30/11 mm
6 Flat steel, 200 mm 3 8 13
7 Insulated aluminium panel
thermal insulation, 120 mm
8 Fixed insulating glazing 9
9 Aluminium post, 120/55 mm
10 Openable insulating glazing
b 10 b
11 Convector with displacement air diffuser
12 Thermal insulation, 100 mm
13 Rectangular hollow steel section, 130/50 11
14 Square hollow steel section, 120/120 mm

13

14

7
7

12

bb aa

287
Manipulators

Paper Museum

Shizuoka, JP 2002

Architects:
Shigeru Ban Architects, Tokyo
Folding facade elements:
Bunka Shutter, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo

º Detail 07– 08/2003

domus 03/2003
aa

• 10-metre-high roller shutter doors at the

western and eastern ends
• Solar protection elements folding out up to
90° on the museum’s south side are an
element of traditional Japanese architecture
(“shitomido”)
• Storey-high facade segments on cantilevered
guide rails on the gallery building’s southern
side can be pushed out as a roof over the
terrace in front of the building
• Translucent GFRP multi-wall sheets used in a
range of different ways

bb

b b
a
d d

c c

288
 Manipulators

Cross sections • Floor plans Scale 1:750

Vertical cross section of the museum Scale 1:20
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Gallery building Scale 1:20
5 6

10 17
12 13
14 15 16 18

11

19 20 21

1 Pivot for awning-type 340/250 mm

facade element 11 Steel beam,
2 Facade element 250/125 mm
23 22 4 GFRP multi-wall 12 Coil
sheeting 13 Steel cable, Ø 8 mm
100/300/40 mm, 14 Round steel bar,
in aluminium frames Ø 20 mm
100/50/2 mm and 15 Steel angle frame,
e e 84/32/2 mm 45/70 –180 mm
3 Steel beam, 16 Steel angle,
21 600/400 mm 50/50/4 mm
19 4 Drive gear rim 17 Tubular steel section,
10 23 5 Actuator, Ø 114/3.6 mm
20 100/50/3.2 mm 18 Square steel hollow
24
8 6 Guide pulley section
15 7 Guide rail for actuator 150/150/9 mm
8 Hollow square 19 Guide rail
aluminium section 20 Castor
ee
50/50/1.6 mm 21 GFRP panel 50 mm
9 9 Toughened safety 22 Pull cord
glass glazed sliding 23 Steel post,
door in aluminium 150/150/7/10 mm
frames 24 Steel channel,
10 Steel stanchion, 150/75/6.5 mm

cc dd

289
Manipulators

Office building

Wiesbaden, DE 2001

Architects: Floor plan 1st floor

Herzog + Partner, Munich Scale 1:4,000
Lighting technology and design: System cross sections
Not to scale
Bartenbach Lichtlabor, Aldrans
a a Horizontal cross
Structural engineers of outer facade: section through
Ludwig & Weiler, Augsburg ventilation openings
Scale 1:5
º Detail 07/2001 Vertical cross section
Scale 1:20
Dialogue Taiwan 68, 2003
THE PLAN 003/2003
Nikkei Architecture 04/2003

• Combination of two sunshading elements,

each of which pivots around a horizontal axis
on the southern facade: upper element with
light-refracting louvres for regulating incident
daylight, lower element can be pushed out to
allow for exterior views
• Southern side: sunshading elements with
light-refracting fins let in (diffuse) daylight,
even when skies are overcast
• Northern side with fixed light-refracting
elements that let in zenith light, similar to
the system on the southern facade
• Opaque ventilation flaps with integrated air
inlets combine controlled natural ventilation
with free ventilation
• Technical building services for offices inte-
grated into the facade

Daylight refraction
on the south side
on a sunny day

Daylight refraction
on the south side 4
on a cloudy day

2
Controlled, centrally 5
regulated, natural 3
ventilation

10

290
 Manipulators

1 Aluminium cable duct 6 Fibre cement facing reflector, light-

2 Tsuga frame, five glued sheets, panel, 12 mm
50/15 mm 6 7 160 mm polyurethane-
3 Plastic ventilation element coated precast
4 Baffle plate behind ventilation steel-reinforced 12
element, toughened safety glass concrete cantilever
5 Ventilation flap: element
Makore veneer plywood, 7 8 Aluminium light 13
removeable 15 mm reflector
air cavity, 9 mm 9 Facade seal, extruded
Makore veneer plywood, 6 mm aluminium section with
Spruce frame, several sheets EPDM seal 14
glued together, 60 mm or 9 10 Triple insulating glazing 15
PU rigid foam insulation with powder-coated
Makore veneer plywood, 8 aluminium glazing bars 16
10 mm 11 Light with aluminium
diffusing glass and
integrated anti-glare
screen
Highly reflective
extruded section for
refracting direct light
Highly reflective
extruded section for
shading and indirect
lighting
Spindle lifting motor
Flat steel, 100/12 mm,
bead-blasted
Powder-coated
aluminium frame

10

11

12

13

14

15

16
11

aa

291
Manipulators

Training academy

A
Unterschleißheim, DE 2004

Architects:
Ackermann and Partner, Munich
Structural engineer:
Christoph Ackermann, Munich 2
3 4
1
º Detail 04/2005
15

aa

• Training academy in a heterogeneously- 8

developed commercial and industrial zone
to the north of Munich
• Post-and-rail glass facade with solar protec-
tion glazing 5 6
• Entrance facade oriented towards the south-
east faced with pivoting aluminium solar 7
protection elements the same height as the
9
building
• Workshops extending over the entire height
of the building positioned behind the long
facades

Cross section Scale 1:750 13

Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section 11
10
Scale 1:20

1 Extruded aluminium section

2 Anodised aluminium sheeting,
riveted on 3 mm
3 Aluminium T-section, 100/60/5 mm
12 14
4 Aluminium sheeting frame 5 mm
5 Steel Å-beam, IPE 500
6 Solar protection louvres,
Anodised aluminium sheeting 3 mm
7 Aluminium sheeting panel, 2 mm
8 Aluminium flashing, 3 mm
9 Steel section purlin edge, HEB 180
10 Awning panelled with
aluminium sheeting
11 Connecting rods
12 Post-and-rail facade
a a
aluminium section with insulating glazing
13 Steel beam, IPE 500
14 Column, HEB 180
15 Hollow aluminium section, Ø 140/10 mm
16 Accessible grating in steel section frame

15
16

292
 Manipulators

Apartment building

Madrid, ES 2007
a

Architects:
Foreign Office Architects, London

º Arca 248/2009
Arquitectura 356/2009 b
Arquitectura Viva 114/2007
b
a

• Six-storey social housing comprising 1 Insulated fascia with sheet metal covering
100 apartments 2 Solar protection louvred shutter element
with bamboo lattice
• 1.50-metre wide balcony extends along the 1 3 Aluminium louvre blind
entire length of each facade 4 Timber plank balcony floor
• Facade consists of glazed sliding doors 30 mm with protective surface coating
• Exterior folding and sliding shutters clad with Hollow square steel section support structure,
50 ≈ 50 mm
vertical bamboo louvres screen interiors from Steel section HEB 160
view and shade them from the sun 5 Aluminium sliding window with
insulating glazing 4 + space between the
panes 6 + 4 mm
6 Iron railing safety barrier

aa
c c
Floor plan
Scale 1:1,000
Cross section
Scale 1:750
Vertical cross section 4
Horizontal cross section of folding shutter
Scale 1:20
a open
b closed

5
2

6
a

bb
b cc

293

C 3 Solar energy
C 3.1 Residential complex, Munich (DE) 1982,
Thomas Herzog and Bernhard Schilling [1]
The envelope is the most important structural
subsystem in a building’s energy balance.
Technical systems used to produce solar
energy are usually visibly integrated into a roof
or exterior wall so the building envelope is the
main visible reference in the integration of solar
energy systems as the interface between archi-
tecture and solar energy technology. These
systems have various protective functions and
must be coordinated to fit in with the building’s
construction and appearance.
Since the early 1990s, facades incorporating
solar thermal systems have increasingly been
used to expand the range of walls’ general
climate protection and buffering functions and
actively supply heat. This approach can be
applied to all forms of building-related use of
solar energy in the facade and includes struc-
tures ranging from glazed annexes in front of
facades through to photovoltaic modules.
Direct and indirect usage
Solar energy takes a range of different forms,
with solar radiation the major source of energy
for buildings. A distinction is made between
direct “passive” and indirect “active” use.
Direct use refers to a targeted use of structural
measures for collecting, storing and distribut-
ing solar energy that largely dispenses with
technical equipment. Specific measures for
regulating interior climates and energy bal-
ances for buildings and especially building
envelopes include the fundamental principles
of solar heating and cooling and the use of
daylight.
This energy can also be used indirectly by
deploying additional technical measures
to collect, distribute and store solar energy,
especially collector technology to enhance
heating and cooling, and photovoltaics for
power generation. Both types of application
can be classified within a variety of systems,
so a wide range of instruments are available
for utilising solar energy in specific build-
ings [2].
Climatic parameters and classification
principles
Available solar radiation
The amounts of solar radiation available fluc-
tuate greatly over the course of a day and
year and are heavily influenced by prevailing
local weather conditions. While solar radiation
energy levels can vary by a factor of 10 on
two consecutive days, levels on a clear sum-
mer’s day can be 50 times greater than they
are on a cloudy winter day. In Central Europe,
seasonal and daily solar radiation is not always
available as the same time as the need for
heat. Short-term variations can be compen-
sated for by heat accumulators but seasonal
fluctuations are a problem. In Germany, around
three quarters of the annual solar radiation
Solar energy
energy is available in the summer – energy
that can currently only be stored in costly and
complex storage units. This restricted avail-
ability can restrict the use of solar energy. At
the same time, recent studies (“extreme scen-
ario”, not including transport and industrial
processes) have shown that it is technically
and economically feasible to have 100 % of
the energy required for heating and electricity
in Germany supplied by renewable energies
by 2050 [3].
Energy yields (orientation and inclination)
Two important parameters determine whether
the use of solar energy in buildings is advis-
able. One is the exposure of relevant surfaces,
i.e. their orientation, and the other is their
angle of inclination and freedom from shade.
Solar radiation as a whole (global radiation)
is made up of the sun’s direct rays and dif-
fuse, i.e. indirect, radiation dispersed through
clouds or fog and reflected through the envir-
onment (sky radiation) (see Fig. A 1.8, p. 21).
In Central Europe, more than 50 % of total
radiation over the year is diffuse radiation.
Energy radiated onto horizontal surfaces varies
from country to country and even within Ger-
many, depending on geographical location
(within Germany it is an annual average of up
to 300 kWh/m2a).
From shaded lobby to energy-generating
facade
The main directly effective principles of solar
energy use such as compact buildings, south-
ern orientation, offset interiors and structural
solar protection (in summer) can be traced
back to Ancient Greece. For centuries the
facade, intentionally or unintentionally, has
been an important subsystem in the use of
solar energy during the heating period. The
(window) opening and the room behind it is
a first “collector”. Steps towards optimising
the exterior wall to change the interior climate
have led to its breakdown into and differen-
tiation between different zones. Open inter-
mediate or transitional zones such as shaded
lobbies, arcades etc. offer protection from the
weather and the sun (Fig. C 3.4, p. 297). In
Central European climates, such spaces can
have a wide range of potential uses.
To directly use solar energy more effectively
and minimise the flow of heat out from heated
spaces, it can be advisable to create a separ-
ate spatial and thermal zone. Various usually
transparent, multilayered structures (ranging
from casement, bay and oriel windows through
to glazed loggias and lean-to conservatories)
have been specifically developed to make
use of solar energy. As increasingly large
panes of glass have been produced, these
zones of intermediate temperatures have
become increasingly important in heating
buildings. Research into more efficient sys
295
Solar energy
Direct
Radiation
Window / Transparent
Storage wall
glazed annex insulation
Opaque
Daylight Interior heating
tems and entirely new usage concepts inten-
sified in the middle of the second half of the
20th century.
This direct form of solar energy use has also
been supplemented by the development
of technical systems that use solar energy
indirectly. Collectors for heating water and
interiors and PV generators for generating
electricity are now integrated almost as a
matter of course into building envelopes.
The expanded basic structural strategies and
technical systems for using solar energy now
available have enormously increased the range
of facade design options.
Direct “passive” systems
The best-known form of direct solar energy use
is through glazed window openings, which
function as simple collector and storage sys-
tems in association with the spaces directly
behind them. Their functioning and energy
yields depend largely on climatic and local
conditions and on their compass orientation
and the inclination and size of openings. A
building’s equipment and the construction of
its walls, ceilings and floors also greatly influ-
ence its interior climate and with it the extent
and type of solar energy usage. Large areas
of glazing without additional solar protection
measures may overheat in the summer months.
This must usually be considered when planning
facades facing east and west, i.e. planners
need to try and optimise solar radiation, open-
ing sizes, heating requirements, shade, tech-
nical equipment and thermal storage mass in
each individual case [4].
Zones with intermediate temperatures
Various overlapping functional requirements
on a building envelope and general structural
properties can lead planners to enclose heated
spaces with various (spatial) zones. A stag-
gered configuration of functional spaces can
help to reduce heat losses and make better
use of solar gains. These zones of intermediate
temperatures offer additional possibilities for
296
Type of use
Transfer
Air
Systems Flat plate
PCMs
collector
Permeability
Translucent
Application
Daylight Space heating
seasonal use and can recirculate heat from
the building, preheat outside air, and accom-
modate solar protection or temporary thermal
insulation systems.
There are three basic types of such thermally
effective structures, which in practice take vari-
ous forms: airlocks, air-heating solar collectors
and heat buffers. The structural principle at
work ranges from the formation of narrow layers
of air in front of an exterior wall through to tem-
porary extensions to living areas (Figs. C 3.5
and C 3.6), including:
• Entrances, vestibules and porches
• Glazed loggias and balconies
• Conservatories and lean-to conservatories
• Functional spaces that beyond their pri-
mary use also act as heat buffers and
airlocks [5]
Glazed annexes
Glazed annexes are usually unheated spaces
that are heated directly by solar radiation. This
heat can be enough to make them suitable for
use even in windy and cold outdoor weather or
they can be used like a large air-heater solar
collector to heat rooms further inside the build-
ing, as long as the temperatures reached make
this possible. Such zones of intermediate tem-
peratures come in a wide range of structural
forms and can be positioned around windows
on each storey, extend over multiple storeys
or enclose a whole building. Central European
climate conditions mean that such spaces,
even if unheated and single glazed, can be
used to extend the use of living space for up
to two thirds of the year.
Solar gains are influenced by exposure, the
area of glazed surfaces and any shade cast
by the building, adjoining buildings and /or
plants. As with windows, solar protection
and effective ventilation systems must usually
be added to prevent overheating in summer.
Further special structural and technical meas-
ures are required to make use of superfluous
solar heat. A wall between a glazed area and
adjoining living area can for example store heat
and then release it later into the living area.
Various “storage wall” concepts are based on
this principle.
Indirect
Water /
salt solution
Flat plate
Solid absorber Tube collector
collector
Space heating Warm water Process heat
C 3.2
Storage walls
One of the first storage or solar wall concepts
to passively use solar energy was developed
by Félix Trombe and Jacques Michel in the
1950s (Fig. C 3.3) [6]. It worked on the prin-
ciple of a combination of a south-facing area
of glazing with a solid wall coated matt black
behind it that functions as an absorber, and
a layer of air between the wall and the glass
that stores thermal energy. During the day,
solar radiation heats the storage wall and in
the evening and at night it releases the heat
into the room behind it. To better control the
release of heated air in the cavity which func-
tions as a collector zone, adjustable ventila-
tion flaps at the top and bottom of the storage
wall are connected with the interior, so heat
and thermal radiation on the inside of the
storage wall is released by convection. If the
absorber temperature rises above room tem-
perature (and it can rise up to 70 °C if exposed
directly to solar radiation), air will start to circu-
late. Thermal lift means that the rising heat
can be relatively easily used to directly supply
heat to an interior. Protective measures are
essential to avoid overheating in summer.
Temporary thermal insulation can be installed
between glazing and the storage wall to reduce
heat losses at night [7].
The solar gains of a storage wall depend heav-
ily on the heat capacity of the materials involved.
Water has a heat capacity that is a factor of
2– 4 by volume greater than that of solid wall
materials. To make use of this effect, trials with
water tanks installed or stacked in the facade
were carried out for the first time in the 1970s
and 1980s (Fig. C 3.7).
Translucent thermal insulation
Another form of direct solar energy use is
the principle of translucent thermal insulation.
Polycarbonate or fine glass tubes oriented
perpendicular to the plane of the facade trans-
port rays of sun striking it through inner reflec-
tion to a dark solid wall or inside of the building.
This principle was developed and tested by
physicists from the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar
Energy Systems (ISE) and first used in a new
building in Europe in 1986 –1989 (Fig. C 3.12,
p. 298). Independently of this development,

biologists discovered in the 1980s that the
sun’s rays are transmitted through individual
hairs in polar bears’ fur to their black skin,
where they are absorbed as thermal radiation –
another example of analogous effects at work
in biology and technology [8].
Combining appropriate thermal insulation
and direct solar energy production with this
system can further reduce heating energy
consumption. Translucent thermal insulation
is permeable to radiation [9] and functions
based on a principle that not only further
reduces transmission heat losses, but can
also increase solar gains. A distinction is
made between solid-wall systems and direct-
gain systems.
Solid wall systems (opaque)
Solid wall systems use a radiation-permeable
material covered with exterior panes of glass
positioned in front of a solid, matt black wall
with a large thermal storage mass. Solar radi-
ation passing through the light-conducting
insulating material heats the wall surfaces
based on the greenhouse effect principle.
The wall functions as an absorber and heats
up gradually. Insulating material prevents
heat from escaping outwards during the night
so most of the heat (up to 95 %) flows inwards,
where it is released into the room in the form
of long-wave radiation and convection from
the wall surface. The wall’s material and thick-
ness determine its storage effect, heat ab-
sorption capacity and the time delay of the
release to the inside (about 6 – 8 hours). Such
systems can effectively bridge the differ-
ence between available radiation and heating
requirements (for a short time) over the course
of the day [10].
Translucent thermal insulation surfaces must
be protected from overheating by solar pro-
tection. Passive structural measures such
as overhanging roofs, balconies, plantings
or the like are usually sufficient for a translu-
cent thermal insulation area of 5 to 15 % of
floor space. Manipulators must usually be
installed in large-scale systems (Fig. C 3.9,
p. 298). Translucent thermal insulation systems
are comparable only to a limited extent in terms
of the basic materials used and different struc-
Solar energy
C 3.3 C 3.4
tures. Their main parameters are UV resist-
ance, mechanical stability and temperature
stability. Typical translucent thermal insulation
materials include polymethyl methacrylate
(PMMA), polycarbonate (PC) and glass. Card-
board honeycombs and specially-milled timber
profiles have also been used in such systems
more recently.
Direct gain systems (translucent)
Direct gain systems use special forms of glaz-
ing. Translucent thermal insulation material
is laid between the inner and outer panes of
glass, which provides good thermal insulation
and allows for natural lighting but greatly limits
views. Thermal storage surfaces in the inter-
ior use solar radiation so these systems may
also require measures to protect against over-
heating in the summer months. As well as the
plastics and glass mentioned above, silica
aerogels are also used. Translucent thermal C 3.5
insulation currently mainly takes the form of
glass fabrics laid in single and multilayer pro-
filed glass systems.
Latent heat storage or phase change materials
Initial trials of latent heat storage materials
(also called Phase Change Materials or PCMs)
were carried out in the 1940s at an early stage
of the development and construction of stor-
age walls.
PCMs (e.g. paraffin and salt hydrates) open
up new heat storage options for lightweight
structures lacking thermally “heavy” structural
component masses. By changing phase –
from solid to liquid for example – latent heat C 3.6
storage materials can store large amounts
of heat within a relatively small range of tem
C 3.2 Classification of thermal energy systems
C 3.3 Diagram of the Trombe wall principle
C 3.4 Cloister at San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice (IT) 1566
(design), Andrea Palladio
C 3.5 Glazed balcony, Barcelona (ES) around 1900
C 3.6 “The growing house”, prototype development,
Berlin (DE) 1932, Martin Wagner
C 3.7 House with a stack of cylindrical metal drums
filled with water behind slightly reflective fold-out
temporary insulation panels. New Mexico (US)
1972, Steve Baer
C 3.7
297
Solar energy

Global radiation figures relative to exposure Global radiation figures relative to exposure (figures
(figures for April to September) for October to March)
Solar
radiation Surface Surface
0° 20° 40° 60° 90° 0° 20° 40° 60° 90°
inclination inclination

Heat release
and loss Orientation Orientation

Heat gains
Opaque
thermal insulation East > 95 % 93 % 86 % 72 % 46 % East 58 % 57 % 53 % 45 % 32 %
C 3.8
Solar
Southeast > 95 % > 95 % 93 % 81 % 50 % Southeast 58 % 75 % 83 % 83 % 69 %
radiation

South > 95 % 100 % 95 % 82 % 49 % South 58 % 82 % 96 % 100 % 88 %

Heat release Heat gains
and loss Southwest > 95 % > 95 % 93 % 81 % 50 %
Absorption layer
Translucent West > 95 % 93 % 86 % 72 % 46 %
thermal insulation
C 3.9 C 3.10
peratures. In the temperature range around
the melting point, their ability to store heat is
many times that of conventional perceptible
(i.e. palpable) heat accumulators such as con-
crete or sand-lime brick. The energy absorption
does not initially increase the temperature and
is not perceptible, so it is described as “latent”.
Only when the storage material is completely
melted does the structural element’s tempera-
ture increase and it releases stored heat into
the space as it cools. The melting point should
be (well) below 26 °C in order to minimise the
number of temperature peaks for better thermal
comfort. For good heat-storing performance,
it must be ensured that accumulators can
release heat by means of effective ventilation
at night. PCM systems still usually need exter-
nal protection from the sun.
In the 1970s, a concept was developed that
involved filling glass bricks with Glauber’s salt
(melting temperature 32 °C) [11]. Latent heat
storage materials have been used to increase
the thermal storage capacity of structural
components in lightweight structures for some
years. This involves adding mainly encapsu-
lated PCMs (e.g. powdered paraffin in a poly-
mer shell to prevent the material from escaping
when it heats up and becomes liquid) to plas-
terboard, composite engineered wood mater-
C 3.12
ials, screed or plaster.
Like translucent thermal insulation materials,
PCMs are used mainly in direct gain systems.
Encased in protective shells of translucent
plastic materials (e.g. salt hydrates in multi-
skin polycarbonate sheeting), they function
as effective heat accumulators while allowing
for natural lighting and partial views. Integrating
prism glass into insulating glazing provides
effective solar protection in summer, while solar
radiation can heat the storage material unim-
peded in winter (C 3.18).
Indirect “active” systems
The frequent integration of solar collectors
and photovoltaic modules in the design and
planning of energy-efficient buildings is proof
of an increasing trend towards solar-activated
Southwest 58 % 75 % 83 % 83 % 69 %
West 58 % 57 % 53 % 45 % 32 %
C 3.11
building envelopes. This is the result of the
goal of decentralised energy supply and immi-
nent implementation of EU Directive EPBD
2010 on the energy performance of buildings,
which will apply to public buildings from 2019
and from 2021 to all planned new buildings.
The Directive has already set a new standard
for the construction of all new buildings as
zero-energy and plus-energy buildings. The
result is that as well as roofs, facades are now
being completely and partly used as surfaces
for generating heat and electricity.
But this is not a new topic. In 1982, tube col-
lectors and PV modules were for the first time
integrated into the envelopes of buildings in
a Munich housing estate as a constituent part
of the architectural concept (Fig. C 3.1, p. 294).
In 1991, crystalline PV cells were used for the
first time in a renovation of the stairwell of the
city of Aachen’s municipal utility offices in the
facade’s insulating glazing.
Thermal solar collectors
Thermal solar collectors are technical systems
that absorb solar radiation and convert it into
heat. In contrast, structural elements that con-
vert solar radiation into electrical power are
called photovoltaic systems.
Thermal solar collectors are classified into
different types of constructions (not covered,
covered) and heat transfer medium (air, water
and anti-freeze agents) and are usually used
to heat water and to supplement space heat-
ing. There are also special types for produ-
cing process heat (for commercial applica-
tions) and cooling. The collector forms the
core of a solar thermal system and together
with classic building services components
(pipes, heat exchangers, pumps, storage
units) forms the complete system. Different
system configurations can be chosen to fit
in with various types of usage. Conventional,
covered collectors are classified into flat plate
collectors (air and water) and evacuated tube
collectors.
Collector systems
The collector systems available on the market
can be divided into the following subgroups:

298

C 3.13
Solar absorbers
The simplest form of collector is an exposed,
uncovered absorber, mainly black tubes or
plastic mats. Solar absorbers are inexpensive
systems, but relatively inefficient. They are
usually used to heat water for outdoor pools,
where the amount of solar radiation available
and heating requirements largely coincide.
Unglazed, metallic surfaces have been used
as solar absorbers to generate energy since
the 1990s. Their advantages are inexpensive,
rapid and large-scale assembly, their highly
weather-resistant metals, and their potential
for adapting to complex building envelope
geometries (Fig. C 3.17).
Flat plate collectors (air)
Air can be used as a carrier medium to directly
heat and dry rooms. Air collectors usually have
a metal absorber covered by a transparent
plate at some distance and facing the sun. The
absorber directly heats outdoor air entering
from below which then flows through the unit
to an outlet opening into the interior. Air collect-
ors are unlikely to face problems resulting from
stagnation, frost or corrosion and structural
components do not have to be as tightly sealed
as they do in systems using water as a heat
transfer medium. Air’s specific heating cap-
acity is however four times lower than water’s so
these systems require relatively large amounts
of air, larger duct cross sections and powerful
ventilators.
Flat plate collectors (water)
Water collectors are the most common type
of collectors. Unlike solar absorbers, flat plate
collector absorbers are made of metal, usually
copper, and covered with transparent, hail-
resistant safety glass (Figs. C 3.13 and C 3.16).
Selective coatings are now usually used
instead of matt black paint to coat absorbers.
They almost completely absorb solar radiation
(up to 98 %), convert it into heat and also lose
much less heat radiation (emissivity ≤ 4 %).
Evacuated tube collectors
Removing the air between a collector’s
absorber and the cover greatly reduces con-
vection and heat radiation losses. A collector
Solar energy
Absorber Mirror
C 3.14 C 3.15
module consists of up to 30 vacuum tubes
positioned next to each other in an insulated
connection box (manifold) and connected to
the solar circuit. Evacuated tube collectors
function based on two main principles: direct
connection with a coaxial double tube in the
absorber for separate flow and return of the
heat medium, and an indirect, dry connection
with a heat pipe with the carrier medium and
solar circuit separate. In other systems, the
absorber is a glass tube so these systems can
have more slender cross sections and appear
almost transparent (Figs. C 3.14 and C 3.15).
This modular configuration has the advantage
that tubes can be replaced while a system is in
operation. Evacuated tube collectors also lose
much less heat than flat plate collectors, which C 3.16
is an advantage especially if operating tem-
peratures are high (process heat).
Applications
These systems are used in various areas and
for a variety of purposes.
Heating water
Solar collectors are especially suitable for heat-
ing water in the geographical and climatic con-
ditions prevailing in Central Europe. Operating
temperatures range from 30 up to 60 °C. Ordin-
ary flat plate collectors work very efficiently in
C 3.8 Principle of opaque insulation
C 3.9 Principle of translucent insulation C 3.17
C 3.10 Energy yields for collectors with various orienta-
tions and inclinations (located in Berlin)
C 3.11 Energy yields for collectors with various orienta-
tions and inclinations (located in Berlin)
C 3.12 Semi-detached house, Pullach (DE) 1989,
Thomas Herzog, Michael Volz with Michael
Streib
C 3.13 Flat plate collector
C 3.14 40 mm-thick evacuated tube collectors with
glass absorber tubes, went into production in
2003
C 3.15 First installation of the evacuated tube collectors
shown in Fig. C 3.14, Zentrum für Umweltkommu-
nikation, Osnabrück (DE) 2002, Herzog + Partner
C 3.16 Apartment building “Kraftwerk B”, Bennau (CH)
2009, Grab Architekten
C 3.17 CeRN highway maintenance building, Bursins
(CH) 2007, Atelier NiVo
C 3.18 Eulachhof housing development, Winterthur (CH)
2007, Dietrich Schwarz Architekten
C 3.18
299
Solar energy
Crystalline
cell types
Monocrystalline Polycrystalline Amorphous
silicon silicon silicon
Single-layer
Glass / PV /
Glass / PV / film film glass
toughened
safety glass
Opaque
this range. The amount of energy required
to heat water remains fairly constant over the
year, so such systems can make optimum use
of the high amounts of solar radiation available
in summer.
Collector systems must be comprehensively
coordinated with actual heating requirements
(number of people, consumption, equipment
features etc.) and the extent to which the sys-
tem should meet these requirements. A col-
lector with optimum southern orientation and an
area up to 8 m2 (and 300-litre storage unit) in
the facade can supply hot water for a 4-person
household. Such a system would largely meet
normal hot water requirements during the warm
half of the year and could meet an annual aver-
age of 40 to 60 % of requirements.
Space heating
In Central Europe, the amount of solar radiation
available over the course of a year does not
match heating requirements. While around
60 % of annual space heating is needed in the
a b
c d
300
Thin-film
cell types
Copper indium Cadmium Organic
selenide (CIS) telluride (CdTe) photovoltaics
(solar dye cells)
Module structure
Multilayered
Glass / PV / film / Glass / PV / film /
insulating glazing toughened safety
glass insulating
glazing
Translucent Permeability
Transparent
(semi-transparent)
heating period from November to February, a
south-facing surface can only produce 12 to
15 % solar energy during this period. This fact
can limit the options for using solar space heat-
ing systems.
To be able to release useable heat to a storage
unit, the absorber’s operating temperatures
must range from at least 40 up to 60 °C. Flat
plate collectors with selective coatings and
evacuated tube collectors are suitable for this
purpose. A collector with an area of about a
quarter of the heated living space can meet
between 15 and 30 % of the annual heating
requirements of a very well-insulated detached
house. For a very well-insulated house this
would entail a 10 m2 (evacuated tube collec-
tors) to 20 m2 (flat plate collector) collector.
Photovoltaic systems
Photovoltaic (PV) systems directly convert
solar radiation into electricity. The core of such
systems are solar cells combined into modules.
They produce direct current voltage so they
Cell types
C 3.19
need a power inverter to convert it into 230 V
alternating current voltage with a frequency
of 50 Hz for use in ordinary household appli-
ances. Such solar power plants are usually
operated as grid-connected systems, con-
nected to the supply grid, which stores the
energy. Stand-alone power systems that store
superfluous power in rechargeable batteries
are rarer.
Following changes to remuneration for energy
fed into the grid in Germany, users’ own con-
sumption of the solar power they generate is
becoming increasingly important there. Such
systems can be improved further by intelligent
power consumption management and storage
solutions in the house (e.g. lithium-ion batteries
to span chronological disparities between the
amount of solar radiation available and need
for electricity) and there is additional potential
for integrating electrically-powered vehicles
into such systems.
Depending on the amount of solar radiation
available, the exposure and inclination of
module surfaces also determine a photovoltaic
system’s annual yields. Unlike thermal collect-
ors, these systems can continue to produce
solar power when solar radiation levels are
below 200 W/m2. In Central Europe, south-
facing fixed systems with an inclination of 30°
relative to the horizontal plane can yield the
greatest annual amount of radiation. Yields
from vertical facade surfaces are generally
much lower.
Photovoltaic system output is usually specified
in Wp or kWp, with “p” standing for “peak”. This
refers to the peak output that can be released
to an electricity circuit connected to the sys-
tem. This figure is usually based on 1,000 W/m2
incident radiation energy and a cell tempera-
ture of 25 °C. Averaged out over the year, (sum-
mer / winter, day / night), this is about one tenth
of peak output.
Photovoltaic system surfaces must be kept
free of shading from vegetation, masts,
surrounding buildings or the building itself
because even small shadows (e.g. from
antennas, frame profiles etc.) can greatly
reduce yields. Because all the units in a sys-
tem that are connected in series are reduced
C 3.20
 Solar energy

Global radiation figures relative to exposure

Surface inclination 0° 30° 60° 90°

Orientation

East 93 % 90 % 78 % < 60 %

South-east 93 % 96 % 88 % 66 %

South 93 % 100 % 91 % 68 %

South-west 93 % 96 % 88 % 66 %

West 93 % 90 % 78 % < 60 %

to the system’s lowest output, even small areas
of shade can incapacitate larger modules. Par-
allel connections can limit such falls in output
(with the disadvantage of lower voltages and
higher currents).
Solar cells
The basic material for most solar cells on the
market is the semiconductor material silicon.
Cells made of monocrystalline and polycrystal-
line silicon wafers 200 to 300 μm thick are
manufactured and further processed by means
of various processes. There are also thin-film
cells, usually made of amorphous silicon or
other semiconductor materials such as copper
indium gallium selenide (CIGS) or organic
dyes. Solar cells can have relatively low effi-
ciency, depending on the material of which
the cells are made. The maximum achievable
efficiency of conventional (silicon) cells is cur-
rently about 25 % (as of spring 2016). Put sim-
ply, commercially available solar cells can be
classified as follows:
• Monocrystalline silicon cells with a very pure,
completely consistent crystal lattice structure,
complex to manufacture, achieve efficiency
in industrial production ranging from 18 up to
21 % (highly efficient, Fig. C 3.23)
• Polycrystalline silicon cells, characterised by
a less pure material and partially consistent
crystal lattice structure, easier to manufacture
and so less expensive, achieve efficiency up
to 16 % (Fig. C 3.24)
Thin-film technology offers great technical
and design potential. These types of cells use
less material because layers just a few micro-
metres thin (1– 6 μm) are enough to absorb
light. Their manufacture can also be largely
automated, which can result in enormous cost
savings.
Thin-film cells have a range of advantages in
terms of dependence on incident energy levels
and specific temperatures and they tolerate
shade better. They make (somewhat) better
use of diffuse, weak light and falls in output are
much lower if temperatures increase. The long,
narrow bands of cells also mean that individual
cells are less likely to be completely overshad-
owed. A distinction is made between
C 3.21 C 3.22
• Amorphous silicon cells: Thin-film cells with
wafer-thin silicon steamed into a backing
material, relatively inexpensive and materials-
saving manufacture, efficiency rate between
5 and 7 %, especially suitable for covering
large areas
• CIS and CIGS thin-film cells: Solar cells
mainly made of copper, indium and
selenium or copper, indium, gallium and
selenide use less material, can also be
extensively steamed onto almost any
surface in any form. Efficiency rate up to
12 % (Fig. C 3.22)
• Organic photovoltaics (OPV): Solar cells
based on electrically conducive polymers,
very thin, light and flexible, semi-transparent,
low-energy manufacture
• Dye solar cells (DSC): A variety of organic
photovoltaics that use organic dyes, devel-
oped by Michael Graetzel (EPFL, 1992),
efficiency rate in the laboratory up to 14 %,
in production up to 5 %
Another advantage of thin-film technology is
relatively free formability. Unlike crystalline C 3.23
cells, thin-film cells are not limited to standard-
ised wafer sizes, so modules can have varying
geometric shapes and be attached to curved
and flexible backing material. This type of cell
is especially suitable for integration into areas
of buildings with possible insufficient rear venti-
lation or (partial) shading. The appearance of
these modules is characterised by homoge-
neous surfaces structured by very thin, transpar-
ent cuts resulting from the modules’ manufac
C 3.19 Classification of photovoltaic systems
C 3.20 PV cells:
a Monocrystalline silicon cells
b Amorphous silicon cells, semi-transparent
c Polycrystalline silicon cells
d CIS thin-film cells
C 3.21 Energy yields for photovoltaic surfaces with
various orientations and inclinations (100 % =
1,055 kWh/m2a)
C 3.22 “Solar Decathlon Europe”, Versailles 2014,
team rooftop, UdK Berlin & TU Berlin
C 3.23 Cité du Design, Saint-Étienne (FR) 2009,
LIN Finn Geipel + Giulia Andi
C 3.24 Technology and Future Centre, Herten (DE) 1995,
Kramm + Strigl
C 3.24

301
Solar energy
ture, i.e. the electrical separation and circuitry
of layers.
Solar cells can be specifically used as design
elements if, for example, their widths are
varied or more horizontal dividing lines are
added. While reflective layers can expand
the range of crystalline cell colours available,
dark shades predominate in semiconductor-
based thin-film technology. Dye solar cells are
available in various shades of yellow, green
and red.
Photovoltaic modules
Around 30 to 60 crystalline cells usually
form larger, prefabricated units 0.5 to 1 m2
in size. These PV modules are multilayered,
i.e. cells are either inserted between panes
of glass, embedded in synthetic resin or
encapsulated between ethylene vinyl acetate
(EVA) / polyvinyl butyral (PVB) films, set in
casting resin or laid between glass and a
plastic laminate. Depending on requirements,
their rear sides can be opaque, translucent
(matt glass / light-diffusing films) or transpar-
ent (clear glass / transparent films). Thin-film
cells can also be applied on soft materials
such as membranes. “Sawn”, semi-transpar-
ent monocrystalline cells are now available
on the market. Thin-film cells can also be
printed in a wide variety of ways. Manufactur-
ers offer modules in various standard sizes,
although custom-made systems are usually
used in facades.
302
C 3.25
Integrating solar energy systems
In integrating solar collectors and photovol-
taic modules, planners must first consider
whether they are intended for a cold or a warm
facade. Existing approaches have positioned
solar energy systems before surfaces that
channel water or used them instead of con-
ventional opaque cladding materials or insu-
lating glazing. Additional savings can be made
by replacing a structural component with a
solar energy system. Whether added onto
or integrated flush into the plane of a facade,
what is essential for a harmonious design
solution are the modules’ dimensions, the pro-
portions of the whole element and its internal
form, especially its positioning in the plane.
Photovoltaic modules are also used in (bal-
cony) parapets and as fixed or moveable solar
protection systems.
Uniaxial and biaxial tracking systems are one
alternative to fixed units. Depending on their
orientation and installation situation, their axis
of rotation can be horizontal or vertical. Biaxial
tracking photovoltaic modules can theoretically
use about twice as much solar radiation per
year as optimally-oriented fixed systems. The
energy yields of biaxial tracking systems are
only slightly higher than those of uniaxial sys-
tems because of the energy the system uses,
so biaxial systems’ more complex mechanism
and additional demands due to integration
must be considered when planning them. The
C 3.26
cost-benefit ratios of tracking systems must be
carefully reviewed because less than 50 % of
the radiation available on an annual average is
direct radiation.
The construction sector is of great relevance
for the success of Germany’s transition to
renewable energy use. Fewer new buildings
are being built so the focus is on existing
buildings. Although the potential uses of
facades are often limited for various reasons
and the energy yields may be less than those
from optimally oriented south-facing roofs,
collectors and PV modules can be integrated
into almost every facade, although they are
particularly effective used as rear-ventilated
cladding material or as fixed components in a
glass facade system.
Considering the construction aspects of inte-
grating solar power systems, it becomes clear
that manufacturers are constantly refining and
improving installation conditions – especially
fastenings and seals at the sides. New types
of frame sections make assembly easier and
shorten construction times as well as reducing
section heights and visible widths.
There are now many ways to flexibly inte-
grate solar energy systems into building
envelopes and increasing numbers of com-
plete solutions that better combine solar-
thermal and photovoltaic systems within a
type of construction technique with each
other and with other elements in the envelope.
A wide range of tried and tested systems for
common types of facades is available on the
market [12].
Collectors and PV modules must be inte-
grated into the building’s technical services
and, depending on the type of use, cable
routing and additional technical apparatus
may also be required. The relatively slender
structures and flexible, thin electricity cables
of photovoltaic systems make them espe-
cially suitable for integration into facades.
Water collectors, in contrast, have pipes with
a much larger diameter that must not leak
and the system must usually be filled with anti-
freeze agent.

C 3.27
In terms of formal aesthetic criteria, there is a
wide range of design options for integrating
solar power systems into building envelopes.
The range of colours of absorber surfaces
and formal diversity of profiles influence the
look of systems, as do elements connecting
sides and facade surfaces. Architects will
often hear that the wide range of colours avail-
able is a special bonus of photovoltaic systems
(Fig. C 3.27). Adding colours and forms to a
building envelope is an especially sensitive
design task that impacts a building’s appear-
ance and requires careful and thorough con-
sideration. In the context of colour, there is
currently often a demand for very consistent
surface designs that use crystalline PV mod-
ules. Colouring conductors (bus bars) and
rear-side contacts can make cells fit in and
look like homogeneous surfaces so that films or
glass coatings of the same colour connected
with modules are almost no longer identifiable
as such (Figs. C 3.25 and C 3.26).
Architecturally integrating solar power systems
into a building envelope is a momentous under-
taking. It involves incorporating systems into
roofs and walls in a structurally and functionally
cogent manner and in an aesthetically consist-
ent form that takes the building’s specific char-
acteristics into account and combines them
to form a single architectural entity comprising
the building’s features and (compositional)
lines of solar energy systems. The quality of
this integration is influenced by the construc-
tion, material, colour, surface, size, proportion
and arrangement of components and the struc-
tural system as a whole must always be borne
in mind [13].
C 3.25 Aktiv-Stadthaus apartment building in Frankfurt
(DE) 2015, HHS Planer und Architekten
C 3.26 Children’s daycare centre, Marburg / Lahn (DE)
2014, opus Architekten
C 3.27 Paul-Horn-Arena, Tübingen (DE) 2004, Allman
Sattler Wappner
Solar energy
Notes:
[1] PV modules and tube collectors were used for
the first time in 1982 in a Munich housing estate
designed by Thomas Herzog and Bernhard
Schilling, working with the Fraunhofer Institute for
Solar Energy Systems in Freiburg.
[2] Krippner, Roland: Die Gebäudehülle als Wärmeer-
zeuger und Stromgenerator. In: Schittich, Christian
(ed.): Gebäudehüllen. Konzepte, Schichten, Mate-
rial. 2nd ed., Munich 2006, p. 48
[3] Henning, Hans-Martin; Palzer, Andreas: 100 %
Erneuerbare Energien für Strom und Wärme in
Deutschland. Im Rahmen von Eigenforschung
erstellte Studie. Freiburg 2012, p. 4f.
[4] Koblin, Wolfram et al.: Handbuch Passive Nutzung
der Sonnenenergie. Schriftenreihe des BMI für Rau-
mordnung, Bauwesen und Städtebau 04, Bau- und
Wohnforschung. Bonn 1984, p. 93 – 99
[5] Herzog, Thomas et al.: Gebäudehüllen aus Glas und
Holz. Maßnahmen zur energiebewussten Erweite-
rung von Wohnhäusern. Lausanne 1986, p. 8, 15
[6] As for Note 4, p. 118, 135ff.
[7] Goetzberger, Adolf; Wittwer, Volker: Sonnenenergie.
Thermische Nutzung. Stuttgart 1993, p. 146f.
[8] Nachtigall, Werner; Pohl, Göran: Bau-Bionik. Natur –
Analogien – Technik. 2nd edition, Berlin / Heidelberg
2013, p. 41– 46
[9] Also sometimes referred to as “transparent” thermal
insulation. The adjective “transparent” is confusing
here because these materials are permeable to
radiation but not necessarily transparent. A clear
distinction must be made for construction purposes
between “diaphanous / translucent” and “clear /
transparent”, so it is referred to as “translucent”
thermal insulation.
[10] Herzog, Thomas: Transluzente Bauteile. Anmer-
kungen zu ihrer Wirkung. In: Almanach 90/92.
FB Architektur der TH Darmstadt. Darmstadt 1992,
p. 94ff.
[11] Krippner, Roland: Architektonische Aspekte solarer
Energietechnik. In: 9th Symposium on Thermal Solar
Energy. Conference transcript. Regensburg 1999,
p. 237
[12] Krippner, Roland (ed.): Gebäudeintegrierte
Solartechnik. Detail green books. Munich 2016
[13] Krippner, Roland: Solartechnik in Gebäudehüllen.
In: Detail Green, 01/2012, p. 53 – 57
303
Solar energy

House and studio

Gleißenberg, DE 2001

Architect:
Florian Nagler, Munich

º Archicrée 309, 2003

Architekturjahrbuch Bayern. Published
1
by the Bayerische Architektenkammer,
Munich 2002
db 01/2003
2
3

4
cc

• “Solar wall” (multi-skin sheeting / simple 5 1 Weather and insect screen,

timber panel construction method) screwed down, perforated
lower edge for draining off
• Set-back basement positioned across the 6 condensation
slope supports the rest of the two-storey 2 Galvanised steel drainpipe,
building 13 Ø 40/2 mm
3 3 Timber batten, 60/80 mm,
• Transparent weather skin made of an inex- 14
4 screwed and with a lap joint
pensive, weatherproof plastic material 4 Flat suction tie, screwed down
• Gable ends translucent, eaves sides form 7 5 Aluminium sheeting, folded to fit,
a temperature buffer and protect the timber 2
joint covered with aluminium film
wall behind from the weather 6 Verge board, 60/240 mm
7 OSB panel for clamping
• Red cedar shingle roof covering polycarbonate sheets at the
15
building corners
8 OSB panel, 18 mm
8 9 Polycarbonate triple-skin panel
Ventilated cavity, 220 mm
9 Polycarbonate panel
15
10 Timber window frame with
16 insulating glazing
a a 11 Chamfered aluminium sheeting
for clamping polycarbonate
10 sheeting and allowing it to
expand longitudinally
12 Wooden plank 60/240 mm
d d with ventilation inlets
13 Insect screen
c b 14 Titanium/zinc sheeting box
11 gutter on dividing layer
15 Timber battens, 30/50 mm
c b 16 Timber door with insulating
glazing
17 Polycarbonate triple-skin panel
aa bb
Floor plan Scale 1:400 Ventilated cavity, 220 mm
Vertical ventilation opening OSB panel, 22 mm
Scale 1:20 Thermal insulation, 120 mm
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section OSB panel, 22 mm
Scale 1:20 18 Galvanised steel bracket
19 Squared timber facade posts
60/100 mm
12 20 Partition wall connection
20 11 4 9

18

19 11
10

17

dd

304
 Solar energy

Pharma Service Center

Binzen, DE 2003

Architects:
Pfeifer Roser Kuhn, Freiburg
Project manager:
Wolfgang Stocker
Structural engineer – facade:
Silke Gauthier, Radebeul
8 10 11 bb
º DBZ 01/2003
Der Architekt 11/2002

1
• Production, logistics and office building 2
• Regulation of abundant waste heat from 4 3
the production process through high ther-
mal storage masses in exterior walls and
floor slabs and division of the building into
various zones
• Wall functions as air collector
• Controlled cavity ventilation uses a natural
thermal effect to help cool the concrete 5
wall in summer; air heated by solar energy
reduces heat losses in winter

a
6

a 7

9
10

Cross section Scale 1:2,000 1 Aluminium flashing, 15 mm insulating glazing

Vertical cross section • 2 Load-bearing steel angle, 9 Larch 13 mm
Horizontal cross section 100/65/7 mm Sound insulation, 50 mm
Scale 1:20 b b 3 Aluminium channel, 50/80/3 mm Continuous steel bracket
4 Ventilation device with grating Plywood, 13 mm
to protect it from the weather 10 Aluminium flashing
5 Patterned glass 11 Patterned glass
Ventilation cavity, 135 mm Ventilation cavity, 150 mm
Double-skin, edge-glued timber Double-skin, edge-glued
wall, filled with mineral wool, timber wall,
11 breathable underlay 80 + 40 + filled with mineral wool
80 mm with breathable underlay,
Separating layer 80 + 40 + 100 mm
3 Steel-reinforced concrete, 200 mm Interior vertical acoustic
12 Vapour barrier profiling
13 Rigid PUR foam, 60 mm 12 Fly screen
14 Plastic sealing sheeting 13 Aluminium tube, 60/34/3 mm
6 Galvanised steel angle, 14 Load-bearing steel angle,
15 60/60/8 mm 100/100/10 mm
7 Aluminium tube, 32/25 mm 15 Perimeter insulation, 80 mm
aa 16 8 Larch wood window frame with 16 Sealing

305
Solar energy

House

Herisau, CH 1998

Architect:
Peter Dransfeld, Ermatingen

º Detail 03/1999

• Energy concept based around a compact, Floor plan ground floor

highly insulated building with transparent
thermal insulation in front of a south-facing
masonry wall.
• Central, wood-burning, night-storage stove
to meet heating requirements
• Evacuated tube collectors independent of
the building
• Protection against overheating provided by
shading louvres in the upper section of the
transparent thermal insulation and integrated
plastic prisms in the lower section
b b
Scale 1:200
Cross section through south-facing
facade • Horizontal cross section through
south-east corner
Scale 1:20
1 Three-ply spruce panel,
1 horizontal grooves to absorb stresses
2 Timber window frame with aluminium
facing
3 Triple insulating glazing
2
4 Solid wood sunshading louvres
to shade the upper section of the
transparent thermal insulation
5 Transparent thermal insulation element
3 in aluminium frame:
Low-iron solar protection glass, 5 mm
Cavity, 12 mm
Plastic tube insulation 140 mm
Glass panel, 5 mm
Cavity
Reinforced concrete, 250 mm, painted
black on the outside
Interior render 15 mm
6 Extruded aluminium section,
powder-coated with a thermal break
4 7 Transparent thermal insulation element
in aluminium frame:
Low-iron solar protection glass, 5 mm
Plastic prism panel in the cavity
to reflect sun in summer
5
Plastic tube insulation, 100 mm
Glass panel, 5 mm
Cavity
Sand-lime masonry, 250 mm,
painted black on the outside
6
Interior render 15 mm
8 Transparent thermal insulation element
(as for 5) but without shading
9 Fibre-cement panels
10 Vertical weatherboard,
7 rough-sawn spruce with a triple-coat,
high-build red stain finish
Ventilation cavity
Thermal insulation, 140 mm

10
9

aa 8

306
 Solar energy

Factory

Eimbeckhausen, DE 1992

Architects:
Herzog + Partner, Munich
with Bernd Steigerwald and Holger Gestering

º Arch+ 126, 1995

Architectural Review 01/1994
Flagge, Ingeborg et al. (ed.):
Thomas Herzog. Architektur + Technolo-
gie. Munich / London / New York 2001

• Design of factory building based on eco-

logical aspects; functionally differentiated
building concept, timber load-bearing frame
and facades
• Production halls naturally lit and ventilated;
transparent thermal insulation panels also
direct incoming daylight
• PV canopy with frameless, semi-transparent
ASI modules (4 kWp) to supply the electric
fork lifts with electricity
• Roofs extensively planted to prevent over- a
heating in summer, reduce noise emissions
and slow down rain run-off a

2
3
7
4

bb

b b

Floor plan Scale 1:1,500

6
Vertical cross section Scale 1:50
Details Scale 1:5
8
1
1 Panel with translucent thermal insulation
Float glass 5 mm
Glass fibre fleece
Capillary fill, 24 mm
Glass fibre fleece
Float glass 5 mm 6 4
2 Glulam posts, 60/100 mm
3 2 x steel channels, 160 mm
4 2 x steel T-sections, 50 mm
Facade posts to absorb wind loads,
3
welded to flat steel sections
5 Flat steel section, 50/40/10 mm
6 Glulam rail, 60/100 mm
7 Extruded aluminium section, vertical
8 Extruded aluminium section, horizontal aa

307
Solar energy

Office building

Zurich, CH 2007

Architects:
Beat Kämpfen, Büro für Architektur, Zurich
Energy consultants:
naef energietechnik, Zurich

º Detail Green 01/2009

Holzbulletin 90, 2009

• First zero-energy office building in Switzer- 1

land
• Three-storey timber-frame building with
custom-made wood composite boards
• Around 50 % PCMs (salt hydrate) were
installed in the south-facing facade cavity
to store solar heat; the roof overhang, full-
length balconies and textile blinds prevent
the building from overheating
• The monopitch roof with a 12° slope is 2
completely covered with small photovoltaic
panels which form an anthracite “scaled”
roof skin

Floor plan Scale 1:500

Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
Diagram of energy yields / consumption
Not to scale

1 Thin-film cell photovoltaic panels

2 Horizontal timber cladding, 100/25 mm
3 Vertical awning
4 PCM panel to act as storage mass
5 Larch sill
6 Wood composite board, 20 mm,
on battens 30/30 mm
Vapour-permeable wind paper 4
Breathable MDF board, 15 mm
Thermal insulation, 80 mm, 5
between battens

aa

308
 Solar energy

Housing development

Batschuns, AT 1997

Architect:
Walter Unterrainer, Feldkirch

º db 10/2000; 05/2007
Detail 03/1999

• Active solar technology integrated into the Cross section Scale 1:250
Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross
building envelope
section
• Complex comprising four two-storey and two Scale 1:20
three-storey, low-energy residential units
• Compact building structure; high insulating 1 South-facing facade:
standard and airtightness make an additional Insulating glazing
Hot water collector / absorber
heating system unnecessary Mineral wool insulation, 120 mm
• Heating requirements met by controlled venti- Brick masonry 90 mm
lation and a heat pump Flax insulation 30 mm
1 Three-ply plywood 19 mm
• Water collectors in the facade and on the flat
2 Aluminium clamping strip
roof with a 750-litre solar boiler provide hot
3 Chamfered aluminium sheeting
water for each unit Foam insulating panel, 20 mm
Three-ply plywood 2≈ 19 mm
Thermal insulation 40 + 30 mm
4 Larch frame window with
aluminium facing
5 Timber batten 4/14 mm
c c 6 Triple thermal insulating glazing with
a thermal bond
7 Foundation:
Fibre cement panels on a frame
Perimeter insulation 60 mm
Reinforced concrete 250 mm
2 8 240 mm reinforced concrete ceiling
with ventilation pipes, Ø 80 mm
9 Vertical larch boarding, 24 mm
Battens 30/50 mm
Foam insulation 60 mm
3
Three-ply plywood 18 mm
Foam insulation 2≈ 60 mm
10 Porous brick masonry 180 mm
aa Interior render 8 mm
8 5
10 Aluminium louvre blind
4

a
1
a b b

bb 9 cc

309
Solar energy

Technical college

Bitterfeld, DE 2000

Architects:
scholl, Stuttgart
Building services technology:
ARGE HLSE, Leipzig / Bitterfeld
Facade consultants:
PBI, Wiesbaden

º AIT 05/2001
Bauwelt 26/2001
Beton Prisma 81, 2002
Intelligente Architektur 30, 2001
L’ARCA 178, 2003

• New building (three wings) complements the
existing arts centre (1953) and swimming pool
• Low-energy building
• Opaque surfaces in exposed concrete
• 70-metre-long multistorey collector wall on the
south side integrated in exposed concrete
• Ecologically safe materials used, rainwater
seepage system on site
Cross section Scale 1:500
Floor plan, ground floor
Scale approx. 1:3,000
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
Vertical and horizontal cross sections
Scale 1:5
1 Precast exposed concrete facing
shell, 170 mm
2 Mineral fibre thermal insulation
80 mm
Reinforced concrete 350 mm
exposed concrete surfaces inside 1
3 Solar glass collector
toughened safety glass 4 mm
Water collectors – copper absorber
with a selective coating
Pine plywood backing panel 2
Vertical squared timber frame
in rear ventilation level 80 mm,
Horizontal squared timber frame
between 120 mm thermal insulation
Reinforced concrete 350 mm,
3
exposed concrete surfaces inside
4 Horizontal glazing cap,
anodised aluminium
(conical glazing caps to better
drain rainwater would be preferred
nowadays)
5 Fresh air inlet:
aluminium grating on steel brackets 4
6 Drainage gap
7 Chamfered aluminium sheeting
8 Grooved splice plate
9 Sheet metal side cladding
10 Insect screen
11 Water run-off membrane
12 Butt joint on collector element
13 Permanently elastic seal

aa

b b
1
a a 5

bb

310
 Solar energy

8 7 13

cc

3 12 13 4

10

4 7 8 9

11

c c

7 8 10
11
1
bb

311
Solar energy

Business start-up centre

Hamm, DE 1998

Architects:
Hegger Hegger Schleiff, Kassel
General contractor:
Hering Bau, Burbach
Technical building services:
Gerhard Hausladen, Munich
Rempe + Polzer, Gießen

º DBZ 10/1998
Hausladen, Gerhard (ed.): Innovative
Gebäude-, Technik- und Energiekonzepte.
Munich 2001
bb 1 Parapet coping with Thermal insulation, 80 mm
• Business start-up centre on site of a former
zinc sheeting cover Exterior plaster render 20 mm
coal mine 2 Steel frame, hollow 3 Steel section IPE 120 with
• Complex consists of a four-storey office 4 square steel sections, end plate, EPDM underlay
building and single-storey, multi-bayed halls. 100/80/4 mm, serves
• Office building as solid construction with to support collectors / as thermal break and
ventilation grille compensates for tolerances
bonded glulam floor slabs
3 Rear ventilation 110 mm 4 Recycled brick,
• Halls heated via an underground channel Airtight membrane 217/100/66 mm
(geothermal heating and cooling) or via four- Thermal insulation 80 mm Rear ventilation 50 mm
storey collector facade (120 m2) Sand-lime brick masonry Airtight membrane
240 mm Thermal insulation 90 mm
2 Interior plaster render 15 mm Sand-lime brick masonry
only at parapet: 240 mm
1 Sealing Interior plaster render 15 mm

Isometric view, not to scale

Elevation Scale 1:500
Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section 2
Scale 1:20

b b

aa

312
 Solar energy

Library

Mataró, ES 1995

Architect:
Miquel Brullet i Tenas, Barcelona

º Detail 03/1999
Werk, Bauen + Wohnen 09/1998
Herzog, Thomas (ed.): Solar Energy
in Architecture and Urban Planning.
Munich / London / New York 1996

4
• Multilayered, south-facing glass facade
• Polycrystalline solar cells in dual glass 1
modules (thermally toughened 2-m2 glass
panels glued to frames) on exterior, insulating 2 3
glazing on interior
• 15 cm cavity effectively ventilates photovol-
taic modules in summer and preheats incom-
ing air in winter
• Semi-transparent solar cells installed at a
distance from the facade generate electricity,
provide protection from direct sunlight and
cc
allow daylight into the building Cross section Scale 1:500
• When it was completed it was one of the Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
largest photovoltaic systems to be installed Horizontal cross section Scale 1:5
in a building in Europe
1 Ventilation opening with filter
2 Planar facade element:
insulated metal panel 40 mm
Ventilation cavity 60 mm
1 insulated metal panel 40 mm
3 Exhaust air flap
4 Photovoltaic module, south facade
6,495 ≈ 1,050 mm:
Laminated safety glass with integrated
solar cells adhered to framework
Cavity 150 mm
Insulating glazing
5 Horizontal facade support beam
aa

4 5

c c

3
b b

a a 1

bb

313
Solar energy

Training academy 1

Herne, DE 1999
2
Architects:
Jourda et Perraudin, Paris
Hegger Schleiff, Kassel
Structural engineers:
Ove Arup and Partner, Düsseldorf 3
Schlaich Bergermann and Partner, Stuttgart

º Architectural Record 12/1999 4

Architectural Review 10/1999
Detail 03/1999 5
Hagemann, Ingo B.: Gebäudeintegrierte
Photovoltaik. Cologne, 2002

• Glazed building acts as a microclimatic 5

envelope for the passive use of solar energy
• Around half of the roof and the facade surface 6
are covered with photovoltaic glass modules
with a total output of up to 1 MWp 7
• 30 % of the facade glazing has been replaced
with monocrystalline photovoltaic cells
• Shading provided for interior building 8
9
elements
• Various types of photovoltaic modules and
a modular power inverter concept ensure
efficient energy conversion

aa

Elevation Scale 1:1,000

Vertical cross section • Horizontal cross section
Scale 1:20
10
1 Laminated safety glass roof glazing
heat-treated, extra-clear glass 6 mm
Photovoltaic cells in casting resin 2 mm
Heat-treated laminated glass 8 mm
2 Power inverter
3 Galvanised steel gutter a a
4 Rainwater quick draining system
5 Facade structural sealant single glazing
on glulam facade posts 160/60 mm;
photovoltaic modules replace glass panels in
some areas
5
6 Glulam edge beam 300/400 mm
7 Opening sash
8 Timber roof girder
9 Timber frame for absorbing wind loads
10 Glulam facade rail

314
 Solar energy

Stadtwerke Energiewürfel (Municipal

utility company “energy cube”)

Constance, DE 2011

Architect:
Arnold Wild
Stadtwerke Konstanz
Facade design:
Gerhard Weber and Partner
IFP – Integrale Fassadenplanung

º Glaswelt 04/2013
1

• Customer service centre for Stadtwerke

Konstanz (municipal utility company)
• Cube-shaped, plus-energy building with
an edge length of 15 metres
2
• Double facade, exterior triple glazing,
3 ≈ 4-metre grids, the surface is 60 % trans-
parent and 40 % opaque
• South facade with semi-transparent crystalline
PV modules, 22 % transparent, element weight
1 t; the first photovoltaic module installation
on this scale

1 South facade:
Photovoltaic modules in triple glazing
set in post-and-rail elements
Facade cavity as thermal buffer 200 mm
Solar and glare protection provided by flat,
reflective aluminium louvres 60 mm
2≈ single glazing, slides on rollers,
Low-E-coating
2 Ventilation plate for mechanical extraction of air 4
from facade cavity
3 LED facade lighting cc
Floor plan • Cross section
4 Insulated facade structure: Scale 1:400
PV modules with crystalline, semi-transparent cells Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
Cavity 48 mm
3 Horizontal cross section through posts
Stone wool thermal insulation 2≈ 100 mm
Scale 1:5
Aluminium sheeting 3 mm
Mineral wool thermal insulation 40 mm, fleece
Timber acoustic panels 16 mm

c c

b b
a a

aa bb

315
Solar energy

Office building at Central Station

Freiburg, DE 2001

Architects:
Harter + Kanzler, Freiburg

• South-west facade almost 60 metres high

and virtually shade-free
• Frameless toughened safety glass / film
standard modules (190 ≈ 70 cm) with
monocrystalline solar cells
• Film colour matches the cell colour, creating
a homogeneous look
• Modules clamped to an underlying frame
at six points
• 20 cm cavity ensures good ventilation, which
1
is further enhanced by the stack effect 2 5 1 6

3 4

Floor plan, 17th floor • Cross section

Scale 1:400
Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20

1 Special bracket 260/300 mm

2 Precast concrete panel 100/600 mm
3 Black aluminium section 25/50 mm
4 Frameless solar panel 9 mm
Ventilated cavity 186 mm
Black fleece-laminated thermal insulation
100 mm
Reinforced concrete 300 mm
Interior render, 15 mm
5 Support structure:
Bracket 220/200 mm
Aluminium tube 110/40 mm,
with clamping profiles
6 Sealing aa

316
 Solar energy

Children’s day-care centre

Marburg / Lahn, DE 2014

Architects:
opus Architekten, Darmstadt
Energy consultants:
ee concept, Darmstadt

º AIT 05/2015
Bauwelt 09/2016
db 09/2015
DBZ 09/2015
Detail Green 02/2015

• Day-care centre for children set in a park 1

landscape surrounded by historical buildings
• Plus-energy building standard
• Saw-tooth roof and pleated west facade
optimise use of solar energy and daylight
• 354 custom-made monocrystalline dual-glass
photovoltaic modules in the roof and facade
• Homogeneous, monochrome appearance
due to black coating on conductor strips and
opaque film on back of photovoltaic modules

a
1 Black monocrystalline PV modules
a (laminated safety glass)
Bitumen sealing, battens 80/80 mm
3
Bitumen sealing
Cladding 21 mm
Rafters / cellulose thermal insulation 360 mm
Vapour barrier, OSB panel 18 mm
2 Suspended ceiling:
Battens 28/60 mm
Acoustic felt, fleece overlay
Pine battens 35/20 mm
3 Black monocrystalline PV modules
(laminated safety glass)
Aluminium vertical + horizontal frame
PE foil sealing
Floor plan, ground floor OSB panel 15 mm
Scale 1:400 Timber studs / mineral fibre insulation 320 mm
Air-conditioning and ventilation concept Vapour barrier, OSB panel 15 mm
Summer / winter Battens 28/60 mm
Not to scale Acoustic felt, fleece overlay
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20 Pine battens 35/20 mm

aa

317
Solar energy

Oskar von Miller Forum

Munich, DE 2009

Architects:
Herzog + Partner, Munich
Facade designed in cooperation with
FKN Fassaden, Neuenstein

º Baumeister 06/2010
UED 06/2016
World architecture 245, 2010
Herzog, Thomas (ed.): Oskar von Miller
Forum. Munich 2010
aa

• International meeting centre for the support
of trainee construction engineers with a
multifunctional hall, library and bistro on the
ground floor, offices and apartments on the
upper storeys
• 400 m2 of vacuum tube collectors provide
stationary shade for the top floor and supply
20 % of the heating energy required in the
building and 16 % of cooling energy require-
ments
• Slender photovoltaic louvres in front of glazed
entry area on the south-east facade provide
additional solar protection
• Silver-grey glossy polycrystalline cells fixed
along longitudinal sides
Cross section Scale 1:750
Vertical cross section Scale 1:5
1 Dual-glass photovoltaic module 12 mm
2 Aluminium U-profile frame 40 ≈ 3 mm
3 Frame attachment, flat aluminium section
60 ≈ 5 mm, cable routing in OL 90 cover
4 Square hollow aluminium spacer 20 ≈ 2 mm
5 System attachment to posts, triple-screwed
6 Double insulating glazing 39 mm
7 Cavity for cable routing 80 ≈ 18 mm
8 Post attachments, fixed bearing
9 Post attachments, loose bearing
10 Floor structure:
Natural stone in an adhesive mortar bed 30 mm
Screed 90 mm
Reinforced concrete ceiling 150 mm

3
2

10

bb

318
 Solar energy

SwissTech Convention Center

Lausanne, CH 2012

Architects:
Richter Dahl Rocha & Associés, Lausanne

º DBZ 04/2015 A
Fassade, Facade 03/2014
Haustech 06/2014
Tec 21 49 – 50, 2013

• Main building for an extension to the École

polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) 3 1
campus
• A convention centre designed to accommo- 4 2
date 3,000 people, central foyer with a glass
5
facade covers the full height of the building
• Angled, full-storey, dual-glass modules in
narrow strips cover 300 m2 of the west facade;
angles range from 7.5° to 45° in increments
of 7.5°
• Dye-sensitised solar cell modules in various a a
shades of yellow, green and red
• First use of Grätzel cells on this scale

2 3 4 5
aa

Cross section Scale 1:1,000

Vertical cross section, west facade Scale 1:20
Horizontal cross section through a facade detail
Scale 1:5

1 Steel facade support

2 Double glazing 14 mm + space between
the panes 17 mm + 8 mm, fixed along sides
in glazing bars
3 Anodised aluminium cover
4 Hollow square steel section 50/50/5 mm
5 Dual glass solar panels in anodised aluminium
frames
Four modules (2,100 ≈ 410 mm) in each panel
at 350 ≈ 500 mm, each with a 13 ≈ 2 cm-wide
strip of Grätzel cells
A

319
Solar energy

Centre for Photovoltaics and

Renewable Energy

Berlin, DE 2013

Architects: A
HENN, Berlin

• New building with 8,000 m² of production,

laboratory and office space that can be com-
bined and rented in various configurations
• Ground floor with a central foyer, adjoining
workshops, divisible production halls, a can-
3
teen and physics and chemical laboratories,
offices and meeting rooms on the upper floors
• Horizontal dual-glass photovoltaic louvres 4
with monocrystalline solar cells shade the
building-height foyer facade

1 2

Cross section Scale 1:1,000

5
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20

7 9
6
8

1 Precast concrete facade cladding

panel
2 Stainless steel pressure screw,
200 mm, M16
3 Facade panel anchor 10
4 Hollow square steel section,
150/150/6.3 mm, with head and
foot plates
5 Steel H-beam, HEA 140, connected
to the main beam with head plates
6 Steel beam, HEA 260, rigidly
connected to facade supports
7 Sharp-edged flat steel hollow section
support, 300/30 + 100/15 mm
8 Steel H-beam HEA 240
9 Steel sheeting sandwich panel 40 mm
Thermal insulation 2≈ 140 mm 12 11
10 Double glazing 8 mm + 6 mm,
aluminium frame, motorised ventila-
tion flap 13
11 Aluminium post-and-rail facade
with tubular steel insert
Double glazing
12 mm + 8 mm
12 Photovoltaic module
(heat-treated, laminated glass 4 mm
+ EVA film 2 mm + heat-treated,
laminated glass 6 mm), format
710 ≈ 1,870 mm, rigidly mounted on
a hollow steel section
13 Sharp-edged flat steel hollow section
support, 300/30 + 60/15 mm A

320
 Solar energy

Technical equipment building for a solar

residential development
11

Emmerthal, DE 2000 a a

Architects:
Niederwöhrmeier + Wiese, Darmstadt
Structural engineers: 10
Bollinger + Grohmann, Frankfurt /Main 6

º db 10/2000
Fassade / Facade 04/2001
Hagemann, Ingo B.: Gebäudeintegrierte
Photovoltaik. Cologne 2002

• Energy supplied by combination of heat 1 2 4 5 6

pump and photovoltaic system
• Photovoltaic modules with film-backed single 8 9
panes with various photovoltaic cells, uniaxial
tracking along the front of the tower’s facade,
the solar vanes can rotate 180° and have
biaxial tracking
• Analyses indicate solar energy yields up
to 38 % greater than for a facade-integrated 7
system
• The energy tower was a registered Expo 2000
project

3
aa

Horizontal cross section • Vertical cross section

Scale 1:20,

1 Fixed aluminium louvres, 100 mm protect against

UV and weather
2 Underlay
Veneered plywood panel, 27 mm, colourless
impregnation
Black stained squared timber 50/80 mm
Thermal insulation 50 mm
Hot-dip galvanised steel sections, HEB 220
3 Hot-dip galvanised installation grid 30/30 mm with
steel section edge angle 150/100/10 mm
4 Coated aluminium sheeting, 2 mm
5 Hot-dip galvanised steel beam, HEB 220
6 HEB 220 steel section as the main support bracket
for the PV system, angled and tapered towards
vane bearings
7 Hot-dip galvanised flat steel 2≈ 150/15 mm, as verti-
cal support bracket, connected to the main support
bracket with hot-dip galvanised flat steel 100/10 mm
8 PV module, 1730/480 mm, heat-treated glass,
supported at six points, PVB laminate film
9 PV substructure: two-point steel / EPDM clamp
bracket, 6 mm steel ribs, torque tube
Ø 42.4/2.6 mm, hydraulic variable altitude angle
tracking via pressure rod and blade
Flat steel bracket, 50/10 mm, with plastic bearing
for variable altitude angle tracking
10 Hot-dip galvanised grating 30/30/3 mm
Steel frame 40/40/5 mm
Tubular steel spacers Ø 20/4 mm
Steel section frame 140 mm
11 Solar vane structure:
Flat steel diagonal bracket 50/10 mm, with
plastic bearing for variable altitude angle tracking
Steel section 100/60 mm
Diagonal tubular steel strut Ø 60,3 mm
Connected to torque tube Ø 168.3 mm
with steel sections, 2≈ 100/50/6 mm, screwed
through

321

C 4 Integrated facades As well as being surfaces on and in which
solar collectors and photovoltaic modules
can be installed, facades are increasingly
becoming a space for accommodating (sup-
plementary) building services technologies.
Good interior air quality and natural ventila-
tion have a positive effect on users’ well-being
and can stimulate productivity and minimise
absenteeism due to illness, so decentralised
ventilation systems (with heat recovery to pre-
heat outside air) have been more frequently
installed in the interface between the outdoor
climate and the interior since the end of the
1990s [1]. Facades can incorporate integrated
decentralised building technology and be sin-
gle or multilayered.
Buildings’ technical systems are deeply
anchored in the European construction trad-
ition as functionally important elements and
integrated into exterior walls using a range of
different methods, e.g. as fireplaces for heat-
ing. In Wells in southern England, in an early
European example of terraced housing (circa
1363), very high smoke-extracting chimneys
in the exterior stone walls are a distinctive fea-
ture of the streetscape (Fig. C 4.2, p. 324).
Installing radiators or convectors in interiors
under windows or decentralised air condition-
ers on the outsides of buildings in hot climates
is now commonplace. The example of the
semiconductor assembly plant in Wasserburg
am Inn shows how the bearing brackets of
such technical devices can be elegantly inte-
grated into modular facades in modern post-
war architecture (see p. 172).
To make interiors largely open spaces, which
is essential for factory and exhibition halls, for
example, large ventilation ducts are arranged
in the facade. Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers
made ventilation ducts an expressive tech-
nical motif and, in large dimensions, an essen-
tial means of architectural expression in their
Centre Pompidou in Paris (1977) (Fig. C 4.3).
Similarly, the air-conditioning devices at the
Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts by Norman
Foster & Associates (1978) are installed in
the building’ periphery, where they are partly
visible from the outside through glazing but
permanently and effectively protected from the
weather (see p. 176).
The use of such elements, drawn mainly from
the field of mechanical engineering as a major
structural subsystem and as almost a matter
of course on the front facades of buildings,
was a paradigm shift at the end of the 20th cen-
tury [2], but the application of highly technical
building equipment with its high energy con-
sumption (and dependency) now needs to
be reviewed. Such (large-scale) technical instal-
lations may still be advisable if they are able
to conserve resources, by using renewable
energy, for example. It can be expedient to
C 4.1 i-modul facade, Capricornhaus, Düsseldorf (DE) separate them from the building’s framework
2008, Gatermann + Schossig and protective building envelope for reasons
Integrated facades
of easy access, maintenance and renovation.
If cavities integrated into ceilings and floors
are dispensed with in favour of thermally
activated masses of load-bearing structural
components and interior walls are to be move-
able in the long term, especially in office build-
ings, they must be largely free of pipes and
cables. This means that exterior walls must
make suitable provision for distributing and
accessing electrical cabling, be able to supply
a building with air conditioning and heat, and
ensure the exchange of air. Smaller, decentral-
ised counter-current system units have been
developed more recently to ventilate facades
while reducing ventilation heat losses and
ensuring efficient heat recovery during the
heating period.
Facade-integrated decentralised ventilation
systems
Unlike “passive” ventilation concepts such
as windows, which make use of differences
in pressure between the interior and exterior
and wind speed and temperature differences,
facade-integrated decentralised building
ventilation systems use additional components
for ventilation, heating and cooling. Outside
air is fed in directly through special openings
in a facade or exterior wall that are connected
to technical modules. The key component
of these devices is a fan unit that filters air.
They can also be combined with heating and
cooling coils, heat exchangers or storage units.
Devices are delivered ready for installation, so
only an installation location, air intake and out-
let openings and any supply lines required for
heating and cooling must be provided on site.
All structural elements connected with outside
air have thermal and acoustic insulation and
low-noise ventilators to prevent sound passing
through them. Their modular structure and
compact form makes decentralised ventilation
systems especially suitable when renovating
buildings to improve their energy use. Ordinary
ventilation systems centrally regulate outside-
air intake, treatment, preconditioning and the
discharge of exhaust air, but decentralised
systems make use of two different hybrid and
stand-alone concepts:
• hybrid: air conditioning can be supported by
central system technology such as heating
elements and activated ceilings, outside air
flows in through the facade, while exhaust air
is centrally extracted inside the building.
• stand-alone: outside-air intake, exhaust air
extraction and air conditioning (e.g. heating
and cooling) take place via the facade.
Operating principle
Outside air flows in through facade openings
and a technical module filters out pollutants,
pollen and particulate matter. If the system
uses heat recovery through a heat exchan-
ger, thermal energy is transferred from exhaust
air to incoming air before the fresh air enters
323
Integrated facades
the room. Constant-volume ventilators or
volume flow limiters prevent draughts. In con-
trolling the intake of fresh air, air quality sen-
sors react to CO2 concentrations and pollu-
tants. After passing through a heat exchanger,
exhaust air is extracted through facade open-
ings. The openings are equipped with flaps
to prevent an uncontrolled system shutdown
due to changing weather or wind pressure
conditions [3].
Advantages and disadvantages of decentralised
ventilation technology [4]
Advantages:
• Lower storey heights, no ventilation ducts
are required, so suspended ceilings are not
necessary
• Small plant rooms
• Low energy costs
• Flexible use of space
• Systems only operate when individual users
are in the room
C 4.2 • Users can individually influence the interior
climate
Disadvantages:
• The various devices involved require more
maintenance
• Maintenance must be carried out inside the
room (which may be rented)
• Depending on weather conditions, it may
be difficult to dry or humidify interior air
• Negative influence of wind pressure and
fluctuating temperatures on the facade’s
exterior
The available systems vary in terms of their
structure, dimensions and installation site,
depending on the type of building. Some
are installed in solid exterior walls (often in
residential buildings), others in post-and-rail
and modular facades (mainly offices / school
buildings).
Residential buildings
Installing compact ventilation units in very
well-insulated exterior walls in tightly-sealed
residential buildings allows users to control
the exchange of air in each room individually
and could also save energy, improve the
C 4.3
324
interior climate, precisely regulate moisture and
prevent mould growth. Buildings equipped
with heat recovery units can reuse up to 90 %
of the heat in rooms and units can be com-
bined with a central exhaust air system. Decen-
tralised units provide a constant supply of
fresh air in noisy locations where windows stay
closed and increase protection from burglary.
The filtering of outside air reduces incidences
of allergic reactions to particulate matter and
pollen (Fig. C 4.4).
The installation situation is the key feature in
choosing ventilation systems for residential
buildings. Systems can be installed in
• Exterior wall surfaces
• Opening edges: reveals / lintels /parapets
• Window frames
Exterior wall surfaces
Decentralised ventilation systems for opaque
exterior walls are set into a recessed housing
in a gap between masonry blocks (new build-
ings) or in a cylindrical outside-air intake open-
ing (> 160 mm for walls less than 30 cm thick)
core drilled into an existing wall (Fig. C 4.8,
p. 327). Ventilation concepts with central air
intake can also be installed during renovations,
with risers and horizontal air inlet ducts set into
the insulation layer (Fig. C 4.9, p. 327). A duct
system distributes air across the facade surface
and releases it indirectly into rooms through
openings in the wall or opening edge [5].
Opening edges: reveals/lintels/parapets
Various manufacturers make decentralised
ventilation systems for installation in and
around opening edges. Installing such a sys-
tem in a reveal, lintel or parapet affects direct
operability and the accessibility of units for
maintenance, e.g. filter replacement. Any
reduction in aperture (permeable) surfaces
due to the installation of system components
must be considered when renovating existing
buildings (15 –20 cm on each side, depend-
ing on the system).
Window frames
Even more compact are units with a ventilation
system with heat exchanger, filter and controls

directly integrated into a window frame (e.g.
made of composite fibre materials). Separate
ventilation grilles for two ducts for preheated
outside air and exhaust air are installed in the
sides of frames or for exhaust air in the tops
of frames, making additional structures and
adjustments in and around the opening un-
necessary. Special forms are systems that
combine a prefabricated window element
with a slender technical module (with heat
exchanger, ventilators and filter) at the bottom
of the frame to form a complete system for
use in renovations of existing multistorey resi-
dential buildings [6].
Office and school buildings
Flexible, space-saving technology is increas-
ingly used in the planning of office and school
buildings. Here the goal is to avoid cable rout-
ing in ceilings, which usually requires a sus-
pended ceiling, so the thermal storage mass
of a solid ceiling cannot be used to modify the
interior climate. Facade-integrated decentral-
ised ventilation systems are therefore becom-
ing increasingly important in these types of
buildings.
For multistorey office buildings in particular,
facade technology has developed positively
to provide options allowing for extensive use
of natural ventilation since the mid 1990s.
As well as standard single-layer facades
(Fig. C 4.14), multilayered facades are in-
creasingly being installed on tall buildings
(see also “Multilayer glass facades”, p. 238ff.,
“Trade fair administration building Hanover”,
p. 96, and Fig. C 4.12). Completed buildings
and a comparative study completed in 2008 [7]
prove that decentralised ventilation systems
can be integrated into all common facade
types.
Office buildings with decentralised ventilation
systems have been shown to consume much
less heating energy and power than buildings
with centralised systems. Users also positively
rate the thermal comfort and individual, room-
by-room operation offered by decentralised
systems. A greater “spatial efficiency of 5 to
15%” [8] due to the reduced space required
Integrated facades
C 4.4
for technical equipment has been demon-
strated in buildings with decentralised ventila-
tion systems.
The option of dispensing with suspended ceil-
ings in multistorey buildings and the resulting
lower clear room heights and added space can
allow planners to add extra storeys, although
the potential for using decentralised ventilation
systems to reduce storey height has not (yet)
generally been exploited [9]. Buildings’ tech-
nical components are much less durable than
facade elements so it is important that the units
and components in decentralised ventilation
systems are easy to replace. Facade openings
with technical modules can be installed in vari-
ous areas:
• Ceilings (facing side)/floors (horizontal)
• Parapets (horizontal)
• Facade surfaces (vertical)
For special solutions, technical modules
can also be combined with opaque facade
panels and skylights to make use of daylight C 4.5
(Fig. C 4.1, p. 322) [10].
Ceiling (facing surface) /underfloor ventilation
systems (horizontal)
Air intake and exhaust openings are installed
in the ceiling’s facing surface and a ventila-
tion unit, some with steam humidification,
is installed in the raw ceiling in front of the
(inner) facade so is not visible in the room.
Air flows in and out through a grating in the
floor (Fig. C 4.5).
In buildings with a hybrid ventilation concept
such as the Post Tower in Bonn (Fig. C 4.13,
p. 327) exhaust air is extracted through adjacent
spaces or zones of intermediate temperatures
(“sky gardens”) and centrally extracted. Under-
floor ventilation units variably regulate heating
C 4.2 Vicar's Close, Wells (GB) circa 1363
C 4.3 Centre Pompidou, Paris (FR) 1997, Renzo Piano /
Richard Rogers
C 4.4 Exterior wall surface / Top-Air – Air DuoPlus com-
pact fan
C 4.5 Underfloor system (horizontal)
C 4.6 Fraunhofer in-Haus Center, Duisburg (DE) 2008,
Fraunhofer Institute for Microelectronic Circuits
and Systems
C 4.6
325
Integrated facades
and cooling room-by-room and are supported
by concrete core activation (base load).
Such decentralised natural ventilation systems
can also be effectively combined with more
recent facade developments such as the
Closed-Cavity Facade (CCF) [11]. Compact,
flat technical modules make it possible to build
storey-high facades with glazing that optimises
the use of daylight (Fig. C 4.12).
Parapets (horizontal)
Ventilation units with heat recovery installed
in opaque parapets are installed in the floor
inside or attached to a solid parapet. These are
usually 2-pipe or 4-pipe systems with air-water-
heat transmission for heating and cooling. As
C 4.7
well as providing free cooling using incoming
air, cooling and air-conditioning functions can
be expanded by connection to the cold-water
network (Fig. C 4.10, C 4.15).
Facade surfaces (vertical)
If ventilation units cannot be installed in a
parapet, special slender vertical technical
modules can be integrated, storey-high or on
a parapet next to a window or area of glazing
(Fig. C 4.6, p. 325, C 4.11).
The building services technology in these office
buildings in Wiesbaden uses a dado duct, inte-
grated evolvent lights and installation cabinets
with small convectors on their outsides in all
offices. Manually-operated, insulated wooden
ventilation flaps with integrated revolving cylin-
ders are now exclusively used to individually
regulate outside-air intake when temperatures
are low. Mechanical incoming and exhaust air
ventilation systems have been dispensed with
for all offices (Fig. C 4.7).
What all these systems have in common is that
units are not visibly integrated into the facade
on the outside, so they can be relatively easily
adapted to design requirements. Air intake and
outlet openings can have covers specifically
designed for the building that are reduced to
being very inconspicuous or alternatively used
as contrasting design elements. Various indi-
vidual solutions for air outlets and covers in
rooms are also available.
326
Notes:
[1] cf. Concept-Fassade. Müller, Helmut F. O.; Nolte,
Christoph; Pasquay, Till: Die Mittel, aktiv zu
sein. Von der Aufgabenstellung zur Lösung. In:
Danner, Dietmar; Dassler, Friedrich H. (ed.): Die
klima-aktive Fassade. Leinfelden-Echterdingen
1999, p. 43f.
[2] Although “paradigm shift” has become a trendy
expression in recent years, it should be noted in
this case that the classical Greek word παρα′δειγμα
(paradigma) originally referred to an architectural
model specially made for competition.
[3] Röben, Jürgen: Fassadenintegrierte Lüftungs-
technik. Ästhetisch und energieeffizient. In: DBZ
09/2013, p. 77
[4] Mahler, Boris et al.: DeAL – Evaluierung dezentraler
außenwandintegrierter Lüftungssysteme. Abschluss-
bericht. Stuttgart 2008, p. 6
[5] cf. Giebeler, Georg et al.: Atlas Sanierung. Munich,
2008, p. 258 – 261
[6] cf. Stiegel, Horst; Krause, Michael: Minimalinvasives
Sanierungssystem mit vorgefertigtem, multifunktio-
nalem WDVS-Fassadenmodul. In: gi – Gesundheits-
ingenieur 06/2012, p. 290 – 302
[7] As for Note 4
[8] Mahler, Boris; Caspary-Weber, Monique: Flexibel
und flächeneffizient lüften. Evaluierung dezentraler
außenwandintegrierter Lüftungssysteme. In: Trans-
fer. Das Steinbeis Magazin 01/2009, p. 7
[9] As for Note 4
[10] cf. Gatermann, Dörte; Schossig, Elmar: Capri-
cornhaus Düsseldorf. i-modul-Fassade. In: Weiß,
Klaus D. (ed.): Gatermann + Schossig. Raum
Kunst Technik / Space Art Technology. Basel 2010,
p. 221– 223.
[11] Rudolf, Bernhard: Atmende Fassaden: Fassa-
dentechnologien zur dezentralen und natürlichen
Lüftung. In: Detail 07– 08/2012, p. 811f.
C 4.7 Office building, Wiesbaden (DE) 2003, Herzog +
Partner
C 4.8 Activated apartment block, Kassel (DE) 2015,
HHS Planer + Architekten
C 4.9 Heumatt housing estate / complete refurbish-
ment, Zurich (CH) 2005, Urs Primas with
Proplaning AG
C 4.10 Neues Gymnasium school, Bochum (DE) 2012,
Hascher Jehle
C 4.11 Fraunhofer in-Haus Centre, Duisburg (DE) 2008,
Fraunhofer Institute for Microelectronic Circuits
and Systems
C 4.12 Roche Diagnostic, Rotkreuz (CH) 2011,
Burckhardt + Partner
C 4.13 Post Tower, Bonn (DE) 2002, Murphy /Jahn
C 4.14 ADAC headquarters, Munich (DE) 2012,
Sauerbruch + Hutton
C 4.15 Laimer Würfel, Munich (DE) 2008, Plan2 Archi-
tekten
 Integrated facades

C 4.8 C 4.9

C 4.10 C 4.11

C 4.12 C 4.13

C 4.14 C 4.15

327
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C 5 Refurbishing Construction, operation, maintenance and
dismantling or recycling are among the main
existing facades phases in a building’s life cycle. A building’s
support structure, interior fittings, envelope
and technology often have differing “lifespans”,
as do its facade and the components that
make it up. Insulating glazing units have an
average lifespan of 20 to 35 years, window
frames 25 to 40 years, and exterior rendering
30 to 60 years, although such average figures
can vary considerably in some cases, depend-
ing on construction quality, external effects
and the effort put into maintaining a building.
Regardless of the demands users make on it,
the facade is one of the areas of a building
most subject to weathering caused by out-
door temperatures, which fluctuate markedly
over the course of days and years, as a result
of radiation conditions as well as high winds
and rains.
Decisions made during the planning process
on materials and construction and execution
on the building site play a central role in deter-
mining the durability of facades. Deficits in
these areas may cause individual compo-
nents to fail prematurely and, if this leads to
damage, elements may have to be repaired
or replaced.
A change in cultural, economic or functional
requirements may also initiate or require the
refurbishment of a facade. This is particularly
so where renovations are intended to improve
a building’s energy use, the urgency of which
has greatly increased in Germany due to cur-
rent energy efficiency demands imposed on
existing buildings in recent years as a result
of the country’s transition to an energy supply
based heavily on renewable energies (Ener-
giewende) (Fig. C 5.2) [1].
In the final decades of the 20th century, eco-
nomic factors in particular, such as reducing
operating costs and the pursuit of independ-
ence from oil imports, contributed to increas-
ing demands made on the energy efficiency
of facades. Since the turn of the new millen-
nium, efforts have focused more on the environ-
mental policy goal of drastically reducing CO2
emissions.
Renovating – Repairing – Refurbishing
Words such as “renovate”, “repair” and
“refurbish” are often wrongly used as syno-
nyms to describe the restoring of facades
and exterior walls. Returning to the original
Latin meanings of the three words, it becomes
clear that there are distinct differences in the
definitions.
“Renovare” (renew) meaning “renovating” is
understood as eliminating damage caused by
wear and tear. For a facade, this could be a
C 5.1 House, Soglio (CH) 2009, Ruinelli Associati new coat of paint, for instance.
Refurbishing existing facades
The word “reparare” (restore) means “repair”
in the sense of returning something to its
original, functioning condition. One example
of this is the replacement of sections of
exterior wall cladding damaged in a storm,
for example.
“Sanare” (improve, remedy, stabilise) refers
to the restoration of functional capacity, such
as adding insulation and protection from the
sun, glare and weather, which are described
in detail in the chapters on “External and
internal conditions” (p. 18ff.) and “Aspects
of building physics and planning advice”
(p. 52ff.). Over the life of a facade, these func-
tions may become impaired or break down
completely due to external influences (e.g.
heat, cold, rain and wind) and interior effects
(e.g. damp), requiring partial or complete
refurbishment of the facade. Other reasons for
refurbishing can include maintaining a build-
ing’s value by eliminating wear and tear and
structural damage, and preventing the prema-
ture failure of individual structural components.
Reducing energy requirements by improving
the building envelope’s thermal properties is
currently the primary reason for refurbishing
facades.
Buildings built in Germany prior to the passing
of the 2nd Thermal Insulation Regulation in
1984 are currently one focus of refurbishing
activities. The U-values common at the time, at
worst 2.2 W/m2K for a quarried stone wall and
at best 0.5 W/m2K for a studded timber wall
with 8 cm of thermal insulation, make refurbish-
ing urgently necessary for these buildings in
order that heat losses through their facades
can be drastically reduced.
Refurbishing facades to improve
energy use
Refurbishing facades to improve energy use
usually involves a wide range of measures
aimed at greatly improving the facade’s tech-
nical and functional quality and the building’s
energy balance as well as meeting current
energy efficiency goals. Here the focus is on
reducing thermal losses through structural elem-
ents that transmit heat (e.g. opaque exterior
walls or transparent or translucent structural
elements such as windows and glass facades).
Heat losses resulting from radiation or ventila-
tion must also be reduced. Various insulating
materials, reflective coatings and films, multi-
pane insulating glazing units and vacuum glaz-
ing units, which can greatly reduce heat trans-
mittance from inside to out, are used to reduce
such losses. In this context, it is also often
necessary to greatly improve the seals around
windows, doors and structural joints to minim-
ise undesirable heat losses due to draughts.
A refurbishing strategy designed to fit in with
existing buildings and optimum planning and
329
 Refurbishing existing facades
Annual primary energy requirements for heating [kWh/(m2·a)]

450
400
Minimum regulatory requirements
350
(WSchV / EnEv) depending on building geometry
300

250

200
Solar-powered Building
150 practice
buildings
100
Low-energy buildings
50
Passive / “3-litre” buildings
0
Zero heating energy buildings
-50 Plus-energy buildings
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 C 5.2

construction can usually improve insulation Influencing factors and measures or opaque facing shells of rear-ventilated
and can even allow a building to meet the cur- facade structures) [5].
rent demands made on new buildings. In this Measures to improve a facade’s energy bal-
context, studies have shown that EU Directive ance can be carried out in a wide range of Taking these aspects into account, a distinction
2012/27/EU, which aims to establish an almost different ways. Factors that may influence the can be made between the following possibilities:
entirely CO2-neutral building stock, can be choice of renovation concept include: • Interior insulation attached at a distance to
implemented with an assumed annual renova- • Building’s actual condition in terms of meas- a preexisting facade or exterior wall (house-
tion rate of 2 % [2]. ured energy consumption in-a-house concept, Fig. C 5.3)
• Actual state of a structure’s existing sub- • Interior insulation attached without any gap
Here the focus is on facades because, com- stance and energy consumption and the to a preexisting facade or exterior wall
pared with other areas of the building envelope structural and functional quality of the facade (Figs. C 5.4, C 5.11, p. 335)
such as the roof, cellar ceiling and foundation and exterior walls • Partial replacement, supplementation or
plate, they represent by far the largest area in • Actual condition of current building technol- complete replacement of preexisting facade
contact with the outside air or ground (with the ogies or window (Figs. C 5.12, C 5.13 and C 5.14,
exception of large halls). This is especially the • Architectural quality of existing structural p. 335)
case with multistorey buildings, which have a substance • Exterior insulation attached without any
much higher proportion of facade area com- • Legally-binding historic building and area gap to a preexisting facade or exterior wall
pared with roof area than one or two-storey conservation regulations and possibly copy- (Figs. C 5.15, C 5.16, p. 335)
buildings. right laws • Exterior facing shell attached at a distance
• Any planned changes in usage that may to a preexisting facade or exterior wall
Measurements of average multistorey 1950s impact future comfort requirements (Fig. C 5.17, p. 335)
apartment buildings have shown that the • Future energy supply options for the building
rate of transmission heat loss through their to be refurbished Various options for refurbishing and improv-
opaque exterior walls is about 16 % and 12 % • Relation between investment costs and any ing energy use are presented and explained
through windows. To this are added ventila- future reductions in operating costs below. It should be noted that in practice these
tion heat losses of around 20 %, so with a possibilities are often combined to achieve
total of 48 % they lose almost half of all their The analysis and prioritisation of these factors an optimum result, depending on the specific
heat through exterior walls or facades. The greatly influences the development of any over- conditions and requirements.
remaining heat is lost due to transmission all concept for refurbishing a facade in order to
heat losses through the roof (17 %) and cellar improve its energy use. A refurbishing strategy
ceiling (7 %) and power lost by heating sys- for a historic building listed as protected will Interior insulation
tems (28 %). By comparison, a typical 1960s usually be very different from the refurbishing
apartment building loses far more heat through of an average building that is not subject to Refurbishing of the inside of a facade or exter-
its facade – around 63 %. Here heat losses are such protection to modify its energy consump- nal walls to improve their energy use is usually
generally broken down as follows: windows tion. When a building is converted (e.g. from carried out if insulation cannot be added to the
19 %, walls 22 %, ventilation 22 %, roof 4%, commercial to residential use), the changed outside of existing exterior walls because they
cellar ceiling 4 % and unused heating energy comfort requirements will mean that refurbish- are part of an especially elaborate plaster, half-
29 % [3]. ing its facade will involve measures different timbered or clinker facade, or for design and /
from those that would be required if its use or historic building conservation reasons [6].
These heat loss rates make it clear that refur- were to remain the same. The advantages of this refurbishing method are
bishing measures to improve energy use must that it maintains the building’s external appear-
include facades. For a holistic solution that What all these measures have in common ance and does not require official approval. It
makes use of all energy-saving potential, the is the aim of improving the facade’s thermal is also usually less expensive to add insulating
insulation of roofs and cellars and optimisation performance. This can be done by partly or layers (e.g. mineral foam or calcium silicate
of heating systems must be equally considered completely replacing or supplementing indi- boards) to an interior than to install thermal
and coordinated in measures. Depending vidual structural elements, windows, glass insulation composite systems or rear-ventilated
on the building’s age, various measures may facades, glazing and/or frames. The thermal systems on the outside.
focus on different areas, although the facade performance of facades and exterior walls
always plays a central role ensuring adequate can also be optimised by adding extra layers A loss of floor space is however one disadvan-
thermal insulation [4]. (e.g. of insulation) or shells (e.g. glass skins tage of this approach for a structure’s physical

330
 Refurbishing existing facades

properties. Interior thermal insulation also
means that an exterior wall’s thermal mass
can no longer compensate for the interior cli-
mate. Interior thermal insulation also means
that during cold times of year the exterior wall
is no longer warmed, so it cools markedly and
temperatures may fall below freezing much
more often. Thermal bridge effects, especially
around connecting walls and ceilings, also
have a major effect on temperatures. Steel
Å-beams and timber beams penetrate the insu-
lating layer at support points and project into
the cold exterior wall. Balconies are directly
connected to the outside, so are at risk from
condensation. Water, drainage and heating
pipes laid in the exterior wall are also at greater
risk of freezing due to more extreme cooling.
To prevent damp from damaging an exterior
wall insulated on the inside, a vapour barrier
should be mounted on the inside to prevent
condensation from accumulating, although a
vapour barrier may be dispensed with if vapour-
proof insulating material is used. Another alter-
native is the use of calcium silicate boards
because they are porous and can absorb
moisture and release it in into dry interior air.
Their high pH levels also prevent the growth
of mould. Structural surveys to resolve such
issues must always be carried out before such
measures are initiated to prevent any subse-
quent damage [7].
Replacing windows and facades
The relatively high heat transmission coeffi-
cients of glazing installed in buildings decades
ago means that the thermal performance of
their windows and glass facades must be
carefully considered. Solar radiation can easily
pass through windows or glass facades into
a building and cause it to overheat in summer.
In hot climates in particular, solar radiation can
intensely heat up glass and frame surfaces.
This heat can be transferred to the interior by
means of heat transfer, radiation and convec-
tion, creating an uncomfortable indoor climate
and usually increasing the energy consumption
required for cooling.
Heat losses through windows and glass facades
can cool down interiors during cold times of
year. The interior surfaces of windows and glass
facades can cause cold downdraughts and
draughts near glazing, and radiative cooling
C 5.3
can make the interior climate uncomfortable. If
there are also leaks in and around a window
frame or glass facade, draughts and ventilation
heat losses can result in excessive energy con-
sumption, further undermining users’ wellbeing.
A range of overlapping factors (glazing and /or
frames with inadequate U-values, leaky and
defective window frames) means that windows
and facades are often completely replaced
with thermally separate window or facade sec-
tions and multilayer insulating glazing (possibly
with an inert gas filling) to greatly improve the
U-values of windows or facades.
While a single-glazed timber window frame
of the kind common until well into the 1950s
may have a UW-value of 5 W/m2K, a thermally
separate window frame combined with triple
insulating glazing can currently achieve a
UW-value of 0.9 W/m2K [9].

As well as insulation systems directly attached

to the inside of an external wall, there are other
refurbishing concepts that attach an additional
insulating layer at some distance from the ex-
terior wall. This additional zone of intermediate
temperature can serve as a thermal buffer or
weather-protected useable space [8].

C 5.2 Trends in energy-saving construction in Germany

since the passing of the 1st Thermal Insulation
Regulation in 1977
C 5.3 Two-ply film membrane interior insulation forms
a ventilated zone of intermediate temperature,
Siemens factory hall, Munich (DE) 1997, Thomas
Herzog with José-Luis Moro
C 5.4 Interior insulation, “Birg mich, Cilli!”, Viechtach (DE)
2008, Peter Haimerl Architektur
C 5.4

331
Refurbishing existing facades

a
b C 5.5
C 5.5 Olympic Village, Munich (DE) 2012, Knerer und
Lang, detail of the facade:
a before refurbishing
b after refurbishing
C 5.6 Olympic Village, Munich (DE) 2012.
Horizontal cross section Scale 1:20
C 5.7 Typical U-values [W/m2K] for structural compo-
nents in existing buildings
C 5.6
Such frames, combined with lower energy
transmittance glazing, can represent a good
compromise that ensures effective summer
and winter insulation and can achieve energy
performance qualities similar to those of a new
building standard.
Solutions that retain existing design and mater-
ial qualities while greatly reducing heat losses
and improving the comfort of interiors are ideal
for listed historic buildings.
Refurbishing windows to improve their energy
use usually involves installing sealing profiles,
which can greatly reduce heat losses. Re-
placing single glazing or technically obsolete
1970s insulating glazing with modern gas-filled
and /or appropriately coated double, triple
or vacuum glazing can also greatly reduce
energy consumption.
Historic windows, the frames of which often
have delicate material cross sections and low
load-bearing capacity, can also be greatly opti-
mised to improve thermal performance and
comfort by adding an extra window sash with
insulating glazing on the inside. In each case,
planners must investigate how making windows
the focus of thermal insulation might affect the
dew point. The possible effects of a more air-
tight facade on hygienic indoor air quality, rela-
tive humidity and the risk of mould formation
must also be examined.
External insulation
Transparent and translucent facades and
older, opaque exterior walls are often unsatis-
factory in terms of their thermal insulation per-
formance. Typical U-values of opaque exterior
walls in old buildings are 1.4 W/m2K for single-
layer masonry 38 to 51 cm thick (buildings
built from 1880 –1948) and for lightweight hol-
low-block, honeycomb brick or aerated con-
crete masonry (buildings built from 1949 –1968)
(Fig. C 5.7). Although these U-values are much
better than those for windows in buildings of
the same age, such exterior walls cause major
energy losses because they make up a large
proportion of the facade’s entire surface.
Two fundamentally different alternatives are
available for refurbishing solid exterior walls
in buildings not listed for protection as historic
as a means of improving their energy use.
One is the use of multilayer, composite
thermal insulation systems, where the exterior
wall is covered with thermal insulation panels
attached with dowels and /or adhesive. The
outermost surface is covered with a multilayer
system made up of reinforced render, finishing
plaster and a final coating to protect it from the
weather. Such systems are regarded as rela-
tively inexpensive, although potential problems
with impact resistance, fire safety, algae growth
and damage by birds (woodpeckers) must be
reviewed in detail before deciding on their use
(Figs. C 5.8, p. 334, C 5.15, p. 335).
A curtain wall facade with thermal insulation
panels attached directly to the outside on a
(lightweight metal, wood) batten and counter-
batten frame, can also greatly improve an
external wall’s insulating properties. Counter-
battens leave a gap of at least 30 mm, which
allows for ventilation and moisture evaporation.
The facade’s outermost layer is usually made
of a mechanically durable material such as
wood, natural stone, terracotta, metal, glass /
PV or composite materials. Separating the
functions of thermal insulation and weather
protection – often with open joints protected
from driving rain – allows planners to precisely
adapt materials to requirements and offers a
high level of design freedom (see also “Aspects
of building physics and planning advice”,
p. 52ff.).
Facing shells
Analogous to interior insulation attached at
a distance to an interior wall surface (see
p. 330f.), attaching an additional transparent
glass or plastic facade on the outside of and
at a distance from an existing facade or exter-
ior wall can further prevent heat transmission
through the facade. The resulting rear-venti-
lated facade cavity can also be used as a ther-
mal buffer or to preheat fresh air (Fig. C 5.17).
There is a detailed description of the functional,

332
 Refurbishing existing facades

Typical U-values [W/m2K] for structural components in existing buildings

Exterior wall Top storey ceiling / flat roof Pitched roof Cellar ceiling /
ground floor flooring
Prior to 1918

Brick or drystone wall D 2.2* Timber beam ceiling with D 1 No insulation, plaster on rush D 2.6* Timber beam ceiling with D 1
A cob cladding A matting or wooden slats A cob cladding A

Timber frame with wattle D 2.0* Cob between rafters, D 1.3* Stone floor on the earth or D 2.9*
and daub A plastered on the underside A vaulted cellar A

Brick wall 25 – 38 cm D 1.7* Timber beam ceiling with a D 0.8 No insulation, plaster on D 2.6* Timber beam ceiling with a D 0.8
A raised floor and puddle clay A rush matting or wooden slats A raised floor and puddle clay A
1880 –1948

Single-skin masonry 38 – 51 cm D 1.4* Cob between rafters, D 1.3* Solid, cylindrical vaulted D 1.2
or double-skin masonry A plastered on the underside A ceiling A
L

Lightweight hollow-block, D 1.4* Concrete ceiling, ribbed slab, D 2.1* Cement-bonded, wood wool D 1.4* Concrete ceiling, ribbed slab, D 1.5*
honeycomb block or aerated A reinforced concrete ceiling A panels 3.5 cm, plastered A reinforced concrete ceiling A
concrete masonry L with minimal footfall sound L
1949 –1968

insulation

Solid pumice masonry D 0.9 Timber beam ceiling with a D 0.8 Solid pumice blocks D 1.4* Timber beam ceiling with a D 0.8
A raised floor A between rafters A raised floor A

Insulation between rafters D 0.8

5 cm A
L

Lightweight porous brick D 1 Concrete ceiling with 5 cm D 0.6 Cement-bonded, wood wool D 1.4* Concrete ceiling with 2 cm D 1
masonry with normal mortar A insulation on upper side A panels, 3.5 cm, plastered A footfall sound insulation A
L L
1969 –1978

Precast concrete slab with A 1.1 Flat roof: concrete ceiling with D 0.5 Solid pumice blocks D 1.4*
core insulation or made from L 6 cm insulation on upper side A between rafters A
lightweight concrete (cold roof) L

Timber stud wall with 6 cm D 0.6 Timber beam ceiling with D 0.8 Insulation between rafters, D 0.8
insulation 4 cm insulation (timber / 5 cm A
prefab. building) L

Lightweight / vertically D 0.8 Concrete ceiling with 8 cm D 0.5 Insulation between rafters, D 0.5 Concrete ceiling with 4 cm D 0.8
perforated brick masonry A insulation on upper side A 8 cm A footfall sound insulation A
with light mortar L

Aerated concrete masonry D 0.6 Flat roof: concrete ceiling with A 0.5
1979 –1983

A 8 cm insulation (warm roof) L

Precast concrete slab with A 0.9 Timber beam ceiling with D 0.5
core insulation or made from L 8 cm insulation (timber /
lightweight concrete prefab. building)

Timber stud wall with 8 cm D 0.5

insulation

Lightweight / vertically D 0.6 Concrete ceiling with 12 cm D 0.3 Insulation between rafters, D 0.4 Concrete ceiling with 5 cm D 0.6
perforated brick masonry A insulation on upper side A 12 cm A footfall sound insulation A
1984 –1994

with light mortar L L L

Aerated concrete masonry D 0.5 Timber beam ceiling with D 0.3

12 cm insulation (timber /
prefab. building)
D = Detached house, A = Apartment house, L = Large apartment block / high-rise building Source: dena (The German Energy Agency)
* A general overall U-value of 1.0 W/m2K can be applied if insulating panels at least 2 cm thick are retrofitted.
C 5.7

333
Refurbishing existing facades
structural and design properties of such
systems in the chapters on “Multilayer
glass facades” (p. 238ff.) and “Solar energy”
(p. 294ff.).
Concluding remarks
As noted at the outset, refurbishing existing
buildings to improve their energy use is a cen-
tral task in achieving Germany’s transition to
an energy supply based heavily on renewable
energies and meeting the European Union’s
energy efficiency goals, which set nearly zero-
energy standards for new and renovated build-
C 5.8 ings [10]. The refurbishing of buildings’ tech-
nical services and existing building envelopes
will play a central role in reaching these goals.
Refurbishing measures will especially focus on
facades because of their large area.
A wealth of strategies and construction options
are available for refurbishing facades that
make it possible to greatly improve their energy
use while retaining their functional and design
qualities. Planners should seek solutions that
take not just a facade’s energy properties into
account but also involve other qualities such as
comfort, qualities of light and space, and archi-
tectural/cultural aspects. Sensitive solutions
must be developed, especially for historically,
artistically and architecturally valuable build-
ings which will preserve cultural heritage and
the building’s identity for the future.
At the same time, the refurbishing of buildings
to improve their energy use represents an
enormous opportunity to give buildings with
less cogent designs a new, more appealing
functional and aesthetic face and, beyond
focusing on energy consumption requirements,
to upgrade buildings, and with them, perhaps
whole neighbourhoods in an architectural /
cultural sense. As well as implementing Ger-
many’s transition to an energy supply based
heavily on renewable energies, such refur-
bishing efforts could yield a fear greater over-
all potential, one that must be utilised in order
to achieve an overall upgrade of our built
environment.
C 5.9
334
C 5.8 Abgeordnetenhaus [House of Representatives
building] Ismaninger Straße, Munich (DE) 2013,
Hild und K
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
C 5.9 Holiday house, Scaiano (CH) 2004, Markus
Wespi, Jérôme de Meuron
Vertical cross section Scale 1:20
C 5.10 Renovation of an old barn, Bilka (CZ) 2012,
A2F Architekten
C 5.11 Holiday house, Scaiano (CH) 2004, Markus
Wespi, Jérôme de Meuron
C 5.12 Conversion of Astley Castle, Nuneaton (GB) 2012,
Witherford Watson Mann Architects
C 5.13 Office building, Milan (IT) 2012, Park Associati
C 5.14 Office building, Düsseldorf (DE) 1998, Petzinka
Pink Architekten
C 5.15 Abgeordnetenhaus [House of Representatives
building], Ismaninger Straße, Munich (DE) 2013,
Hild und K
C 5.16 Renovation of a school, Buchloe (DE) 2011,
müllerschurr.architekten
C 5.17 Redevelopment of a block of baroque houses,
Ljubljana (SI) 2012, Ofis Arhiteki
Notes:
[1] cf. Richarz, Clemens et al.: Energetische Sanie-
rung – Grundlagen, Details, Beispiele. Munich 2006,
p. 8
[2] Nemeth, Isabell et al.: Energetische Gebäude-
sanierung in Bayern. Study by the Center for Sus-
tainable Building at the Technical University of
Munich commissioned by the Bavarian Industry
Association and the Bavarian Employers’ Associ-
ations for the Metalworking and Electrical Industries,
Munich 2012
[3] Energiegerechtes Bauen und Modernisieren.
Published by the Wuppertal Institute for Climate,
Environment and Energy. Basel 1996, p. 143 –150
[4] ibid., p. 129 –162
[5] A detailed description of the various combinations
of layers and shells that can be used in facade con-
struction can be found in the chapter on “Surfaces –
structural principles”, p. 26ff.
[6] Fachverband Wärmedämmverbundsysteme e. V.:
Leitfaden Innendämmung 2013. Baden-Baden
2013
[7] For detailed descriptions of the use of interior insula-
tion see also Richarz, Clemens et al., Energetische
Sanierung – Grundlagen, Details, Beispiele. Munich
p. 38 –40
[8] cf. Balkowski, Michael: Nachträgliche Innendäm-
mung von Außenwänden. In Detail 05/2011, p. 616ff.
[9] As for Note 1, p. 40
[10] Article 2, Paragraph 2 of the new Issue of EU Dir-
ective 2010/31/EU of 19 May 2010 on the energy
performance of buildings defines a “nearly zero-
energy building” as one that has a very high energy
performance as determined in accordance with
Annex I.
 Refurbishing existing facades

C 5.10 C 5.11

C 5.12 C 5.13

C 5.14 C 5.15

C 5.16 C 5.17

335

C 6 Green facades
C 6.1 Historic example of a green facade
One special topic in the context of innovative
facade solutions for (energy-efficient) buildings
is green facades (also known as vertical gar-
dens or living walls). Inspired by current discus-
sions on ecology and sustainability in construc-
tion, facade landscapes including (kitchen)
gardens (“skyfarming”) and “vertical forests”
are now being incorporated into many con-
struction projects (Fig. C 6.8, p. 341).
While the green roof has been trialled and
become established in recent decades, green
facades seem to be a newer field. Green build-
ing surfaces have many ecological advantages,
especially in densely-populated inner cities.
They improve the (micro) climate and plants are
essential elements in an environmentally-friend-
ly, humane living and working environment.
In Central Europe, the first effects of expected
climate change are already making themselves
felt. Air heats up much more quickly in urban
areas than it does on a national average. Green
facade surfaces naturally modulate the climate
in buildings and urban areas through adiabatic
cooling processes and can greatly reduce the
effect of urban “heat islands”, especially at hot
times of year and in southern regions. The city
of Nuremberg’s Department of Environment
and Health has emphasised roof and facade
greening measures as “climatically significant
design elements” in improving urban climates
in polluted and largely paved and sealed areas
[1] and as satisfyingly combining functionality
with aesthetic concerns [2].
Together with green spaces and tree plant-
ings, green building surfaces have far-reaching
significance for wider urban green spaces
because they directly influence local environ-
mental conditions:
• Improving air quality
• Reducing noise levels
• Cooling and humidifying the air
• Enriching the air with oxygen
• Providing shade
• Having a positive effect on human psychology
• Providing habitats for small animals and
insects
Despite their general popularity and a certain
“trendiness”, not all types of plants can be arbi-
trarily grown in any climatic condition or struc-
tural situation, although a wide range of botan-
ical and technical solutions is available, ranging
from plantings of self-climbing and climbing
plants through to completely green surfaces
with textile substrata on special backing mater-
ial and modular systems ranging in size from
small-scale through to storey height.
Facades extensively planted with plants such
as Virginia creeper, ivy, clematis or wisteria
require regular care to manage the plants’
growth. This is often underestimated in plan-
ning and creating such plantings. As well as
climbing plants, perennials, smaller shrubs
and mosses are suitable for green facades.
Green facades
Planting in and on facades
People have made targeted use of climbing
plants since antiquity. In regions with wine-
growing traditions such as Egypt, pergola struc-
tures (arbours) covered with vines were de-
scribed as providing shade in around 2600 BC.
The people in these regions identified with their
vines and developed a strong affinity with green
facades over the centuries.
The first references to climbing plants such as
ivy grown in “troughs” (tubs of earth) for this
purpose date back to the mid 2nd century BC
in Greece. The Romans also wrote in detail of
their “pergolas covered in roses, vine-shaded
arbours and ivy-entwined grottos” [3] in public
and private spaces. Pliny the Younger was the
first to mention a green facade in one of his
descriptions of buildings. “An abundant vine
grows over the entire building up to the roof
ridge and climbs all over it. You lie here just as
if you were in a forest, only you do not feel the
rain as you do in a forest” [4].
Roman gardening culture was rediscovered
in Central Europe in the Middle Ages. During
the Renaissance, gardens were established
outside city walls and arbours, pergolas and
espaliers with climbing plants (especially honey-
suckle and roses) became more common.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, the range of
plant varieties planted was expanded. New
discoveries, especially from North America
and East Asia, extended the range of climbing
plant species. Systematic plant breeding also
began at around this time.
In the second half of the 19th century, the
first articles on “cladding plants” for covering
buildings with greenery were published. The
Lebensreform (life reform) movement, which
criticised humanity’s alienation from nature
due to industrialisation and urbanisation, fur-
thered this development in the years before
World War I. Renowned (landscape) architects
began to use climbing plants as design elem-
ents (“Decorative plants […] for the horticul-
tural ornamentation of residential streets” [5]),
connecting nature with architecture. Specialist
books and magazines described types of
climbing plants and their potential uses in
detail and discussed the influence of plants
on buildings, the urban landscape and the
“summer climate”.
In the 1920s, housing cooperatives in particu-
lar embraced this “flourishing” use of climb-
ing plants, but after 1945 the topic gradually
faded into the background. New formal lan-
guages and construction methods in architec-
ture, growing building heights, and hurdles
to gaining building permits increasingly
detached construction from the local (urban)
climate and building greening largely disap-
peared.
With criticism of “inhospitable” cities (Alexander
Mitscherlich) growing from the mid 1960s and
337
Green facades
the environmental movement beginning in the
1970s came a renewed focus on the import-
ance of plants in buildings and life. The green
roofs of suburban “eco-housing” estates in par-
ticular became spaces for planting designs.
Facades have increasingly been used for this
purpose since around 1980.
The structural significance of plantings
A functional use of vegetation can have nat-
ural, organic effects that positively influence
the microclimate around a facade. Plants can,
for example, be used as natural sunshades
in front of transparent openings. Depending
C 6.2 on their type and position, growth habit and
degree of leaf coverage, shade plantings can
help regulate the temperatures of layers of
air near facades. The botanical features of
the type of plants used play a vital role in the
effects that can be achieved [6].
Plantings on opaque walls can reduce their
surface temperatures and positively affect
the microclimate. Some types, such as ever-
green climbing plants (e.g. ivy or honeysuckle)
can form cushions of air with their dense foli-
age across large areas, reducing the cooling
of wall surfaces in winter and so functioning
as extra insulation. In contrast to conventional
insulation materials, the effects that can be
achieved vary with different plants and nat-
ural seasonal changes and depend on the
C 6.3 plants’ development and, in the case of wall-
mounted systems, on soil moisture. Studies
have shown that even well-insulated walls can
benefit from the additional insulating effects
of plants [7].
Decreasing facade surface temperatures can
also reduce the need to use compact, decen-
tralised ventilation units (see the chapter on
“Integrated facades”, p. 322ff.) while ensuring
that growing demands for fresh-air quality are
met with greater energy efficiency.
Classifications
Green facades can be classified into soil-
based types using climbing plants and wall-
C 6.4 mounted types with special planting systems
(Fig. C 6.6).
Soil-based green facades
Plants used in soil-based green facades can
generally be classified based on their climbing
behaviour as self-clinging climbing and climb-
ing plants requiring support:
• Self-clinging climbing plants can cling direct-
ly to a wall surface and spread out in a fan
shape. Direct planting with ivy or Virginia
creeper is inexpensive and requires relative-
ly little maintenance but not every exterior
wall is suitable for this purpose. To avoid
damage to buildings, such plants should
only be planted against solid walls (masonry,
concrete) (Figs. C 6.2 and C 6.4).
C 6.5
338
• Climbing plants requiring support need a
trellis or similar and based on their climbing
behaviours can be classified into twining
climbers (e.g. wisteria, honeysuckle) and
creepers (e.g. grapevines, clematis). These
plants grow autonomously upwards along
trellises / espaliers (Fig. C 6.3) – particularly
mesh or grid structures, but linear structures
with rods, tubes or cables can also be used.
Their spread is largely limited by the trellis.
Climbing plants need regular pruning. It must
be ensured that the plants are accessible
and the cost and effort involved in maintain-
ing them should be taken into consideration
in planning appropriate systems.
The speed of growth and climbing behaviour
of plants as well as the building’s height must
be considered when designing soil-based
green facades. Such plantings can last for 5 to
20 years (self-clinging climbing plants) or 3 to
12 years (climbing plants). Around 150 types
and species of climbing plants are suitable for
green facades in Germany. Such plantings
use a technique that has been developed and
refined for centuries and can be applied with
relatively little additional effort to a wide range
of exterior wall surfaces [8].
Construction technology
Soil-based green facades need a certain
amount of space in front of the plinth of the
exterior wall where plants can be planted and
develop roots. Planting substrata must be
carefully positioned to ensure that water can
run off and roots can grow away from the
building.
The construction and anchoring of trellises is
of vital importance. Fasteners (hanger bolts,
bolt and wall anchors, spacers) anchor planar
or linear structures in the load-bearing layer
of the external wall. Possible thermal bridges
must be considered and mounting and fasten-
ing components can be complex and costly if
layers of insulation are very thick.
Added structural loads must be considered if
plants such as wisteria are used in multistorey
plantings, although facade plantings usually
take many years to grow into huge, heavy
masses of vegetation. Structures must be able
to easily bear such loads from the outset. Suffi-
cient distance from sunshading systems and
openings is important because plants can
quickly grow into cavities and /or moving parts
and block them (Fig. C 6.1, p. 336). Structures
added to the fronts of facades (Fig. C 6.10,
p. 341) such as balconies and access and
maintenance walkways are also suitable for
(subsequent) greening.
C 6.2 Castello Sforzesco, Milan, (IT) 1450ff.
C 6.3 Goethe's garden house, Weimar (DE) 16th /
18th century
C 6.4 Villa Bonnier, Stockholm (SE) 1927
C 6.5 Magistratsabteilung 48 office building, Vienna (AT)
2010
C 6.6 Construction and vegetation parameters of deci-
sions on green facades [9]
 Green facades

Soil-based greening Facade greening

Planar growth directly Climbing plants that can Plants in horizontal plantings, Plants in vertical plantings – “vertical gardens”
on the facade be trained (depending on plant containers on support
climbing strategy) structures modular systems planar structures

Self-climbing plants: Root
climbers, holdfast climbers
Climbing and twining plants,
shrubs on espaliers
Perennials (e.g. grasses, ferns,
bulbs and tubers to some
extent), small shrubs, climbing
and twining plants, spreading
climbing plants to some extent
Perennials (e.g. grasses, Perennials (e.g. grasses,
ferns), small shrubs, mosses; ferns), small shrubs, mosses;
root climbers to some extent, root climbers to some extent,
spreading climbing plants spreading climbing plants

• No trellis necessary • Trellises / espaliers required • Substrata in containers (individ- • Substrata in elements consisting • Textile systems
(rods, tubes, cables, grids, nets) ual and linear containers) of baskets /gabions, mats, tubs • Textile substrata systems
• Substrate-bearing trough • Sheet metal systems with
system openings for plantings
• Directly planted artificial or nat- (textile or substrate carrier)
ural stone panels with rough sur- • Direct greening on nutrient-
faces conducive to plant growth bearing wall shells
Design criteria
Surface effect Surface effect Surface effect with
Surface effect with pre-culture: immediate
in 5 –20 years* in 3 –12 years* pre-culture: short-term

Scope for creative design: Scope for creative design:

Scope for creative design: large
low to medium medium
Structural and technical requirements
Rooting in substratum system / no connection with soil and soil moisture required,
Rooting in soil /connected to topsoil and soil moisture
no contact with subsoil

Water supply depends on location, as required Water and nutrient supply system required

Building authority approval may be relevant, certification of structural soundness necessary,

load-bearing structural elements must be protected from corrosion or made of a rustproof material

Facade must be protected from moisture and root penetration

Suitable for following walls
• Solid walls
(ensure joints are closed and
exterior skin is intact
Check that surface is suitable
for the plant physiology*)
Economic criteria
Investment costs: low
• Solid walls
• Timber structures, completely
covered or filled in (limited*)
• Metal structures, completely
covered or filled in (limited*)
• Facing shells (limited*)
• Curtain wall facade (limited*)
• Composite thermal insulation
systems
• Air collector facades
Investment costs:
low to high
• Solid walls
• Timber structures, completely
covered or filled in (limited*)
• Metal structures, completely
covered or filled in (limited*)
• Facing shells (limited*)
• Curtain wall facade (limited*)
• Composite thermal insulation
systems
• Air collector facades
Investment costs:
medium to high
• Solid walls
• Timber structures, completely
covered or filled in (limited*)
• Metal structures, completely
covered or filled in (limited*)
• Facing shells (limited*)
• Curtain wall facade (instead*)
• Composite thermal insulation
systems (limited*)
Investment costs: high
• Solid walls
• Timber structures, completely
covered or filled in (limited*)
• Metal structures, completely
covered or filled in (limited*)
• Facing shells (limited*)
• Curtain wall facade (instead*)
• Composite thermal insulation
systems

Potential savings in
facade design depending Immediate potential savings in facade design
on plant growth

Maintenance requirements: medium, increasing* Maintenance requirements: medium to high / horticultural*

Care and maintenance

Care and maintenance
cost and effort: Care and maintenance cost and effort: high
Ecological potential cost and effort: low*
medium to high*

Shading – relevant over the course of the year deciduous plants

Possible species
Possible species variety (flora / fauna) at the site: low to high* variety (flora / fauna) Possible species variety (flora / fauna) at the site: great*
at the site: medium*

Microclimatic relevance: Microclimatic relevance:

Immediate microclimatic relevance with pre-culture*
medium to long-term* medium-term*
* Figures supplied by the FBB (green buildings industry association), Projektgruppe Fassadenbegrünung (facade greening project group), FLL (Research society for landscape
development and landscaping), Regelwerk-Ausschuss Fassadenbegrünung Grundlage (facade greening regulations committee – sources): diagrams and content 1), additions
by the author, ©Nicole Pfoser, 07/2011
1)
FLL, 2000; Kaltenbach, 2008; Pfoser, 2009, 2010 a, 2010 b, 2011 a, 2011 b, 2011 c
C 6.6

339
Green facades
As well as the plants themselves, trellises,
espaliers, grids, nets (Fig. C 6.14) and cables
and their materials, formal structures and
colours can influence the look of facades.
These can be directly attached to solid walls
or at a distance from them. The materials’
very varied long-term durability (timber bat-
tens, metal gratings or meshes, stainless
steel cables) and the possibility of having to
replace trellises under masses of vegetation
must be considered when choosing them.
Re-tensioning options must be planned for
meshes and cable systems because the weight
of plants and wind, rain and snow loads can
exert substantial forces on trellises. It must
be ensured at an early stage of planning that
green facades will be accessible for regular
maintenance.
Wall-mounted green facades
Wall-mounted systems represent a new
approach to green facades, with plants in
pots and planters in front of windows as
the “prototype”. Since the mid 1990s, a wide
range of support systems for green facades
have been developed. French botanist Patrick
Blanc has worked with renowned architects
and an artistic and conceptional approach to
raise awareness of this topic (Fig. C 6.12).
Wall-mounted systems offer a much greater
range of design options in the individual
configuration of surfaces and combination of
different forms of plants than traditional soil-
based ones. Wall-mounted green facades
are however much more expensive because
their initial costs are significantly higher and
they require regular investment in maintenance
and upkeep.
There are few limitations on the type of plants
that can be used in wall-mounted green facades
because their (artificial) site conditions can be
specifically influenced by the use of water and
fertiliser [10] although interdisciplinary planning
at an early stage is essential to coordinate the
requirements imposed by botany, construction
and building services technologies. The follow-
ing systems and techniques are among those
that can be applied.
340
• Horizontal areas of vegetation
Wall-mounted plantings in pots, tubs (Figs.
C 6.7 and C 6.13) or gabion-type containers.
These systems are available in various sizes
and different materials and can be fixed in
various ways directly to a substructure on an
exterior wall or in structures in front of the
facade. They require automated watering
and regular maintenance.
• Vertical areas of vegetation
Wall-mounted vertical areas of vegetation
can be further subdivided into:
- Modular systems
Small prefabricated modules that can
be assembled to form larger, floor-to-ceil-
ing units and range from smaller areas
through to completely covered facades.
They require automated watering. Modular
systems usually entail a greater technical
and construction cost and effort.
- Water-retaining geo-fleece and porous
surfaces (Fig. C 6.11)
Planar systems can be used to create
freer designs ranging from smaller areas
up to completely covered facades. Their
watering systems must be checked
daily and such systems are susceptible
to frost.
Combinations can also be used, e.g. climbing
plants with trellises and tubs on each storey,
to more quickly create a green space for a
multistorey building, for example (Fig. C 6.9).
Structural technology issues
Vertical areas of vegetation are an unusual
place for plants to grow and if they are to
thrive in the long term they must have a
continuously functioning watering system.
Planners must also consider the load-bearing,
wind load, technical thermal insulation issues
and fire safety regulation aspects concerning
large areas of wall-mounted greenery. Pipe
and cable routing and the electricity required
for watering must be coordinated and a sep-
arate utility room, which will also have to be
easily accessible to allow for regular upkeep
and maintenance, may have to be added in
planning.
As with solar facades, interfaces between
various trades are a major challenge for wall-
mounted green facade designers. The plants’
requirements, the demands of construction
(e.g. construction methods and design rules)
and watering and drainage specifications must
all be coordinated with electrical installations
and occupational safety. Apart from smaller
and larger tubs (plant pots and planters),
systems often differ greatly in their structures
(functional layers), measurements, surface
weight, watering management and the mater-
ials used for plant containers and fasteners.
Many products currently on the market are also
company-specific solutions[11].
Wall-mounted facade plantings are usually
fixed, i.e. it is the plants, with their various var-
ieties and growth habits (flowering and sea-
sonal greenery) that constantly change the look
of the facade. Systems using plant troughs that
can follow the sun along a horizontal axis are
now also available on the market.
Facades of existing buildings can be planted
retrospectively, as demonstrated by the Vienna
municipal authority with its office building at
Margaretengürtel 48 (Fig. C 6.5). Here a modu-
lar approach was chosen, using evenly-spaced
horizontal plant troughs on a special frame.
These types of solutions prove that the evapor-
ation of water in such systems can make a major
contribution to cooling in summer, reducing the
number of air-conditioning units needed and sig-
nificantly lowering facade surface temperatures.
Plants on a facade open up new functional and
design possibilities in construction and urban
planning. They improve microclimates and the
quality of housing in the long term and are very
popular in private and commercial environments.
The varied potential of green facades on individ-
ual buildings, plots of land and urban spaces
has been scientifically demonstrated and some
practice-oriented guidelines are now available
[12]. Newer areas such as combinations with
rainwater use, evaporative cooling, decentral-
ised ventilation and solar technology (photo-
voltaic systems) are currently being explored
in more detail in ongoing research projects.
 Green facades

C 6.7 C 6.8
Notes:
[1] See also Klimafahrplan Nürnberg (Road map for
climate protection) 2010 – 2050. Published by the
City of Nuremberg / Department of Environment and
Health. Nuremberg 2014, p. 116, 126, 130
[2] One of the first to carry out a fundamental scientif-
ic survey of options for greening facades is Rudi
Baumann, who showed in his dissertation how much
potential there is for regulating local climates by
making appropriate use of vegetation, especially
twining plants, in temperate zones. Baumann, Rudi:
Pflanzliche Verschattungselemente an der Gebäu-
deoberfläche als Massnahme zur Reduzierung der
Strahlungsbelastung unter sommerlichen Bedin-
gungen [Plantings for shading building surfaces
and reducing solar radiation exposure in summer].
Kassel 1980
[3] Baumann, Rudi: Begrünte Architektur. Bauen und
Gestalten mit Kletterpflanzen. Munich 1983, p. 20
[4] Quoted by Fischer, Sören, in Paolo Veronese,
Andrea Palladio und die Stanza di Bacco in der C 6.9 C 6.10
Villa Barbaro als Pavillon Plinius des Jüngeren. In
Kunstgeschichte. Open Peer Reviewed Journal,
2013, p. 19
[5] Gerlach, Hans: Pflanzenschmuckkunst. Beispiele für
die gärtnerische Ausschmückung der Wohnstraßen.
In: Die Gartenwelt 15/1918, p. 113
[6] As for Note 3, p. 25 – 38
[7] Köhler, Manfred; Ottelè, Marc: Fassadenbegrünung.
In Köhler, Manfred (ed.) Handbuch Bauwerksbegrü-
nung. Cologne 2012, p. 116
[8] As for Note 7, p. 104
[9] As for Note 7, p. 105
[10] ibid., p. 105
[11] ibid., p. 126 –148; Kaltenbach, Frank, Lebende
Wände, vertikale Gärten – vom Blumentopf zur
grünen Systemfassade. In Detail, 12/2008,
p. 1,454 –1,466
[12] Pfoser, Nicole et al.: Gebäude Begrünung Energie.
Potenziale und Wechselwirkungen. Forschungs-
bericht. Darmstadt 08/2013
C 6.11 C 6.12

C 6.7 Tower Flower, Paris (FR) 2004,

Maison Edouard François
C 6.8 Bosco Verticale, Milan, (IT) 2006–12,
Steffano Boeri
C 6.9 Department of Physics at Humboldt University,
Berlin (DE) 2003, Augustin and Frank
C 6.10 Student accommodation, Sant Cugat del Vallès
(ES) 2011, dataAE
C 6.11 Sportplaza Mercator, Amsterdam (NL) 2006
CS Architects
C 6.12 Caixa Forum, Madrid (ES) 2008,
Herzog & de Meuron
C 6.13 z58, Shanghai (CN) 2006,
Kengo Kuma and associates
C 6.14 Student residence, Garching (DE) 2005,
Fink + Jocher
C 6.13 C 6.14

341
Authors
Thomas Herzog
1941 Born in Munich
1960 –1965 Studied architecture at the Technical Uni-
versity of Munich and in parallel completed training in
metalworking and ceramics trades
1965 –1969 Employed in the architects’ firm of Prof. Peter
C. von Seidlein, Munich
1969 –1973 Research assistant to the Chair of Building
Construction and Design at the University of Stuttgart
1971–1972 Studied at Deutsche Akademie Villa Massimo
in Rome
1972 Doctorate from Rome’s La Sapienza University
since 1971 he has worked with partners at his own firm
in Stuttgart / Munich
1973 – 2006 university professor
- at University of Kassel, for Design and Product Devel-
opment
- at the Technical University of Darmstadt for Design
and Building Technologies
- at the Technical University of Munich (TUM), Institute
for “Design and Building Technology”, full professor
for “Building Technology” and Dean of the Faculty of
Architecture
since 2007 “Emeritus of Excellence” at the Technical
University of Munich
Visiting professor in Lausanne, Copenhagen, Philadel-
phia and Beijing
Member of Akademie der Künste (Academy of the Arts,
Berlin), Académie d’Architecture (Paris), the Bavarian
Academy of Fine Arts (Munich), the St Petersburg State
Academic Institute of Fine Arts, Sculpture and Architec-
ture, Fraunhofer Gesellschaft (Munich) and the Inter-
national Academy of Architecture (Sofia).
Awards (Selection):
1981 Mies-van-der-Rohe Prize
1993 Gold medal /Grand prize from the Bund Deutscher
Architekten (Association of German Architects)
1994 Balthasar-Neumann Prize
1996 Auguste-Perret Prize from the International Union of
Architects (UIA) for applied technology in architecture
1998 Den grønne Nål from the Association of Danish
Architects
1998 Leo-von-Klenze Medal
1998 “Grande médaille d’or d’architecture” from the
French Academy of Architecture
1999 Fritz-Schumacher Architecture Prize
2005 Heinz-Maier-Leibnitz Medal
2006 European Award for Architecture and Technology
2007 Honorary doctorate from Ferrara University in Italy
2009 Global Award for Sustainable Architecture
He has exhibited his work in numerous international
group and solo exhibitions and published books and
monographs in many languages.
www.thomasherzogarchitekten.de
342
Roland Krippner
1960 Born in Frankfurt / Main
1976 –1980 Trained as a mechanic
1982 –1987/1989 –1993 Studied architecture at the
University of Kassel
1993 Awarded his degree (II) and an award from the
Deutscher Stahlbau-Verband (German Steel Construc-
tion Federation), 3rd prize 1996
1988 –1989 Civilian service year at Landesamt für Denk-
malpflege Hessen (Hessen State Office for Historic
Buildings Conservation) in Marburg
Since 1989 publishing work
1993 –1995 Worked at the Büro für Architektur und Stadt-
planung (BAS), Kassel
since 1995 Freelance architect (R&D projects), author,
lecturer
1995 – 2006 Research assistant / assistant to the Chair
for Building Technologies, Prof. Dr. (Rome University)
Thomas Herzog, Faculty of Architecture, TUM
2004 Doctorate (Dr.-Ing.) at TUM on “Untersuchungen zu
Einsatzmöglichkeiten von Holzleichtbeton im Bereich
von Gebäudefassaden” (Investigations into applications
for lightweight wood chip concrete in building facades)
(Deutscher Holzbaupreis 2005; shortlisted in the “In-
novative building products” category)
2005 – 2006 Lectureship at Salzburg University of Applied
Sciences
2006 – 2007 Research assistant to the Chair for Industrial
Design, Prof. Dipl.-Des. Fritz Frenkler, TUM
2006 – 2007 Deputy professorship for Environmentally
Conscious Design and Construction at the University
of Kassel
2008 Lectureship at Munich University of Applied
Sciences
Since 2008 Professor for Construction and Technology at
Technische Hochschule Nürnberg Georg Simon Ohm
Werner Lang
1961 Born in Marktoberdorf
1982 –1988 Studied architecture at Technical University
of Munich (TUM)
1985 / 86 Further studies at the Architectural Association,
London
1988 Awarded his degree (recipient of the Hans Döllgast
Prize) from TUM
1988 –1990 Fulbright Scholarship to study at the Univer-
sity of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)
1990 Master of Architecture II (UCLA), Award for Best
Thesis from the UCLA School of Architecture and
Urban Planning
1990 –1994 Employed at Kurt Ackermann + Partner firm
of architects, Munich
Since 1994 publishing work
1994 – 2001 Research assistant to the Chair for Building
Technologies, Prof. Dr. (Univ. Rom) Thomas Herzog,
Faculty of Architecture, TUM
2000 Awarded his doctorate (Dr.-Ing.) by TUM and
recipient of the doctoral prize from Bund der Freunde
der TUM (the Friends of TUM)
2001– 2006 Employed at Werner Lang firm of architects,
Munich
2001– 2007 Lecturer on “Special facade construction
topics” and “Building materials” at the Faculty of Archi-
tecture, TUM
2006 Co-founder of Lang Hugger Rampp GmbH
Architekten architects’ firm, Munich
2008 – 2010 Associate Professor for Sustainable Planning
and Construction at the University of Texas at Austin
School of Architecture (UTSoA)
2009 – 2010 Director of the Center for Sustainable Devel-
opment at UTSoA
Since 2010 University professor for Energy-efficient and
Sustainable Design and Building at TUM;
Head of the Centre for Sustainable Building at TUM;
spokesman for the Centre for Urban Ecology and
Climate Adaptation (ZSK) at TUM
Director of the Oskar von Miller Forum, Munich
Awards:
2008 International Building Skin Tech Award, in collabor-
ation with T. Herzog and K. Stepan, ZAE Bavaria
2000 Bavarian Energy Prize from the Bavarian Ministry of
Economic Affairs and Media, Energy and Technology
2000 Holzkreativ Prize from Friends of the Earth, Germany
(Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz), honourable mention
in the timber construction category
www.langhuggerrampp.de
www.oskarvonmillerforum.de
 Modular coordination Clay
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everyone who contributed to this book’s production by Bauen und Forschen. Solothurn 1988, p. 3.1.4 zwischen Elbe und Oder. Munich 2001, p. 33
providing images, granting permission to reproduce their A 2.3.7 Bussat, Pierre: Die Modulordung im Hochbau. B 2.7 Manfred Klinkott, Karlsruhe
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and their staff created those graphics and tables for A 2.3.13 Girsberger, Hans (pub.): ac panel. Asbest- B 2.9 Halfen GmbH & Co. KG
which no other source is credited. Photos for which no zement-Verbundplatten und Elemente B 2.10 Ulrike Enders, Hanover
photographer is credited are architectural or work photos für Außenwände. Zurich 1967, p. 46 – 49 B 2.11 Halfen GmbH & Co. KG
or come from the archive of DETAIL magazine. Pfeifer, Günter et al., Mauerwerk Atlas.
Despite intensive efforts, we have been unable to identify Aspects of building physics and planning Munich / Basel 2001, p. 125
the copyright holders of some images, but their entitle- advice B 2.12 Kunstbibliothek Berlin
ment to claim copyright remains unaffected. In these A 3.1 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich B 2.13 Fischer-Daber, from l’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui
cases, we would ask you to contact us. Figures refer to A 3.2 Cremers, Jan (pub.): Atlas Gebäudeöffnungen. 205, 1979, p. 8
illustration numbers. Munich 2015, p. 50 B 2.14 Alessandra Chemollo, from Acocella, Alfonso,
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1 Stefan Cremers, Karlsruhe Munich / Basel 2001, p. 186, p. 190 B 2.18 – 20 Jaume Avellaneda, Barcelona
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3 Jan Cremers, Munich Munich 2011, p. 119 B 2.23 Roland Krippner, Munich
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9 –11 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 2.34 Alfonso Acocella, Florence
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14 Thomas, Herzog, Munich Part B B 2.36 Decorated walls of modern architecture.
15 Thomas Robbin, Herten p. 62 Wimmershoff, Heiner; Aachen Tokyo 1983, p. 30
16 Jan-Oliver Kunze / LIN, Paris / Berlin B 2.37– 38 Alfonso Acocella, Florence
17 doublespace photography, Toronto Natural stone B 2.39 Tectónica 15/2003, p. 21
19 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 1.1 Eloi Bonjoch, Barcelona B 2.40 – 41 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich
20 Ogawa, Shigeo / Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo B 1.2 – 3 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich B 2.42 – 43 Tectónica 15/2003, p. 18
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unseres Jahrhunderts in Zeichnungen. Utopie B 1.7 Hugues, Theodor et al.: Naturwerkstein. B 2.46 Alessandro Ciampi, Florence, from:
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B 1.8 Pepi Merisio, Bergamo, from Florence 2002, p. 98f.
External and internal conditions Merisio, Pepi; Barzanti, Roberto: Italy. p. 94 Bruno Klomfar, Vienna
A 1.3 – 5 Federal Office for Building and Regional Zurich 1975, p. 247 p. 95 Beat Bühler, Zurich
Planning (Bundesministerium für Raum- B 1.9 Eloi Bonjoch, Barcelona p. 96, 97 Dieter Leistner / ARTUR IMAGES
ordnung, Bauwesen und Städtebau) (pub.): B 1.10 Müller, Friedrich, Gesteinskunde. Ulm 1994, p. 98 Annette Kisling, Berlin / Leipzig
Handbuch Passive Nutzung der Sonnenenergie. p. 196 –197 p. 99 Andreas Lechtape, Münster
Heft 04.097. 1984, p. 78 /52 B 1.11 Hugues, Theodor et al.: Naturwerkstein. p. 100 Klaus Kinold, Munich
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beratung. Hamburg B 1.14 –16 Sandsteinmuseum Havixbeck
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ning Bundesministerium für Raumordnung, Betonwerkstein. Munich 2000, p. 58 B 3.1 Thomas Herzog, Munich
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04.097. 1984, p. 14 B 1.24 Müller, Friedrich: Gesteinskunde. Ulm 1994, B 3.4 BTU Cottbus, Lehrstuhl Entwerfen – Bauen im
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A 1.20 From Pültz, Gunter, Bauklimatischer Entwurf für B 1.27– 30 Christian Gahl, Berlin B 3.6 MIT Press, Cambridge
moderne Glasarchitektur. Passive Maßnahmen B 1.31– 37 From Hugues, Theodor et al.: B 3.7 Klaus Kinold, Munich
der Energieeinsparung. Berlin 2002, p. 89 Naturwerkstein. Munich 2002, p. 51ff. B 3.8 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich
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B 1.39 Müller, Friedrich: Gesteinskunde. Ulm 1994, lüftete Fassaden. Stuttgart /Zurich 1994, p. 161
Surfaces – structural principles p. 196 –197 B 3.11 DIN 18 500 Parts 1– 3. 1991
A 2.1.1 Peter Bonfig, Munich B 1.40 – 49 Hugues, Theodor et al.: B 3.12 InformationsZentrum Beton, Erkrath
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Edges, openings p. 76 Philippe Ruault, Nantes B 3.17 Großformatige Fassaden. Fassaden mit Holz-
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Munich / Basel 2003, p. 63 p. 80 Rupert Steiner, Vienna B 3.18 Archive Olgiati
A 2.2.6 Zürcher, Christoph; Frank, Thomas: Bauphysik. p. 81 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich B 3.19 –20 Dyckerhoff Weiss Marketing und Vertriebs-
Bd. 2 Bau und Energie – Leitfaden für Planung p. 82, 83 Roland Halbe, Stuttgart gesellschaft
und Praxis. Zurich / Stuttgart 1998, p. 80 p. 84 André Mühling, Munich p. 117 Georg Aerni, Zurich
A 2.2.9 –10 Fassade /Façade 03/2002, p. 24f. p. 85 top: Victor S. Brigola, Stuttgart p. 118, 119 Michael Compensis, Munich
db 09/2003, p. 87f. p. 85 bottom: André Mühling, Munich p. 120 © Jens Weber, Munich

343
p. 121 Ulrich Schwarz, Berlin
p. 122 Roland Schneider
p. 123 Roland Halbe /ARTUR IMAGES
p. 124 Roland Halbe, Stuttgart
p. 125 Daniel Malhão, Lisbon
p. 126, 127 Christian Richters, Münster
p. 128 Brigida González, Stuttgart
p. 129 Bruno Klomfar, Vienna
Timber
B 4.1 Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo
B 4.2 Sawyer, Peter: The Oxford illustrated history
of the Vikings. Oxford 1997, p. 191
B 4.3 Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas.
Munich 2003, p. 26
B 4.4 Edoardo Gellner, Cortina d’Ampezzo
B 4.5 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich
B 4.6 –7 Herzog, Thomas et al.: Holzbau Atlas.
Munich 2003, p. 31– 33
B 4.8 Baus, Ursula, Siegele, Klaus, Holzfassaden.
Stuttgart / Munich 2001, p. 19
B 4.9 –10 Herzog, Thomas et al., Holzbau Atlas.
Munich 2003, p. 34 – 46
B 4.11 Hans-Joachim Heyer, Boris Miklautsch / Werk-
statt für Photographie, University of Stuttgart
B 4.12 Friedemann Zeitler, Penzberg
B 4.13 Hans-Joachim Heyer, Boris Miklautsch / Werk-
statt für Photographie, University of Stuttgart
B 4.14 Herzog, Thomas et al., Holzbau Atlas.
Munich, 2003, p. 43
B 4.15 Hans-Joachim Heyer, Boris Miklautsch / Werk-
statt für Photographie, University of Stuttgart
B 4.16 Herzog, Thomas et al., Holzbau Atlas.
Munich, 2003, p. 40
B 4.17 Hans-Joachim Heyer, Boris Miklautsch / Werk-
statt für Photographie, University of Stuttgart
B 4.18 Strandex Europe, Walmley
B 4.19 Christian Cerliani, Zurich
B 4.20 Ruedi Walti, Basel
B 4.21 Jonathan Levi, Boston
B 4.22 – 23 Christian Richters, Münster
B 4.24 Eduard Hueber, New York
B 4.25 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES
B 4.26 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich
B 4.27 Annegret Rieger, Munich
B 4.28 Heike Werner, Munich
B 4.29 Friedrich Busam /architekturphoto,
Düsseldorf
B 4.30 Reto Führer, Felsberg
B 4.31 Christian Richters, Münster
B 4.32 – 34 Sampo Widmann, Munich
B 4.35 – 41 Informationsdienst Holz, Düsseldorf 1992
B 4.42 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich
B 4.43 Werner Huthmacher /ARTUR IMAGES
B 4.44 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich
B 4.45 Roland Schweitzer, Paris
B 4.46 Roland Halbe, Stuttgart
B 4.47 Roland Schweitzer, Paris
B 4.48 – 49 Theo Ott Holzschindeln GmbH, Ainring
B 4.50 Gerhard Hagen, Bamberg
B 4.51 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich
B 4.52 Satoshi Asakawa, Tokyo
B 4.53 Hans-Georg Esch, Hennef
p. 142 top: Michael Freeman, London
p. 142 bottom: Sampo Widmann, Munich
p. 144, 145 Christian Richters, Münster
p. 146 Heinrich Helfenstein, Adliswil
p. 147 Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo
p. 148 Peter Bonfig, Munich
p. 149 Henning Koepke, Munich
p. 150 Christian Richters, Münster
p. 151 Dietmar Strauß, Besigheim
p. 152 Marko Huttunen, Helsinki
p. 153 Daniel Malhão, Lisbon
p. 154 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES
p. 157 Büro Kaufmann, Dornbirn
Metal
B 5.1 Jo Reid & John Peck, Newport
B 5.2 N. P. Goulandris Foundation, Museum of
Cycladic Art, Athens
B 5.3 Münchener Stadtmuseum, Munich
344
B 5.4 John Gay, London, from, Murray, John (pub.):
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B 5.5 The Estate of R. Buckminster Fuller,
Santa Barbara
B 5.6 Erika Sulzer-Kleinemeier, Gleisweiler
B 5.7 Ardean Miller, New York, from Airstream –
The history of the land yacht. San Francisco,
p. 69
B 5.9 –10 Jo Reid & John Peck, Newport
B 5.11 Jan Cremers, Munich
B 5.12 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich
B 5.13 Jan Cremers, Munich
B 5.14 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich
B 5.15 Jan Cremers, Munich
B 5.16 Dennis Gilbert / VIEW /ARTUR IMAGES
B 5.17 Jan Cremers, Munich
B 5.21 Hoesch Siegerlandwerke GmbH; Siegen
B 5.22 Alcan Singen GmbH; Singen
B 5.24 Photos: Frank Kaltenbach, Munich
B 5.25 Peter Cook / VIEW /ARTUR IMAGES
B 5.27 Heinrich Fiedler GmbH & Co. KG; Regensburg
B 5.28 – 32 Mevaco GmbH; Schlierbach
B 5.33 – 34 Alcan Singen GmbH; Singen
B 5.35 Heike Werner, Munich
B 5.36 – 37 Heinrich Fiedler GmbH & Co. KG;
Regensburg
B 1.5.38 – 39 Heike Werner, Munich
B 1.5.40 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich
B 1.5.41 Heinrich Fiedler GmbH & Co. KG;
Regensburg
B 1.5.42 AIM; Nürtingen
B 1.5.44, 46 From Kaltenbach, Frank (pub.):
Transluzente Materialien. Glas, Kunststoff,
Metall. Detail Praxis. Munich, 2003, p. 98
B 1.5.47 Heike Werner, Munich
B 1.5.48 V. Carl Schröter, Hamburg
B 1.5.49 – 50 Heike Werner, Munich
B 1.5.51 Hauer und Boecker; Oelde
B 1.5.52 Heike Werner, Munich
B 1.5.53 – 54 Gebr. Kufferath GmbH & Co. KG; Düren
p. 172, 173 Dieter Lechner, Munich
p. 174, 175 Bernhard Moosbrugger, Zurich
p. 176 John Donat, London
p. 177 left: Werner Lang, Munich
p. 177 right: Ken Kirkwood, Desborough
p. 178, 179 Stefan Müller, Berlin
p. 180 Werner Huthmacher, Berlin
p. 181 Cree GmbH
p. 182 Paul Warchol, New York
p. 183 Christian Richters, Münster
p. 184 Heinrich Helfenstein, Zurich
p. 185 Klemens Ortmeyer /architekturphoto,
Düsseldorf
p. 186, 187 Hélène Binet, London
Glass
B 6.1 Dennis Gilbert / VIEW/ARTUR IMAGES
B 6.2 Achim Bednorz, Cologne
B 6.3 Daidalos 66/1997, p. 85
B 6.5 Georges Fessy, Paris
B 6.6 Werner Lang, Munich
B 6.7– 9 Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas.
Munich / Basel 1998
B 6.11 Roderick Coyne, London
B 6.12 Hans-Georg Esch, Hennef
B 6.13 Georges Fessy, Paris
B 6.14 Christian Schittich, Munich
B 6.15 Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas.
Munich / Basel 1998, p. 90
B 6.16 –17 Herzog, Thomas: Sonderthemen
Baukonstruktion. Materialspezifische
Technologie und Konstruktion – Gläser,
Häute und Membranen. Munich 1998,
p. 11 (unpublished)
B 6.18 – 20 Schittich, Christian et al., Glasbau Atlas.
Munich / Basel 1998
B 6.21 Klaus Littmann, https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Gro%C3%9Fer_Garten_(Hannover)#/media/
File:Glasfoyer_im_Gro%C3%9Fen_Garten.jpg,
CC BY-SA 3.0
B 6.22 Herzog, Thomas: Sonderthemen Bau-
konstruktion. Materialspezifische Technologie
und Konstruktion – Gläser, Häute und Mem-
branen. Munich 1998, p. 36 (unpublished)
B 6.23 Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas.
Munich / Basel 1998, p. 120
B 6.24 – 25 Kaltenbach, Frank (pub.): Transluzente
Materialien. Munich 2003
B 6.26 – 28 Schittich, Christian et al.: Glasbau Atlas.
Munich / Basel 1998
B 6.29 David Sundberg, New York
p. 198 Nigel Young, Surrey
p. 199 Duccio Malagamba, Barcelona
p. 200, 201 top: Florian Holzherr, Munich
p. 201 bottom: Christian Richters, Münster
p. 202 top left: Kim Yong Kwan, Seoul
p. 202 top right, bottom: Timothy Hursley, Little Rock
p. 203 Kim Yong Kwan, Seoul
p. 204 top: Christian Schittich, Munich
p. 204 middle: Herzog & de Meuron, Basel
p. 204 bottom: Maxim Schulz, Hamburg
p. 205 Herzog & de Meuron, Basel
p. 206 top: Dennis Gilbert / VIEW /ARTUR IMAGES
p. 206 bottom: John Linden, Woodland Hills
p. 207 Jörg Hempel, Aachen
p. 208 Michel Denancé, Paris
p. 209 Christian Schittich, Munich
p. 210 Hans Ege, Waggis
p. 211 John Linden, Woodland Hills
p. 212, 213 Jocelyne van den Bossche, London
p. 214, 215 Dennis Gilbert / VIEW /ARTUR IMAGES
Plastics
B 7.1 Simon Burt /APEX, Exminster
B 7.2 Hans Hansen / Vitra, Hamburg
B 7.3 The MIT Museum, from Hess, Alan, Googie:
Fifties Coffee Shop Architecture. San Francisco
1986, p. 50
B 7.4 – 5 Centraal Museum, Utrecht
B 7.6 Buckminster Fuller Institute, Los Angeles
B 7.7 Frei Otto, Warmbronn
B 7.8 Richard Einzig /Arcaid, Kingston upon Thames
B 7.10 Christian Kandzia, Stuttgart
B 7.12 Werner Lang, Munich
B 7.13 Tohru Waki / Shokokusha, Tokyo
B 7.14 –16 Kaltenbach, Frank (pub.): Transluzente
Materialien. Munich, 2003
B 7.17 Hufton + Grow, Hertford
B 7.18 – 21 Detail 06/2000, p. 1,048 –1,054
B 7.22 Ingmar Kurth, Frankfurt
p. 224 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich
p. 225 Wolfram Janzer /ARTUR IMAGES
p. 226 Christian Richter, Münster
p. 227 Bleda + Rosa, Valencia
ps. 228, 229 Philippe Ruault, Nantes
p. 230 Adam Mork, Copenhagen
p. 231 Werner Lang, Munich
p. 232 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich
p. 233 Allianz Arena, Munich
ps. 234, 235 Skyspan (Europe) GmbH, Rimsting
Part C
p. 236 Thomas Herzog, Munich
Multilayer glass facades
C 1.1 Zooey Braun /ARTUR IMAGES
C 1.2 Werner Lang, Munich
C 1.5 Werner Lang, Munich
C 1.7 Waltraud Krase, Frankfurt
C 1.8 Richard Schenkirz, Leonberg
C 1.11 Rudi Graf, Munich
C 1.15 Richard Bryant, Kingston upon Thames
C 1.18 –19 Werner Lang, Munich
C 1.22 – 23 Werner Lang, Munich
C 1.26 Hans-Georg Esch, Hennef
C 1.27 Jürgen Schmidt, Cologne
p. 247 top: Achim Bednorz, Cologne
p. 247 bottom: Werner Lang, Munich
p. 248, 249 unten: Roland Halbe /ARTUR IMAGES
p. 250 Christian Richters, Münster
p. 251 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich
ps. 252, 253 Jörg Hempel, Aachen
p. 254 top: Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES
p. 254 bottom: Thomas Riehle /ARTUR IMAGES C 3.15 Schott Glas, Mainz The authors and publisher would like to thank the follow-
p. 255 Thomas Riehle /ARTUR IMAGES C 3.17 Bernd Thissen / Energie Solaire S.A., ing people, manufacturers and companies for providing
ps. 256, 257 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES Sierre information and / or drawings:
p. 258, 259 Holger Knauf, Düsseldorf C 3.18 Heiko Hellwig, Stuttgart
p. 260 Ralf Richter, Düsseldorf C 3.20 Schittich, Christian (pub.): Gebäudehüllen. Barbara Finke, Berlin (DE)
p. 261 top: Christian Kandzia, Esslingen Munich, 2001, p. 53 Böhmer Natursteinbau GmbH, Leutenbach (DE)
p. 261 middle: Ralf Richter, Düsseldorf C 3.21 Roland Krippner, Munich Cordelia Denks, Munich (DE)
p. 261 bottom: Martin Schodder, Stuttgart C 3.22 Team Rooftop, Berlin Dach + Wand Wolf GmbH & Co. KG, Dornbirn (AT)
p. 262 Duccio Malagamba, Barcelona C 3.23 Jan-Oliver Kunze, Berlin Delzer Kybernetik GmbH, Lörrach (DE)
p. 263 Roland Halbe /ARTUR IMAGES C 3.24 Jochen Helle, Dortmund F. Brüderlin Söhne GmbH, Schopfheim (DE)
p. 264 Frédéric Druot, Paris C 3.25 – 26 Jakob Schoof, Munich Götz GmbH, Würzburg (DE)
p. 265 Torben Eskerod, Copenhagen C 3.27 Jens Passoth, Berlin Halfen GmbH & Co. KG, Langenfeld (DE)
p. 304 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich Hightex Group, Rimsting (DE)
Manipulators p. 305 Ruedi Walti, Basel Jörg Eschwey, ESO Chile (CL)
C 2.1 Jean-Marie Hellwig / Prouvé-Archiv Peter Sulzer, p. 306 Nick Brändli, Zurich Josef Gartner GmbH, Gundelfingen (DE)
Gleisweiler p. 307 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES Lavis Stahlbau GmbH, Offenbach (DE)
C 2.3 – 4 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich p. 308 Willi Kracher, Zurich Magnus Müller GmbH, Butzbach (DE)
C 2.5 Klaus Zwerger, Vienna p. 309 Margherita Spiluttini, Vienna Metallbau A. Sauritschnig GmbH, St. Veit / Glan (AT)
C 2.6 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich ps. 310, 311 Roland Halbe /ARTUR IMAGES MEW Manfroni Engineering Workshop, Bologna (IT)
C 2.7 ISOTEG Final report. TU Munich, Chair p. 312 Jens Willebrand, Cologne Moeding Keramikfassaden GmbH, Marklkofen (DE)
for Building Technologies. Munich 2001 p. 313 Jordi Miralles, Barcelona nbk Keramik GmbH & Co., Emmerich (DE)
(unpublished) p. 314 top: Christian Richters, Münster NMP Naturstein Montage GmbH & Co. KG, Vienna (AT)
C 2.8 Werner Lang, Munich p. 314 bottom: Entwicklungsgesellschaft Akademie Serge Lochu, Cosylva Paris-Ouest (FR)
C 2.9 Margherita Spiluttini, Vienna Mont-Cenis mbH, Herne Stahlbau Wörsching GmbH & Co. KG, Starnberg (DE)
C 2.10 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich p. 316 Arnold Brunner, Freiburg Wortmann Projektbau GmbH, Wenden (DE)
C 2.11 Hans Werlemann, Rotterdam p. 317 Eibe Sönnecken, Darmstadt
C 2.12 Michael Heinrich, Munich p. 318 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich
C 2.13 Christian Gahl, Berlin p. 319 top: Frank Kaltenbach, Munich
C 2.14 Roland Halbe /ARTUR IMAGES bottom: FG+SG fotografia de arquitectura,
C 2.15 Eduard Hueber, New York Lisbon
C 2.16 Margherita Spiluttini, Vienna p. 320 top: Holger Groß, Berlin
C 2.17 Christian Richters, Münster bottom: Hans-Georg Esch, Hennef
C 2.18 Moritz Korn p. 321 Christian Richters, Münster
C 2.19 Dominic Büttner, Zurich
C 2.20 Klaus Kinold, Munich Integrated facades
C 2.21 Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo C 4.1 Reiner Rehfeld, Düsseldorf
C 2.23 Satoshi Asakawa, Tokyo C 4.2 Jan Cremers, Munich
C 2.24 Constantin Beyer, Weimar C 4.3 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich
C 2.25 Ralph Feiner, Malans C 4.4 www.top-air.it
C 2.26 Hans-Peter Wörndl, Vienna C 4.5 www.trox.de
C 2.27 Ritchie Müller, Munich C 4.6 Fraunhofer-in-Haus-Zentrum,
C 2.28 Daniel Westenberger, Munich Duisburg
C 2.29 Andreas Gabriel, Munich C 4.7 Thomas Ott, Mühltal
C 2.30 René Furer, Benglen C 4.8 Constantin Meyer, Cologne
C 2.31 Thomas Lenzen, Munich C 4.9 Andrea Helbing, Zurich
C 2.32 Earl Carter, St. Kilda C 4.10 Maximilian Meisse, Berlin
p. 274 Therese Beyeler, Bern C 4.11 Fraunhofer-inHaus-Zentrum, Duisburg
p. 275 Tomio Ohashi, Tokyo C 4.12 Thomas Jantscher, Colombier
ps. 276, 277 bottom: Hisao Suzuki, Barcelona C 4.13 Rainer Viertlböck, Gauting
p. 277 top: Georges Fessy, Paris C 4.14 Daniel Reisch, Augsburg
p. 278 Ingrid Voth-Amslinger, Munich C 4.15 Daniel Reisch, Augsburg
p. 279 Michael Heinrich, Munich
ps. 280, 281 Günter Wett, Innsbruck Refurbishing existing facades
p. 282 Christian Richters, Münster C 5.1 Archiv Ruinelli Associati, Soglio
p. 283 Lukas Roth, Cologne C 5.2 Fraunhofer IBP
p. 284 Eduard Hueber, New York C 5.3 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich
p. 285 top: Jan Bitter, Berlin C 5.4 Elias Hassos, Munich
p. 285 bottom: Annette Kisling, Berlin C 5.5 © Jens Weber, Munich
p. 286 Kees Hummel, Amsterdam C 5.10 Ester Havlová, Prague
p. 287 top Dietmar Strauß, Besigheim C 5.11 Hannes Henz, Zurich
p. 288 Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo C 5.12 Phillip Vile, London
p. 289 Hiroyuki Hirai, Tokyo C 5.13 Andrea Martiradonna, Milan
p. 290 Robertino Nikolic, Wiesbaden C 5.14 Thomas Riehle /ARTUR IMAGES
p. 291 top: Robertino Nikolic, Wiesbaden C 5.15 Jakob Schoof, Munich
p. 291 bottom: Thomas Ott, Mühltal C 5.16 Michael Kiechle-Pausch / IMAGE FOR YOU,
p. 292 Richie Müller, Munich Mauerstetten
p. 293 top: Sergio Padura, Hecho C 5.17 Tomaz Greoric, Ljubljana
p. 293 bottom: Paul Riddle / VIEW /ARTUR IMAGES
Green facades
Solar energy C 6.3 Roland Krippner, Munich
C 3.1 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich C 6.4 Roland Krippner, Munich
C 3.4 – 5 Verena Herzog-Loibl, Munich C 6.5 Roland Krippner, Munich
C 3.6 Arthur Köster / Stiftung Archiv der Akademie C 6.6 Nicole Pfoser, Darmstadt, from Köhler,
der Künste, Berlin Manfred (pub.): Handbuch Bauwerks-
C 3.7 Robert Krier begrünung. Cologne 2012, p.109
C 3.8 – 9 TWD Eigenschaften und Funktionen. C 6.7 Paul Raftery
Info-Mappe 2 des Fachverbands TWD. C 6.8 Werner Lang, Munich
Gundelfingen 2000, p. 5 C 6.9 Roland Krippner, Munich
C 3.10 –11 Roland Krippner, Munich C 6.10 Adria Goula, Barcelona
C 3.12 Dieter Leistner /ARTUR IMAGES C 6.11 Luuk Kramer, Amsterdam
C 3.13 Viessmannwerke, Allendorf C 6.12 Christian Richters, Münster
C 3.14 Viessmannwerke, Allendorf C 6.14 Fink + Jocher, Munich

345
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347

Statutory regulations,
directives and standards
The EU has passed directives on a number of products
to ensure the safety and health of their users. These
directives must be incorporated into binding laws and
statutory regulations in member states.
The directives themselves do not contain any technical
details, only fundamental binding specifications. The
relevant technical values are specified in related tech-
nical rules and in harmonised European standards
(EN standards).
Technical rules provide practical guidance and auxiliary
tools for everyday work. They are not legal regulations
but offer help in making decisions, form guidelines for
correct technical procedure and /or render the contents
of directives concrete. Anyone can apply technical rules
in their work. They only become legally binding (e.g. in
building law) when they are incorporated into laws, statu-
tory regulations or codes or when the binding character
of specific standards between the parties is stipulated in
a contract. Technical rules include DIN standards, VDI
directives and works referred to as codes of practice
(e.g. Technical rules for Hazardous Substances – TRGS).
Standards are divided into product, application and test-
ing standards and often deal only with a specific group
of materials or products. Standards are based on appro-
priate methods for testing and researching individual
materials. The newest version of a standard, which should
reflect the technological state-of-the-art, is always the
applicable one. A new or revised standard is made avail-
able for public discussion in the form of a draft standard
before being adopted as standard. A standard’s title
reveals its origins and scope. DIN plus a number (e.g.
DIN 4108) is a standard of mainly national significance
(drafts are prefixed with an E and pre-standards with a V).
DIN EN plus a number (e.g. DIN EN 335) identifies the
German edition of a European standard that has been
adopted unchanged from the European standards
organisation CEN. DIN EN ISO (e.g. DIN EN ISO 13 786)
designates a national, European and worldwide scope.
A European standard is drafted based on an ISO (inter-
national standards organisation standard) and then
adopted as a DIN standard. DIN ISO (e.g. DIN ISO 2424)
indicates the adoption of a ISO standard unchanged as
a national standard.
The list below is a selection of ordinances, guidelines and
standards representing current state-of-the-art technology
(November 2014). Only standards specification sheets
with the most recent issue date from the DIN (Deutsches
Institut für Normung e. V.) are binding.
Voluntary agreements on strict compliance with stand-
ards that are not required in building law and additional
features and requirements must be agreed on individual
contracts. Statements made in contracts that all stand-
ards must be complied with are meaningless and can no
longer be made in future contracts. To avoid inconsisten-
cies parties must definitively stipulate which standards
must be complied with and which details of standards
should apply in each requirements category.
Part A Fundamentals
1 Exterior and interior conditions
DIN 1341 Heat transfer: concepts, dimensionless param-
eters. October 1986
DIN 18 073 Roller shutters, solar shading and black-out
equipment in building construction: concepts and
requirements. May 2008
DIN 18 351 Contract procedures for building works.
Part C: General technical specification for building
works: facade works. August 2015
DIN EN 13 363 -1 Solar protection devices combined with
glazing: calculation of solar and light transmittance.
September 2007
DIN EN ISO 12 569 Thermal performance of buildings:
Determination of air exchange in buildings. February
2016
348
2.1 Surfaces – structural principles
DIN 18 351 Contract procedures for building works.
Part C: General technical specification for building
works: facade works. August 2015
DIN 18 516-1 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at
the rear. Part 1: Requirements, principles of testing.
June 2010
DIN 18 540 Sealing of exterior wall joints in building using
joint sealants. September 2014
DIN 18 545-1 Glazing with sealants: rebates, require-
ments. July 2015
DIN EN 12 365-1 Building hardware – gaskets and weather-
stripping for windows, doors and other joints and
curtain wall facades, performance requirements and
classification. December 2003
VDI 2221 Systematic approach to the development
and design of technical systems and products.
May 1993
VDI 2222 Part 1 Methodic development of solution prin-
ciples. June 1997
2.2 Edges, openings
ASR 7/1 Visual contact with the outside. April 1976
DIN 107 Building construction: identification of right and
left side. April 1974
DIN 1946-6 Ventilation and air conditioning: Part 6:
Ventilation for residential buildings: requirements,
performance, acceptance (VDI ventilation code of
practice). May 2009
DIN 33 417 Description of position, orientation and direc-
tion of movement of objects. August 1987
DIN EN 12 464 -1 Light and lighting: lighting of work-
places. Part 1: Indoor workplaces. August 2011
DIN EN 12 519 Windows and pedestrian doors: Termin-
ology. January 2015
DIN EN 13 829 Thermal performance of buildings: Deter-
mining air permeability of buildings. January 2002
DIN EN ISO 7730 Ergonomics of the thermal environment.
Analytical determination and interpretation of thermal
comfort using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices
and local thermal comfort criteria. May 2006
German Energy Saving Ordinance (Energieeinsparver-
ordnung – EnEV). January 2016
VDI guideline 6011 Part 1 (Lighting technology) Düssel-
dorf 2016
2.3 Modular coordination
DIN 18 000 Modular coordination in building. August 1986
DIN 18 202 Tolerances in building: buildings. April 2013
3 Structural physical aspects and planning
information
DIN 4102 Fire behaviour of building materials and build-
ing components. May 1998
DIN 4108 Thermal protection and energy economy in
buildings. July 2001
DIN V 4108 -4 Thermal protection and energy economy
in buildings. Part 4: Characteristic values relating to
thermal insulation and protection against moisture.
February 2013
DIN 4109 Sound insulation in buildings. Part 1: Minimum
requirements. July 2016
DIN 5034 Daylight in interiors
DIN 18 073 Roller shutters, awnings, rolling doors and
other blinds and shutters in buildings – Terms and
requirements. May 2008
DIN 5036-3 Radiometric and photometric properties of
materials. November 1979
DIN 52 619-3 Testing of thermal insulation: determination
of the thermal resistance and thermal transmission
coefficient of windows: measurements at frames.
February 1985
DIN EN 673 Glass in building: Determination of ther-
mal transmittance (U-value): Calculation method.
April 2011
DIN EN 1279 -1 Glass in building – Insulating glass units.
Part 1: Generalities, dimensional tolerances and rules
for system descriptions. August 2015
DIN EN 12 865 Hygrothermal performance of building
components and building elements: determination of
the resistance of external wall systems to driving rain
under pulsating air pressure. July 2001
DIN EN 13 125 Shutters and blinds: Additional thermal
resistance: Allocation of a class of air permability to a
product. October 2001
DIN EN 13 363 Solar protection devices combined with
glazing: Calculation of solar and light transmittance.
September 2007
DIN EN ISO 10 211 Thermal bridges in building construc-
tion: Heat flows and surface temperatures – detailed
calculations. June 2015
DIN EN ISO 12 631 Thermal performance of curtain
walling – Calculation of thermal transmittance. January
2013
VDI 2719 Sound isolation of windows and their auxiliary
equipment. August 1987
Part B Structures built with specific
materials
1 Natural stone
DIN 18 516-3 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at
the rear. Part 3: Natural stone; Requirements, design.
September 2013
DIN 18 332 German construction contract procedures.
Part C: General technical specifications in construction
contracts: Natural stone work. September 2012
DIN EN 771-6 Specifications for masonry units: Part 6:
Natural stone masonry units. November 2015
DIN EN 1341-3 Slabs of natural stone for external paving.
Part 3: Requirements and test methods. March 2013
DIN EN 1469 Natural stone products – Slabs for cladding
– Requirements. May 2015
DIN EN 12 059 Natural stone products: Dimensional stone
work. Specifications. March 2012
DIN EN 12 326-1 Slate and stone for discontinuous roof
and external cladding. Part 1: Specifications for slate
and carbonate slate. November 2014
2 Clay
DIN 105 Clay masonry units
DIN 1053 Masonry
DIN 18 516-1 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at
the rear. Part 1: Requirements, principles of testing.
June 2010
DIN EN 1996-1-1 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry
structures. Part 1-1: General rules: Rules for rein-
forced and unreinforced masonry structures.
February 2013
3 Concrete
DIN V 18 151-100 Lightweight concrete hollow blocks.
Part 100: Hollow blocks with specific properties.
October 2005
DIN V 18 152 -100 Lightweight concrete solid bricks and
blocks. Part 100: Solid bricks and blocks with specific
properties. October 2005
DIN V 18 153 -100 Normal weight concrete masonry
units. Part 100: Masonry units with specific properties.
October 2005
DIN 18 333 German construction contract procedures.
Part C: General technical specifications in construction
contracts: Cast stone works. September 2012
DIN V 18 500 Cast stone: Terminology, requirements,
testing, inspection. December 2012
DIN 18 515 -1 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at
the rear. Part 1: Principles of design and application:
Tiles fixed with mortar. May 2015
DIN 18 516 -5 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at
the rear. Part 5: Manufactured stone. Requirements,
design. September 2013
DIN EN 197-1 Cement: Part 1: Composition, specifi-
cations and conformity criteria for normal cement.
July 2014
DIN EN 206 Concrete. Specification, performance,
production and conformity. July 2014
DIN EN 12 878 Pigments for the colouring of building
materials based on cement and / or lime: Specifications
and test methods. July 2014
FDB Codes of practice Nos. 1 –10. Published by the
Fachvereinigung Deutscher Betonfertigteilbau e. V.
(FDB). Bonn, 2009 –2016
Code of practice 1 Fair-faced concrete. Published by
the Deutscher Beton- und Bautechnik-Verein e. V. (DBV)
 (German Concrete and Construction Technology
E.V.) / Bundesverband der Deutschen Zementindustrie
e. V. (BDZ). Berlin / Düsseldorf 2015.
4 Timber
DIN 18 334 German construction contract procedures.
Part C: General technical specifications in construction
contracts: Carpentry and timber construction works.
September 2012
DIN 68 364 Properties of wood species: Density, modulus
of elasticity and strength. May 2003
DIN 68 800 Wood preservation. Part 1: General. October
2011. Part 2: Preventive constructional measures in
buildings. February 2012. Part 3: Preventive protection
of wood with wood preservatives. February 2012.
Part 4: Curative treatment of wood-destroying fungi
and insects and refurbishment. February 2012
5 Metal
DIN 18 335 German construction contract proced-
ures. Part C: General technical specifications in
construction contracts: Steel construction works.
August 2015
DIN 18 339 German construction contract procedures.
Part C: General technical specifications in construction
contracts: Plumbing works. September 2012
DIN 18 360 German construction contract procedures.
Part C: General technical specifications in construction
contracts: Metalwork. September 2012
DIN 18 364 German construction contract procedures.
Part C: General technical specifications in construction
contracts: Corrosion protection of steel and aluminium
structures. September 2012
DIN 18 516 -1 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at
the rear. Part 1: Requirements, principles of testing.
June 2010
DIN EN ISO 12 944 Paints and varnishes: Corrosion
protection of steel structures by protection coating
systems. Parts 1–7. March 2000
6 Glass
DIN EN 1051-1 Glass in building: Glass blocks and
glass pavers. Part 1: Definitions and description.
April 2003 Part 2: Evaluation of conformity. December
2012
DIN 1249 -11 Flat glass for building construction; Glass
edges; Concept, Characteristics of edge types and
finishes. September 1986
DIN 1259 Glass. Part 1: Terminology for glass types and
groups. September 2001 Part 2: Terminology of glass
products. September 2001
DIN 4242 Glass block walls: Construction and dimen-
sioning. January 1979
DIN 12 116 Testing of glass: Resistance to attack by a
boiling acqueous solution of hydrochloric acid: Method
of test and classification. March 2001
DIN 18 545-1 Sealing of glazing with sealants. Part 1:
Requirements on window rebates. July 2015
DIN EN 356 Glass in building: Security glazing: Testing
and classification of resistance against manual attack.
Draft, February 2000
DIN EN 572 Glass in building: Basic soda lime-silicate
products. June 2016
DIN EN 1063 Glass in building: Security glazing: Testing
and classification of resistance against bullet attack.
January 2000
DIN EN 1279 Glass in building – Insulating glass units.
Part 1: Generalities, dimensional tolerances and rules
for system descriptions. August 2004
Part 2: Long-term test method and requirements for
moisture penetration. August 2008
Part 3: Long-term test method and requirements for
gas leakage rate and gas concentration tolerances.
August 2015
Part 4: Methods of test for the physical attributes of edge
seal components and inserts. August 2015
Part 5: Evaluation and conformity. November 2010
Part 6: Factory production control and periodic tests.
August 2015
DIN EN 1863 Glass in building – Heat-strengthened
soda-lime silicate glass. Part 1: Definition and descrip-
tion. February 2012
7 Plastics / membranes
DIN 53 350 Testing of plastics films and coated textile
fabrics: determination of stiffness in bending: method
according to Ohlsen. January 1980
DIN 53 362 Testing of plastics films and textile fabrics
(excluding non-wovens), coated or not coated fabrics:
method according to Cantilever. October 2003
DIN 53 363 Testing of plastics films: Testing of plastics
films: Tear test using trapezoidal test specimen with
incision. October 2003
DIN 53 370 Testing of plastics films: Determination of
thickness by mechanical scanning. Nov. 2006
DIN EN ISO 305 Plastics: Determination of the thermal
stability of polyvinylchloride (PVC), related chlorine-
containing homopolymers and copolymers and their
compounds. October 1999
DIN EN ISO 527 Plastics: Determination of tensile
properties
DIN EN ISO 2578 Plastics: Determination of time-
temperature limits after prolonged exposure to heat.
October 1998
Part C Special topics
1 Multilayer glass facades
Soundproofing
DIN EN ISO 717-1 Acoustic field measurement of sound
insulation in buildings and of building elements. Part 1:
Airborne sound insulation: Impact: requirements and
testing. June 2013
VDI 2058 Part 3: Assessment of noise in the working area
with regard to specific operations. August 2014
VDI 2719 Sound isolation of windows and their auxiliary
equipment. August 1987
Aerophysics
DIN 1946-6 Ventilation and air conditioning. Part 6:
Ventilation for residential buildings: General require-
ments, requirements for measuring, performance
and labeling, delivery / acceptance (certification) and
maintenance.
DIN 33 403-3 Climate at the workplace and its environ-
ments. Part 3: Assessment of the climate in warm and
hot working areas based on selected climate indices.
July 2011
VDI 2083 Clean-room technology
2 Manipulators
AGI F 20 Sonnen- und Blendschutzsysteme: Leitfaden
zur Auswahl. (Guidelines on choosing sunscreening
and blind systems) September 2004
DIN 18 055 Criteria for the use of windows and exterior
doors in accordance with DIN EN 14 351-1. November
2014
DIN 18 357 German construction contract procedures.
Part C: General technical specifications in construction
contracts: Mounting of door and window hardware.
September 2012
DIN EN 12 207 Windows and doors. Air permeability:
Classification. January 2015
DIN EN 12 208 Windows and doors. Watertightness:
Classification. June 2000
DIN EN 12 210 Windows and doors. Resistance to wind
load: Classification. May 2013
DIN EN 12 216 Shutters, external blinds, internal
blinds. Terminology, glossary and definitions.
November 2002
DIN EN 12 400 Windows and pedestrian doors. Mechan-
ical durability: Requirements and classification. January
2003
DIN EN 13 115 Windows. Classification of mechanical
properties: Racking, torsion and operating forces.
November 2012
DIN EN 13 120 Internal blinds: Performance requirements
including safety. September 2014
DIN EN 13 125 Shutters and blinds. Additional thermal
resistance: Allocation of a class of air permeability to a
product. October 2001
DIN EN 13 126 Building hardware. Hardware for windows
and door-height windows: Requirements and test
methods: Parts 1–17. February 2012
DIN EN 13 561 External blinds and awnings. Performance
requirements including safety. August 2015
DIN EN 13 659 Shutters and external Venetian blinds.
Requirements and classification. October 1999
DIN EN 14 501 Blinds and shutters. Thermal and visual
comfort: Performance characteristics and classification.
February 2006
GUV-R 1/494 Richtlinien für kraftbetätigte Fenster, Türen
und Tore. (Insurers’ guidelines for power-operated
windows, doors and gates) July 1990
VDI 2719 Sound isolation of windows and their auxiliary
equipment. August 1987
3 Solar energy
DIN 18 015-1 Electrical installations in residential
buildings.
Part 1: Planuning principles. September 2013
Part 2: Nature and extent of minimum equipment.
November 2010
Part 3: Wiring and disposition of electrical equipment.
September 2016
DIN 18 516-4 Back-ventilated, non-load-bearing external
enclosures of buildings made from tempered safety
glass panels: Requirements and testing. February
1990.
DIN EN 410 Glass in building. Determination of luminous
and solar characteristics of glazing. April 2011
DIN EN 674 Glass in building. Determination of thermal
transmittance (U-value): Guarded hot plate method.
September 2011
DIN EN 12 975 -1 Thermal solar systems and compo-
nents. Solar collectors. Part 1: General requirements.
January 2011
DIN EN ISO 10 077-1 Thermal performance of windows,
doors and shutters. Calculation of thermal trans-
mittance.
Part 1: General. May 2010
Part 2: Numerical method for frames. August 2015
BS EN 50 583 Photovoltaics in buildings. Part 1:
BIPV modules. January 2016. Part 2: BIPV systems.
January 2016
4 Integrated facades
DIN 1946 - 6 Ventilation and air conditioning. Part 6:
Ventilation for residential buildings – General require-
ments. May 2009
DIN Fachbericht 4108 -8 Thermal insulation and
energy economy in buildings. Part 8: Avoidance
of mould growth in residential buildings. September
2010
DIN 4719 Ventilation and air conditioning – Require-
ments, performance, testing and labelling. July 2009
VDI 6035 Ventilation and air conditioning technology –
Decentralized ventilation systems – Wall-mounted
air conditioners (VDI ventilation rules). September
2009
EU Commission Regulation 1253/2014 on eco-design
requirements for ventilation units of the 7th of July
2014. Official Journal of the European Union, L 337/8.
Brussels 25.11.2014.
5 Refurbishing existing facades
DIN V 18 599 Energy efficiency of buildings. Calculation
of the net, final and primary energy demand for heating,
cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water and lighting.
June 2013
German Energy saving ordinance. May 2014
6 Green facades
DIN EN 1991-1-1 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures.
Part 1-1 General actions – Densities, self-weight and
imposed loads for buildings. December 2010
DIN 1986 -100/A1 Drainage systems for private ground.
Part 100: Specifications in relation to DIN EN 752 and
DIN EN 12056. November 2013
DIN 18 195 Waterproofing of buildings: Principles,
definitions, attribution of waterproofing types. June
2015
DIN 18 916 Vegetation technology in landscaping:
Plants and plant care. June 2016
FLL Green-roofing guidelines. Guidelines for the plan-
ning, construction and maintenance of green roofing.
Bonn: Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftsentwicklung
Landschaftsbau e. V., 2000.
349

Index
A Air collector ∫ 299, 305, 339
Absorber ∫ 296f., 299ff., 309, 310f.
Solid absorber ∫ 35, 296
Acrylic glass ∫ 197, 217
Adhesive bonding ∫ 32, 164, 196
Aggregates ∫ 110ff., 113f.
Air-conditioning technologies ∫ 18
Air speeds ∫ 18, 40f.
Air temperature ∫ 18, 22ff., 41ff.,
53, 243
Airlock ∫ 241, 296
Alloys ∫ 159, 161
Aluminium ∫ 70f., 91, 160ff., 196
Anchor ∫ 69ff., 80
Anchoring ∫ 34, 36f., 68f., 90ff.,
113, 115
Angle of incidence ∫ 24
Aramid fibre fabric ∫ 221f.
Ashlar ∫ 65ff., 67
Assembly ∫ 32f., 43ff.
Construction time ∫ 45, 166, 302
Installation tolerances ∫ 32, 51, 166
Attachments ∫ 166, 183, 220
Axial dimensions /grid reference ∫ 49
B Concrete blocks ∫ 90, 108ff.
Backing material ∫ 301, 337
Basalt panel ∫ 80
Basic grid ∫ 70
Basic module ∫ 48f.
Bay window ∫ 239, 241f.
Bending beams ∫ 30
Bending stresses ∫ 30
Bending tensile strength ∫ 87
Binding agent ∫ 32, 110, 113
Blinds and shutters ∫ 56, 194, 248,
258, 348
Brick ∫ 22, 39, 65, 87ff., 90, 92, 109,
159, 182
Brick formats ∫ 113
Broken stone ∫ 77
Buffer facade ∫ 239ff.
Building physics ∫ 22f., 53ff.
Building with facade elements ∫ 43
Building-within-a-building principle
∫ 242f., 245
Bulk density ∫ 23, 65, 110, 113
C Double corrugated polycarbonate panel
Cable mesh structure ∫ 30, 338
Casement window facades ∫ 242,
244f.
Cast iron ∫ 131, 159f.
Casting resin ∫ 57, 195f., 302
Cement
Cement-bonded materials ∫ 107ff.
Cement fibreboard ∫ 135
Cement render ∫ 76
Cement stone ∫ 110, 114
White cement ∫ 113
Ceramic panel ∫ 91f., 96, 112
Chamfer ∫ 133
Chimney or stack effect ∫ 23
Clamps ∫ 135, 195, 220, 261, 316
Clapboard or weatherboard siding
∫ 138, 154
Clay ∫ 87ff., 333
Clinker ∫ 88, 100, 110, 115, 283, 330
Coatings ∫ 24f., 35f., 114, 131, 135,
137f., 162f., 192ff., 197, 300
Absorber coating ∫ 299
Anti-reflection coatings ∫ 192
Ceramic coating ∫ 193, 214
Coatings applied during glass
manufacture ∫ 192
Colour coatings ∫ 114
Low-E coatings ∫ 28, 35, 206, 248
350
PTFE-coated ∫ 234, 287
Sound insulating coating /anti-drum
coating ∫ 97, 248
Coefficient of thermal expansion ∫ 190
Collector ∫ 20
Flat plate collector ∫ 296
Solar collectors ∫ 296f.
Tube collectors ∫ 298
Vacuum tube collectors ∫ 299, 318
Water collector ∫ 18, 299, 302
Column orders ∫ 47
Comfort ∫ 19, 40, 267, 270, 298, 332ff.
Visual comfort ∫ 22
Composite material ∫ 31, 110, 162,
164, 332
Compressive force ∫ 30ff., 132
Compressive strength ∫ 65, 110f.,
190, 218
Concrete ∫ 107ff.
Exposed concrete ∫ 107f., 110f.
Glass-fibre-reinforced concrete
∫ 126
Heavy concrete ∫ 110
High-performance concretes ∫ 111
In-situ concrete ∫ 107
Lightweight concretes ∫ 110, 333
Opus caementicium ∫ 107
Self-compacting concretes ∫ 111f.
Textile-reinforced concretes ∫ 111
Concrete stone panels ∫ 113, 115
Concrete technology ∫ 110f.
Condensate ∫ 23, 53ff., 74
Convection ∫ 22, 24, 25, 35, 41, 54,
194ff., 296, 299, 331
Coordinating measurement ∫ 50
Coordination of dimensions ∫ 20, 48
Corridor facade ∫ 242
Corrosion ∫ 13, 37, 51, 67, 110, 162,
186, 299, 339
Protect against corrosion ∫ 51, 135,
162f., 339
Corrugated panels ∫ 110, 219, 221
Curtain wall ∫ 160
D Patterned glass ∫ 191, 195
Daylight factor (DF) ∫ 40
Decorations ∫ 88
Dimensional tolerances ∫ 51
Diorite – soft stone ∫ 65, 72
Discolouration ∫ 112, 132, 135, 191
Dispersion paints ∫ 137
∫ 219
Double facade ∫ 7, 35, 226, 239,
241, 256
Double-skin facade ∫ 57f., 240ff.
Dowels ∫ 112f., 115
Draining of water ∫ 91, 314
Draughts ∫ 45, 53, 324
Drill holes ∫ 197
E Glaze ∫ 90
Edge distance ∫ 135
Energy can get into buildings ∫ 24
Energy consumption ∫ 330
Epdm ∫ 196, 219
ETFE ∫ 219ff.
ETFE film ∫ 230ff.
Exchange of air ∫ 18f., 40f., 43, 53,
240ff., 323f.
Exhaust air facade ∫ 242, 285
Expand longitudinally ∫ 29, 196
Expanded metal ∫ 169
Exterior shell ∫ 88
External conditions ∫ 19ff.
F Heat storage capacity ∫ 23, 34ff.
Facade
Corridor facade ∫ 244
Suspended ∫ 29, 37, 67, 90, 109,
113, 324
Facade type ∫ 59
Face control line ∫ 49f.
Facing bricks ∫ 113
Facing shells ∫ 34ff., 112, 330, 339
Facing wall ∫ 67
Fastening at points ∫ 197f.
Fastening elements ∫ 54, 135
Fibre cement ∫ 110ff., 113ff.
Fire protection ∫ 57ff., 193
Fire-resistant glazing ∫ 57, 193
Fire resistance class ∫ 57
Fire spreading ∫ 53, 58, 245f.
Fit-out grid ∫ 50
Fixed glazing ∫ 39, 42
Flanking transmission ∫ 24
Foil roller blinds ∫ 194
Folded plate ∫ 30ff.
Forming ∫ 161, 164, 167, 191
Formwork joints ∫ 111
Formwork ties ∫ 108, 111
Frost resistance ∫ 65, 110, 113
G 111ff., 135, 166f., 196f., 348
Gathered awnings ∫ 270
GFRP panel ∫ 219
Glass ∫ 189ff., 239ff.
Antique glass ∫ 190, 195
Armoured or bulletproof glass
∫ 192
Bent glass ∫ 192ff.
Cast glass ∫ 190, 239
Colourless glass ∫ 191
Dichroic glass ∫ 192, 197
Electrochromic glass ∫ 194, 268
Etched glass ∫ 193, 195
F-glazing ∫ 57f.
Fire-polished glass ∫ 192
Fire-resistant glazing ∫ 57, 193
Flat glass ∫ 190ff.
Float glass ∫ 190ff.
G-glazing ∫ 57f.
Laminated glass ∫ 192f.
Laminated safety glass ∫ 185ff.,
192f., 195, 197
Matt glass ∫ 302
Plate glass ∫ 190ff., 195
Profiled glass ∫ 191, 195, 297
Screen-printing ∫ 192, 199f.
Solar protection glazing ∫ 214
Solid-coloured glass ∫ 191
Sound insulation glazing ∫ 193f.
Structural sealant glazing ∫ 197ff.
Thermotropic glass ∫ 28, 193ff.
Toughened safety glass ∫ 191ff., 195
Wired glass ∫ 190f., 195
Glass blocks ∫ 189, 208, 349
Hollow glass blocks ∫ 191f.
Solid glass blocks ∫ 191, 195
Glass fibres ∫ 31, 126, 222
Glass infills ∫ 109
Glass rebate ∫ 33, 60
Glazed annexes ∫ 296
Glazes ∫ 92, 136ff.
Glazing bar ∫ 196f.
Glazing bead ∫ 196
Green facades ∫ 337ff.
Greenhouse effect ∫ 24f., 190, 267
Grid ∫ 48ff.
Grid shells ∫ 30
H Modular facade ∫ 30, 32
Heat gains ∫ 192, 298
Heat losses ∫ 35, 43, 53ff., 241ff., 296,
305, 329, 332
Heat recovery ∫ 18, 251, 323ff.
Heat transmission ∫ 22ff., 54, 331
Heavy gas ∫ 56, 190, 193
Horizontal forces ∫ 29, 37, 67, 113
I
Impact load ∫ 29, 195
Impregnation ∫ 136
Incoming air ∫ 40f., 58, 201, 241,
323, 326
Incoming air openings ∫ 41
Incrusted facade ∫ 66
Inner shell ∫ 35, 38, 200
Inspection opening ∫ 206
Installation sequences ∫ 43
Insulating glazing, double glazing
∫ 28, 36, 45, 54, 77, 174, 306, 313,
319, 329, 331
Thiokol polymer ∫ 197
Insulating properties ∫ 132
Integrated atria ∫ 239
Interior illumination ∫ 55f.
Interior insulation ∫ 330f.
Internal conditions ∫ 19ff.
J
Joining ∫ 10, 53, 161
Joint ∫ 24, 30ff., 51, 54, 58ff., 69, 108,
Bed joint ∫ 66, 80, 100
Construction joints ∫ 108, 166
Joint sealing ∫ 32f., 37, 43, 112
Joint width ∫ 68, 112, 196
Movement joints ∫ 89
Open joint ∫ 34, 135, 332
Shadow gap ∫ 32, 112
L
Layers ∫ 27ff., 34ff., 193f., 330
Leadlight glazing ∫ 196
Light ∫ 18, 21, 40, 55, 296, 348f.
Incident light ∫ 199, 267, 270
Lighting ∫ 32, 39, 41
Light diffusion ∫ 34, 195
Light refraction ∫ 11, 18, 35, 41, 55
Translucence ∫ 27f., 31, 35
Light metals ∫ 162
Lightweight structures ∫ 35, 111, 155,
161, 180, 297
Lime mortar ∫ 107
Limestone ∫ 67, 73, 110, 115
Load-bearing anchor ∫ 68, 113
Loggia ∫ 29, 204, 239, 241f., 296
M
Maintenance ∫ 20, 43, 55, 63, 142,
179, 245f., 323f.
Manipulators ∫ 42, 44, 267ff., 297
Manufacturing tolerances ∫ 32
Marble ∫ 65f., 67, 69f., 72f., 114, 267
Masonry ∫ 39, 54, 60, 65, 67, 87ff.,
107, 109, 111, 113, 196, 332f., 338
Exposed brickwork ∫ 88
Facing brickwork ∫ 88
Masonry wall ∫ 107, 306
Masonry bonds ∫ 113
Material properties ∫ 65, 87
Media facade ∫ 13
Membrane ∫ 29ff., 35f., 195, 220f., 233,
235, 287, 302
Membrane cushion ∫ 233
Membrane materials ∫ 162, 170, 223
Metal ∫ 159ff., 163
Metal facade ∫ 160f., 166f.
Metal foam ∫ 162
Metal materials ∫ 162ff., 170
Metallic textiles (meshing) ∫ 170f.
Metamorphites ∫ 65
Module ∫ 47ff.
Modular formats ∫ 113
Moisture penetration ∫ 110, 135, 196
Moisture protection ∫ 54
Moisture resistance ∫ 113
Mortar ∫ 31, 66, 88, 113f.
Moulded parts ∫ 220f.
Mud ∫ 87, 95
Multi-layer ∫ 59, 102, 109, 111, 133f.,
191ff., 239ff., 332
Multi-ply board ∫ 111
Multi-shell ∫ 27f., 34, 59
Multi-skin polycarbonate sheeting
∫ 224, 304
Multi-web double sheets ∫ 31
N Roller blinds ∫ 54f.
Natural stone ∫ 65ff., 107, 112f., 339
O Round timber ∫ 133
Opening mechanism ∫ 43, 268f.
Opening sash ∫ 39, 41, 199, 241
P Sandwich construction ∫ 32, 35, 161f.
Paints ∫ 136ff., 164
Panel ∫ 32, 54f., 68f., 161, 166, 325
Patination ∫ 13, 162, 164
Perforated sheet ∫ 36, 165, 285
Photovoltaic ∫ 14, 18, 20, 28, 53, 59,
194, 300ff.
PV glazing ∫ 194
PV modules ∫ 295, 298ff., 302f.
Pig iron ∫ 159
Pigments ∫ 69, 110, 113f., 136f., 192
Pitting ∫ 162
Planning grid ∫ 49
Plants ∫ 29, 337ff.
Plastics ∫ 217ff.
Fibre-reinforced plastic ∫ 217
Plastic foil ∫ 193
Plastic prism ∫ 56, 194, 306
Synthetic fabrics ∫ 217f.
Plastics reinforced with glass fibre (GFRP)
∫ 219
GFRP panel ∫ 219
Plinth ∫ 54, 66f., 84, 109, 338
Pneumatic structure ∫ 30f., 35f.,
217f., 221
Polyester fabrics ∫ 221ff.
Post and beam facades ∫ 30, 45, 56
Precast concrete components ∫ 112ff.
Prefabricated system construction
∫ 109
Prefabrication ∫ 27ff., 45f., 65f., 70, 108,
160f., 166, 302, 325, 340
Pressure rod ∫ 230, 321
Prestressing ∫ 29f., 33, 170, 191f., 221
Chemical prestressing ∫ 192
Mechanic prestressing ∫ 221f.
Prism systems ∫ 56
Production technologies ∫ 162f.
Profiled webs ∫ 68
Protection against break-ins ∫ 19
Protection against overheating ∫ 297
Protection from glare ∫ 18, 22, 53, 90,
98, 191, 194f., 269
Protection from insects ∫ 36, 135
Protection from weather ∫ 9f., 44, 51,
87, 194
PTFE ∫ 219ff.
Punctuated facade ∫ 39, 45, 54, 71, 107
Purposes of load bearing ∫ 28ff., 36
Putty ∫ 196
PVC ∫ 217f., 220ff.
R Polycrystalline solar cells ∫ 313
Radiation ∫ 20, 21ff., 27, ∫ 34, 41,
55f., 162, 190, 194, 295f., 298ff.
Radiation transport ∫ 22f.
Rail system ∫ 68
Rainwater channelling ∫ 115
Rate of air exchange ∫ 241, 243
Rear ventilation ∫ 27f., 37f., 67, 135,
301, 312
Rear-ventilated curtain wall ∫ 35, 78
Rebate ∫ 196f., 221, 274
Reflection ∫ 18, 24, 40, 42, 55f.,
192, 295f.
Reinforcement ∫ 30, 110ff.
Relative humidity ∫ 23
Replacing facades ∫ 332
Replacing windows ∫ 331
Resistance to ageing ∫ 218
Resistance to changing temperatures
∫ 191f.
Resistance to impact ∫ 219
Resistance to weather ∫ 219
Retaining anchor ∫ 68f., 78f., 80
Roller shutter ∫ 42, 267
Room temperature ∫ 22f., 296
S ∫ 197ff., 314
Sandstone ∫ 65ff., 72f.
Sandwich elements ∫ 112f., 164ff., 217
Sawn construction timber ∫ 133
Screening from view ∫ 11, 18
Sealing ∫ 32, 43, 54, 59, 94f., 114,
167, 196
Adhesive seals ∫ 196
Contact seals ∫ 196
Joint sealing ∫ 32f., 43, 112
Lipped profile ∫ 33
Permanently elastic ∫ 112, 196f.
Rubber-sealed ∫ 60
Sedimentites ∫ 65
Semi-finished products ∫ 162, 218ff.
Semi-transparent ∫ 27f., 129, 300ff.
Separating ∫ 50
Acoustic decoupling ∫ 190
Shade ∫ 14, 40, 42, 295f., 301f., 338f.
Shading system ∫ 194
Shaft facade ∫ 240, 244f.
Shaped bricks and stones ∫ 109
Sheet metal embossed with lozenges
∫ 168
Sheets ∫ 32ff., 56ff., 220, 240ff.
Shell structures ∫ 34, 217
Shingles ∫ 91, 110, 133, 135, 138
Shiplap ∫ 91
Shutter ∫ 267f., 270
Bi-fold shutter ∫ 126
Folding shutter ∫ 116, 270, 283f.
Folding shutter (moved by pivoting)
∫ 267, 270
Hinged shutter ∫ 267, 270
Side-hung shutter ∫ 270
Sliding shutter ∫ 267
Sliding shutter (sliding horizontally)
∫ 267, 270, 286
Sick building syndrome ∫ 23, 25, 240
Side-hung or sliding fittings ∫ 43
Side-hung sashes ∫ 42, 267
Single glazing ∫ 192, 239, 264, 314, 332
Single-shell ∫ 27, 31, 35
Skeleton structure ∫ 107
Slats ∫ 28, 133, 267, 333
Glass slats ∫ 260
Light-refracting louvres ∫ 279, 290
Sandstone louvres ∫ 84f.
Venetian blinds ∫ 270
Smoke extraction ∫ 58
Snow loads ∫ 29, 60, 221, 340
Solar cells ∫ 194, 301f.
Monocrystalline solar cells ∫ 316
Thin-film cells ∫ 300f.
Solar energy ∫ 239f., 243, 267, 295ff.
Solar radiation ∫ 18, 20f., 24f., 45, 53f.,
162f., 190, 241, 267, 295ff., 299ff., 331
Solar technologies ∫ 248
Solid structure ∫ 59, 65, 67,
Sound ∫ 24, 32, 34, 39, 51, 56ff., 61,
119, 145, 190ff., 242f., 323
Sound-insulating glazing ∫ 193f.
Sound reduction index ∫ 56, 193
Sound transmission ∫ 24ff., 190,
243f.
Soundproofing ∫ 24, 56f., 113,
241ff., 349
Stainless steel ∫ 71, 160f., 163f.,
167ff., 171
Standard measurement ∫ 49
States of openness and closure ∫ 267
Steel ∫ 91, 103, 111, 159ff., 167ff.,
184, 190, 195, 286
Rust-resistant steel ∫ 91, 113
Weathering steel ∫ 163ff., 184
Storage mass ∫ 24f., 244, 296f.,
305, 325
Storage walls ∫ 296
Stowing ∫ 268ff.
Structural sealant glazing SSG
Suction forces ∫ 113
Sun’s position ∫ 25, 55
Sunshading ∫ 18, 43, 55ff., 161, 194,
267, 290, 306
Support structures ∫ 30, 339
Surface finishes ∫ 108
Surface tensions ∫ 138, 192
Surface treatments ∫ 72, 109,
111ff., 192
Swelling and shrinking rates ∫ 132
T Water absorption ∫ 218
Tensile force ∫ 29f., 36f., 126, 132,
Tensile strength ∫ 65, 87, 110, 218,
Tensile stresses ∫ 30, 217f.
Tension, stress
Compressive stress ∫ 191
Permissible stresses ∫ 30
Tent structures ∫ 218
Thermal bridge ∫ 36f., 51, 54, 58, 91,
103, 113, 191, 274, 331, 348
Thermal buffer ∫ 123, 241, 331f.
Thermal changes in mass ∫ 91
Thermal conductivity ∫ 23f., 31, 65, 87,
163, 190, 218
Thermal expansion ∫ 72, 162
Thermal insulation ∫ 28, 34ff., 53ff., 59f.
Temporary thermal insulation ∫ 296
Thermal insulating glazing ∫ 28
Thermal radiation ∫ 22ff., 34, 296
Long-wave ∫ 24, 54, 190, 241
Thermal storage mass ∫ 296f.
Thermal transmission resistance ∫ 53
Thermal transmittance coefficient
∫ 22, 219
Timber ∫ 131ff.
Cement fibreboard ∫ 135
Chipboard ∫ 133, 135
OSB board ∫ 133, 135
Solid wood ∫ 131, 133, 135
SVL (structural veneer lumber)
∫ 134f.
Wood fibreboard ∫ 133, 135
WPCs (Wood Plastic Composites)
∫ 135
Timber frame structure ∫ 59, 140
Timber preservatives ∫ 135f.
Timber siding ∫ 138f.
Tolerances ∫ 20, 29, 32, 37, 45, 48,
50f., 59f.
Tongue-and-groove ∫ 34, 133, 135
Translucency ∫ 31, 43, 69, 170, 194,
222, 287
Translucent thermal insulation ∫ 35,
194f., 296f., 303
Transmission heat loss ∫ 241ff., 330
Transparency ∫ 27ff., 66f., 189ff.,
217ff., 267f.
Truss ∫ 30, 58
Three-dimensional truss ∫ 30
Trussing ∫ 30
Types of concrete ∫ 110
Types of surfaces ∫ 29
U
U-values ∫ 329, 331ff.
Use of daylight ∫ 43, 56, 199, 206, 239
UV protection ∫ 136, 137
UV radiation ∫ 220
UV-permeable ∫ 195, 221
UV-resistant ∫ 32, 197, 227, 235
V
Vapour diffusion ∫ 34, 60, 137
Ventilation ∫ 23f., 35, 39ff., 54, 240ff.
Brief, intensive ventilation ∫ 40, 44
Cross-ventilation ∫ 40ff.
Natural ventilation ∫ 41, 230,
241ff., 323
Regulated or controlled ventilation
∫ 24, 41, 244, 284, 309
Slot ventilation ∫ 39, 44, 270
Tangential ventilation ∫ 41
Ventilation openings ∫ 32, 34, 40, 57,
135, 244, 246, 270
Ventilation heat losses ∫ 243, 323,
330, 332
Ventilation technology ∫ 60, 324ff.
Vertical forces ∫ 30, 36, 113
Views and lines of sight ∫ 39, 40
Volume change ∫ 162
W
Water vapour ∫ 23, 27, 32, 34f.,
138, 193
Waterproofing ∫ 114
Waxes ∫ 137
Weather conditions ∫ 14, 53ff.,
115, 196
Weather resistance ∫ 218
Weathering ∫ 87, 115, 142, 166
Weatherproof envelope / shell ∫ 32,
34, 36
Wind forces ∫ 9, 40f.
Wind loads ∫ 29f., 39, 53, 60, 68,
88, 113
Wind pressure ∫ 23f., 30, 32ff., 40,
59, 324
Wind protection ∫ 35, 170, 183
Wind speeds ∫ 23, 32, 242f., 323
Wind suction anchor ∫ 224, 226
Window ∫ 39ff., 54, 56, 59f., 240, 267f.,
270, 330
Coupled window ∫ 239ff.
Double casement windows
∫ 121, 239ff., 241
Double windows ∫ 239ff.
Exhaust air windows ∫ 239ff.
Folding, sliding window ∫ 43
Folding window ∫ 42, 270, 283
French windows ∫ 283
Hopper window ∫ 42ff.
Horizontal pivot window ∫ 42ff.
Pivot-hung window ∫ 43
Pivoting /sliding window ∫ 43
Pivoting window ∫ 43
Push-out window ∫ 42ff., 270
Side-hung hopper (turn and tilt) ∫ 43
Sliding window ∫ 42ff., 270
Storm window ∫ 239f.
Top-hung window ∫ 44
Windows with pivoting panes ∫ 42
Window frames ∫ 324
Window reveal ∫ 29, 275
Windproofing ∫ 34, 35, 36
Wood-based materials ∫ 133ff.
Synthetic resin-bonded wood-based
materials ∫ 134
351
Facade Construction MANUAL
In recent years, facades have become more important in ar-
chitectural practice and in public perception. As well as func-
tioning as a protective shell and visible “face” and supplying
heat and electricity, a building’s exterior interacts directly with
the surrounding public space.
This revised and expanded new edition of the Facade
Construction Manual offers readers technical and design
planning fundamentals in a compact reference work.
A section describing a comprehensive selection of built
structures shows general and unique, tried and tested,
and innovative approaches to facade planning – down to
the last detail.

• Over 100 examples of built structures

• Material-specific approaches for use in planning facades
• More than 250 detailed drawings and sketches and around
400 illustrations
• Technical planning fundamentals
• Special issues involving modern facade concepts

Authors:

Thomas Herzog
Prof. Dr. (Univ. Rome) Dr. h.c. Dipl.-Ing. Architect BDA

Roland Krippner
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Architect BDA

Werner Lang
Prof. Dr.-Ing., M. Arch. II (UCLA) Architect

ISBN 978-3-95553-369-4

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