Professional Documents
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EmpFinal Ram E1 8135
EmpFinal Ram E1 8135
Karma-Yoga
1
Abstract
leadership and subordinates’ Karma-Yoga (followers’ sense of duty) was studied. It was
monitoring is positively related to Karma-Yoga and that self monitoring enhances the
manager-rated Karma-Yoga scores for subordinates do not show any relationship with
2
Introduction
Most people love to hear things presented to them in a manner they see as
appropriate. This personalized approach of giving people what they want in a way they
faced in marketing and sales, self-monitoring is a key asset in terms of effective self-
leaders are seen as change agents, and are most effective in such dynamic scenarios
Today, the focus of business is moving more towards Asia, particularly towards
India and China which are among the fastest growing economies. With this in mind, we
have introduced Karma-Yoga, a variable that has been defined in the Indian context, and
Self-Monitoring
others in social situations and use these cues as guidelines for monitoring their own self-
presentation. In contrast, non-self-monitoring persons would have little concern for the
appropriateness of their presentation and expression, pay less attention to the expression
3
of others, and monitor and control their presentation to a lesser extent. Their presentation
and expression would appear to be controlled from within by their experience rather than
expressive behavior functionally reflecting their own inner attitudes, emotions, and
High self-monitors are similar to social pragmatists, willing and able to project
images designed to impress others and seem to believe in the appearances they create, to
take stock in the fact that these appearances have a real chance of becoming real. By
contrast, low self-monitors seem appear both unwilling and unable to put on such
appearances. They believe that putting on images are wrong, only true thing being the
portrayal of the actual self, which they also believe to be principled (Gangestad &
Snyder, 2000). Self-monitoring individuals would be most likely to monitor and control
1974). Those adept at self-monitoring see themselves as social beings, their identities
defined by a set of clearly defined role performances (Sosik & Dworakivsky, 1998).
High self-monitoring implies that people are concerned with how others will react
and involves external cues such as expectations that others might have of them. High
and nonverbally (Snyder, 1974). Low self-monitors focus on internal cues such as their
own attitudes or beliefs as a basis for behavior. High self-monitors also tend to use third-
person pronouns in their speech as compared to low self-monitors who use first-person
pronouns more often, indicating differential focus- the former focusing on others, the
4
As shown by Toegel, Anand and Kilduff (2007), high self-monitoring managers
are those who tend to monitor and ameliorate the negative emotions of others in the
workplace. This is derived from the study by Ickes, Holloway, Stinson and Hoodenpyle
and conclude that high self-monitors strive to make a situation work well, bring in a lot of
cognitive and emotional resources to ensure this, and feel a positive self-affect when they
have the desired effect on partners in a social interaction, when compared to low self-
monitors who feel a positive self-affect at their self-performance in the interaction, not by
the desired effect. This is also strengthened by the positive relationship between self-
monitoring and impression management. Particularly, Sosik, Avolio & Jung (2002) have
Barrick, Parks & Mount (2005) have suggested that high self-monitoring is paramount
for professions in which interpersonal performance is important. Kilduff & Day (1994)
have shown that self-monitoring is directly related to managerial success. Mehra, Kilduff,
& Brass (2001), in their study of the social networks of self-monitors and implications for
tend to develop friendship relations at work with distinctly different people. Whereas low
self-monitors will tend to occupy relatively homogenous social worlds, high self-
monitors will tend to develop relationships across groups, using their flexible identities to
play different roles in different groups. In a workplace, high self-monitors are therefore
likely to bridge social worlds, acting as conduits through which otherwise unconnected
5
Flynn & Ames (2006) tell us that gender is a factor that affects self-monitoring.
High self-monitoring women were more adept at altering their behavior when in dyadic
situations than high self-monitoring men and low self-monitoring men and women, and
thus were more effective in their performance. This knowledge is important because self-
monitoring, generally important and effective, sometimes benefits one sex more than the
other based on the situation. They go on to suggest that self-monitoring is more useful
for those who have problems in overcoming others’ lowered expectations of their
self-monitoring is relatively more effective for women, as most work situations are
influenced by masculine stereotyping, that is, it is assumed that males are more suited to
that work.
Transformational Leadership
themselves into dynamic relationships with their followers who will feel elevated by it
and become more active themselves, thereby creating new cadres of leaders.
Transformational leadership alters and elevates the motives, values and goals of followers
through the vital teaching role of leadership, enabling leaders and followers to be united
in the pursuit of higher goals”. As Sosik, Potosky, and Jung (2002 P: 214) put it,
consideration, and intellectual stimulation. Later, for better clarity, charisma was seen as
6
idealized influence. Kark, Shamir, and Chen (2003), Bass, Avolio, Jung and Berson
attractive vision for the future, which the followers can ultimately envision for
statements and arguments, and symbols, and a show of optimism and enthusiasm.
Idealized influence includes behaviors such as sacrificing for the benefit of the group,
taking risks for the group, setting of personal examples by leaders and a show of high
behaviors that aim at increasing innovation and creativity in followers enabling them to
approach problem solving with new perspectives, and active involvement of followers in
addressing and solving such problems. Therefore, a show of these behaviors by leaders
makes them transformational. In fact, “These behaviors transform their followers helping
them to reach their full potential and generate the highest levels of performance” (Dvir,
Eden, Avolio, and Shamir 2002 P: 736), and Bass (1999) said this about transformational
leadership: “It elevates the follower’s level of maturity and ideals as well as concerns for
society”. Dobbins, Long, Dedrick, and Clemons (1990) showed that gender was a
determinant of leader emergence: that more men emerged as leaders than women.
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Self-Monitoring and Transformational Leadership
Dobbins, Long, Dedrick, and Clemons (1990) hypothesized and prove that self-
effective their arguments are in convincing both adversaries and followers that their
message is correct (Gardner & Avolio, 1998). Here, high-self monitoring can be seen as
Self-monitoring has been shown to affect leadership style and vision content
(Sosik & Dinger, 2007), particularly high self-monitoring induces a stronger positive
relationship between charismatic leadership and inspirational vision themes, whereas low
leadership and instrumental vision themes, thus acting as an effective moderator. The
facilitate the development of a charismatic image, but also help sustain the positive image
to exert a high level of influence” (Jung & Sosik, 2006 P: 14). Jung and Sosik (2006)
went on to hypothesize and find that high self monitoring was found to be much higher in
8
Hypothesis 1. Leader’s self-monitoring is positively related to transformational
leadership.
Karma-Yoga
“The core of Karma-Yoga is being duty-oriented and being able to follow one’s
duty even though it may be personally uncomfortable.” (Mulla & Krishnan, 2008 P: 35).
Karma-Yoga is about discharging one’s duties with devotion and includes and involves
doing one’s normal duties and assuming roles with complete dedication, without any
expectation of gain from one’s effort (Krishnan, 2007). Krishnan, (2007) also wrote that
people who socialize in the Indian culture consider themselves to be born with duties,
rather than with rights, and that this aspect of work is one fundamental difference the
Indian culture has when compared with most other cultures. This understanding was
necessary as our study was done in India. Mulla & Krishnan (2008) have also defined
about performing one’s duties without expectations of rewards or returns, implying non-
attachment (Krishnan, 2007). According to Krishnan (2001), individuals who rate high on
Karma-Yoga believe that their lives and work are a means of discharging their
obligations to society. Building on this, Mulla and Krishnan (2006) wrote that such
individuals give more priority to other-focused social values than to self-focused personal
values, and feel a sense of connectedness with others, as a result of which they have a
superior ability to perceive the needs and feelings of people around them.
9
Transformational Leadership and Karma-Yoga
factor which affects followers’ beliefs and attitudes, and that transformational leadership
does not take current values and motivations to be fixed, but seeks to change them.
based on leaders' shifting the values, beliefs, and needs of their followers.” (Krishnan,
2007 P: 52). Krishnan, (2001) also showed that transformational leaders give importance
leaders promote empowerment of cultural norms. Duties, related to Karma-Yoga, are part
of Indian cultural norms. Ozaralli, (2003) also showed that followers who worked under
transformational leaders reported higher performance and goal attainment within their
group. Pillai and Williams, (2004) found that transformational leaders built committed
and high performing work groups by enhancing employee self-efficacy and cohesiveness.
Kuhnert and Lewis, (1987) wrote that transformational leaders motivate followers
to accept, pursue and accomplish goals of a difficult nature, which normally the followers
wouldn’t have accepted, because leaders’ end values such as integrity, honor and justice
are adopted by followers, resulting in a transformation in their attitudes, beliefs and goals.
responsibility for their commitments and initiate the same in followers. They also
with followers’ Karma-Yoga in case of male followers. Mehra and Krishnan, (2005)
10
hypothesized and showed that Svadharma-orientation (following one’s own dharma or
Karma-Yoga.
Kirkpatrick and Locke, (1996) showed that leader's vision and vision
subordinates. The presence of task cues also significantly improves task clarity and
charismatic leaders tailor the emotional content of their message to meet followers’ hopes
and expectations, an effective method for charismatic leaders who are also high self-
values and regulating their own behavior to reflect a consistency with these needs and
values as considered by Sosik and Dinger, (2007). Sosik and Dinger, (2007) also wrote
that self-monitoring affects leadership style and vision content, and that high self-
Yoga.
11
Self- Monitoring, transformational leadership and Karma-Yoga
leadership style and vision content (Sosik & Dinger, 2007) and maybe positively
2007).
Method
subordinates rated themselves on Karma-Yoga, and the managers also rated their
matched pairs. Out of 65 subordinates, 52 were male and 13 were female. Of the
respondent managers, 60% were aged between 30 and 40 years, 37% were aged above 40
years and 3% were aged below 30 years. In terms of experience, 9% had less than one
year experience, 26% had work experience ranging from 1 to 2 years, 20% had work
experience ranging from 2 to 3 years and 45% had work experience above 3 years, in
12
Of the respondent subordinates, 51% were aged less than 30 years, 17% were
aged between 30 and 40 years, and 32% were aged above 40 years. In terms of work
experience, 43% had less than a year’s work experience, 31% had work experience
ranging from 1 to 2 years, 11% had work experience ranging from 2 to 3 years and 15%
his study. The questionnaire contains 30 items and measures the five dimensions of
six items measuring each dimension. With sample size N= 65, we measured the scale
reliabilities of each of the dimensions. As the dimensions were highly correlated with
each other, we found the average of dimensions for all respondents and used the value as
scores of 0.74 for idealized influence attributed, 0.74 for idealized influence behavior,
0.76 for inspirational motivation, 0.81 for intellectual stimulation and 0.83 for
individualized consideration.
Mulla and Krishnanⁿ, (2006) in their work on the conceptualization and validation of
Karma-yoga. The 5 items measure Karma-Yoga- sense of duty/ obligations. For the scale,
the initial alpha scores were 0.55 for the manager- subordinate rating, and 0.34 for the
subordinate self rating. Therefore, we ran a factor analysis test using principal component
analysis and orthogonal varimax rotation for the self- rated Karma-Yoga scores. The first
13
analysis resulted in the removal of the fifth item due to cross loading. The second
analysis found the remaining items load on to one clean factor, but the fourth item
showed a negative loading. We therefore removed the fourth item and conducted a
further analysis and found that the first three items all loaded on to one clean factor with
positive loading. We ran a factor analysis test for the manager-subordinate rated scores
also using the first three items and got a single factor loading. The factor analysis tables
are shown below. We got new standardized alpha scores for the manager-subordinate
rating and self-rating of the Karma-Yoga sense of duty using the first three items as 0.87
and 0.60 respectively. For testing the relationship between transformational leadership
and Karma-Yoga for male followers, a new sample of N=52 was considered, and we got
monitoring scale of Lennox and Locke (1984). We chose this scale over Snyder’s (1974)
scale as this scale avoided the drawbacks of Snyder’s (1974) scale by focusing on a
narrower definition of the construct, that is, on sensitivity to the expressive behavior of
others and the ability to modify self-presentation. We got a standardized alpha score of
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Step 1: Karma-Yoga self-rated
F a cto r P a ttern
F a c t o r1 F a c t o r2
k y s1 k ys1 0 .6 1 0 8 9 - 0 .3 4 8 1 8
k y s2 k ys2 0 .7 8 5 7 5 0 .0 0 5 5 5
k y s3 k ys3 0 .7 5 9 9 8 0 .1 6 2 9 7
k ys4 r k y s4 r - 0 .2 9 4 6 3 0 .6 7 4 5 2
k ys5 r k y s5 r 0 .3 8 4 6 0 0 .7 3 6 3 8
V a ria n c e E x p la in e d b y E a c h
F acto r
F a cto r1 F a cto r2
1 .8 0 2 8 9 2 1 1 .1 4 5 0 5 3 4
15
T he F A C T O R P ro ced ure
R otatio n M etho d : V arim a x
O rth ogo n al T ran sfo rm ation M atrix
1 2
F acto r1 F a cto r2
V aria n ce E xp lain ed b y E a ch
F a cto r
F a cto r1 F a cto r2
Step 2
T he F A C T O R P ro c ed u re
I n it ia l F a c t o r M e t h o d : P r in c ip a l C o m p o n e n t s
P r io r C o m m u n a l it y E s t im a t e s : O N E
E i g e n v a lu e s o f t h e C o r r e la t i o n M a t r i x : T o t a l
= 4 A v era g e = 1
E i g e n v a lu e D iffe r e n c e P r o p o r t io n C u m u la t i v e
1 1 .7 3 6 3 1 2 0 6 0 .7 9 8 1 3 8 6 6 0 .4 3 4 1 0 .4 3 4 1
2 0 .9 3 8 1 7 3 4 0 0 .1 8 4 1 4 4 7 1 0 .2 3 4 5 0 .6 6 8 6
3 0 .7 5 4 0 2 8 6 9 0 .1 8 2 5 4 2 8 5 0 .1 8 8 5 0 .8 5 7 1
4 0 .5 7 1 4 8 5 8 5 0 .1 4 2 9 1 .0 0 0 0
1 fa c t o r w ill b e r e t a in e d b y t h e M I N E I G E N c r it e r io n .
F a cto r P a tte rn
F a cto r1
k y s1 k y s1 0 .6 7 1 1 2
k y s2 k y s2 0 .7 8 2 3 7
k y s3 k y s3 0 .7 2 9 4 5
k y s4 r k y s4 r -0 .3 7 6 4 6
V a r i a n c e E x p la i n e d
b y E a ch F a ctor
F a c to r1
1 .7 3 6 3 1 2 1
16
Step 3
Factor1
Variance Explained
by Each Factor
Factor1
1.6709313
17
Karma-Yoga manager rated
T he F A C T O R P ro ced ure
In it ia l F a c t o r M e t h o d : P r in c ip a l C o m p o n e nt s
P a rt ia l C o r re la tio n s C o n tro llin g a ll o th e r V a ria b le s
k y m s1 k y m s2 k y m s3
k y m s1 k y m s1 1 .0 0 0 0 0 0 .1 5 4 1 1 0 .7 1 8 2 3
k y m s2 k y m s2 0 .1 5 4 1 1 1 .0 0 0 0 0 0 .3 4 0 4 5
k y m s3 k y m s3 0 .7 1 8 2 3 0 .3 4 0 4 5 1 .0 0 0 0 0
k y m s1 k y m s2 k y m s3
0 .6 6 2 5 4 7 6 4 0 .8 5 1 6 6 8 6 6 0 .6 3 9 1 0 9 5 9
P r io r C o m m u n a lit y E st im a t e s: O N E
E ig e n v a lu e s o f t h e C o r re la tio n M a trix : T o t a l
= 3 A v e ra g e = 1
E ig e n v a lu e D iffe r e n c e P ro p o rtio n C u m u la t iv e
1 2 .4 0 1 2 4 4 4 1 1 .9 6 9 7 8 2 0 0 0 .8 0 0 4 0 .8 0 0 4
2 0 .4 3 1 4 6 2 4 2 0 .2 6 4 1 6 9 2 4 0 .1 4 3 8 0 .9 4 4 2
3 0 .1 6 7 2 9 3 1 7 0 .0 5 5 8 1 .0 0 0 0
F a c to r1
k y m s1 k y m s1 0 .9 1 4 5 9
k y m s2 k y m s2 0 .8 3 4 2 1
k y m s3 k y m s3 0 .9 3 2 1 3
Variance Explained
by Each Factor
Factor1
2.4012444
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Results
The following correlation and regression tables show the result of our hypothesis
tests. To test our first hypothesis, we ran a series of correlations between self- monitoring
score. Our first hypothesis that there is a positive relationship between self-monitoring
positive correlation (.37) between self-monitoring and the composite leadership score.
(.42) with the dimension idealized influence attributed. Except with the intellectual
stimulation dimension, with which there was only a bordering on significance correlation
(p<0.1), self-monitoring was significantly and positively correlated with the other
dimensions.
between the composite leadership score and self-rated Karma-Yoga, dimensions idealized
influence behavior and inspirational motivation were positively correlated (.23 and .21
scores, we did not find any significant correlation with the composite leadership score as
well as the dimensions. Removing data with female subordinates, with N=52, our second
hypothesis was partly but more significantly supported. Karma-Yoga (self-rated) was
(p<0.1). The dimensions idealized influence behavior and inspirational motivation were
19
arrived at the same result as with the correlation, between the composite transformational
leadership score and Karma-Yoga. Again we did not find any relationship between
Our third hypothesis that self-monitoring is positively related to Karma-Yoga was not
moderation relationship, we used the three path model suggested by Baron and Kenny,
(1986) to study moderation, where they explained that moderation effects would be
present when a regression of the dependent variable with the product of the independent
Table 2
Linear Regression a
estimate F R2 F
a Parameter estimates are reported only if model was significant at 0.1 level.
20
Table 1
21
6. Individualized Consideration 3.08 0.71 **.34 ***.75 ***.72 ***.64 ***.77 (.83)
8. KY self rated 4.36 0.52 -.06 .19 †.23 †.21 -.01 .05 .14 (.60)
9. KY manager rated 3.77 0.94 -.16 .08 -.05 -.07 .03 .07 .02 (.87)
10. KY self rated Male Followers 4.38 0.53 -.06 †.27 *.33 *.31 .11 .21 †.27 (.67)
(N=52)
a
Alphas are in parentheses along the diagonal. † = p < .10. * = p < .05. ** = p < .01. *** = p < .001.
Our results show that self-monitoring is indeed directly and positively related to
The very low support we achieved for the hypothesis that transformational
leadership is positively related to Karma-Yoga may have been due to multiple reasons.
One among them might be that we combined the responses received from various
organizations in various industries. This may not have been the most effective method as
transformational leadership ratings may have varied from industry to industry. As Karma-
Karma-Yoga responses could not be an issue. Another reason might be the scale we used.
Krishnan, (2007), in his study, has used a 6 item Karma-Yoga questionnaire and
Yoga. We used a 5 item scale that Mulla and Krishnan, (2006) developed, which was
reduced to 3 items, and may not have measured the Karma-Yoga variable completely.
Another reason might be the influence of gender. As documented earlier, Menon and
female subordinate responses and test our hypothesis for male subordinates only. As
results show, our hypothesis was better supported and we found significant relationships
22
dimensions, and positive relationships bordering on significance with idealized influence
Our third hypothesis was not supported both with N=65 and N=52. This might be
because managers who are high self monitors but not necessarily transformational in
transformational leadership and Karma-Yoga was not supported. This may have been due
to various reasons. One is that our data came from firms in various industry sectors. Also,
the sample may have not been big enough to get a significant result.
Managerial implications
been taken from various organizations in different industries, we can come to the
transformational across industries. Particularly, this result could be useful for those firms
which might be undergoing changes in management structures and systems. The sense of
because transformational leaders elevate both themselves and their subordinates towards
higher order needs, and thus influencing the sense of duty of followers would make them
23
measures the amount of self-realization of individuals regarding their sense of duty, a
manager- rated Karma-Yoga score would be of little relevance and meaning. This has
Our study has a few shortcomings. One of them is the number of responses (N
ranging from 52 to 65). Researchers should look at our results with caution and aim at
industries. This may not have been the best way to research our hypothesis. Researchers
can look at collecting large samples from single sources in further research.
The scale for Karma-Yoga, sense of duty, we believe may not have completely
measured the variable. A better scale could be the one Krishnan, (2007) developed and
Also, the reliability of the Karma-Yoga scale was quite low (0.6, N=65) when
compared with the reliability considering only male subordinates (0.67, N=52). This
implies that gender influences of followers should also be taken care of when measuring
Karma-Yoga in future.
Conclusion
high on self-monitoring and are transformational can better serve organizations as rapid
change has become a part of organizations today, what with the growth the Indian
economy has seen until recently. Also, the economic slowdown itself brings a whole new
24
set of requirements for organizations to adapt to, ushering in more change, which has to
happen fast and be inculcated across the organization. Our results regarding the
sample that has come from various organizations is thus highly beneficial in the sense
that high self-monitors are highly adaptive individuals who can tailor their actions to the
need of the hour, and such people also being transformational, can do a better job of
followers to be better aligned with organizational goals by enhancing their sense of duty,
done with better focus and higher productivity. Thus, organizations should look at
transformational nature, and also put managers in programs that increase their self-
presentation skills. We still hold that self-monitoring moderates the relationship between
25
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