MODULE 5 METHODS OF DATA REPRESENTATION Q key concepts: 51 52 53 (One of the most important aspects in any statistical investigation is the manner by which the researcher presents the data. Essentially, data can be presented in various modes such as textual, tabular and graphical displays. In the textual presentation, the data are presented in the form of texts, phrases or in paragraphs. This method is very common among newspaper reports depicting specifically the salient or important findings. Example: The following newspaper report presents a textual data presentation. The Philippine Stock Exchange composite index lost 7.19 points to 2,099.12 after trading between 2,095.30 and 2,108.47. Volume was 1.29 billion shares worth 903.15 million pesos(16.7 million dollars). The broader all-shares index gained 5.21 points to 1,221.34. From: Freeman dated March 17, 2005 The tabular display is a more reliable and effective way of showing relationships or comparisons data through the use of tables. In many cases, the tables are accompanied by a short narrative explanation to make the facts clearer and more understandable. Example: The following newspaper report presents a tabular data presentation Exchange rates released by the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas Country “Peso United States 50.7890 Japan 0.4140 United Kingdom 72.5267 Hongkong 6.5116 ‘Switzerland 28.7382 Canada 32.9756 Singapore 28.0680 Australia 26.5522 Bahrain 134.7260 Saudi Arabia 13,5434 Brunei 27.9875 Indonesia 0.0045 Thailand 1.1143 United Arab Emirates 13,8295 Germany 22.4727 France 6.7005 Source: Cebu Daily News dated May 24, 2001 2 .h the use of statisti fective way of presenting coal deplay ‘can easily attract the 5.4 The graphical display is the most OPE re contation, the graphic Rt ceeot creo graphs. Of the different modes of date a fder. The following are the com! . ree attention as well as the interest of Me ned vetanglr bars 2 length of which represents the quantity or a) Bi . The graph uses ctan ) Bar graph. img 5 oe ‘each type oF category: 1e for the Academic Year XYZ Colleg Example: We are given the following ‘enrolment data of 1995-1996 a Level ra = 682 435, 1117 30.17 a cond Year 496 536 4032 (27.88 ec Third Year 314 419 733 19.80 ; “820 22.15 385 Fourth Year 435 Total 1927 1775 3702 100.00 eS ‘As shown below, the bar graph is drawn by placing the year levels on the horizontal axis and the enrolment on the vertical axis as follows: 1200 900 600 300 First Year ‘Second Year ‘Third Year Fourth Year (Wear Level) b) Multiple Bar Graph. This graph is useful when the researcher wants to compare figures on two or more different occurrence. in constructing multiple bar graphs, a legend is especially helpful in guiding the viewer analyze the data Example: For the same data set, the multiple bar graph is shown below. 800 ro m 00 200 Fit ear SccondYear—Thid Year——Fourth Year (Year Level)©) Pie Chart. This graph is used to present quantities that make up a whole. Usually, pie charts are constructed using percents and the slices of the pie are drawn in proportion to the different values of each class, item, group or category. The whole area of the pie is regarded as 100%. Example: For the same data set, the pie chart is shown below: d) Line Chart. The line chart is especially useful in showing trends over a period of time. Example: The following data shows the number of student-drop-outs of XYZ College from 1995 to 1996 Year Number of ‘Student-dropouts Number of Student-dropouts _ (Male) (Female) 1995 = = 40 26 1996 38 43 1997 53 55 1998 48 32 1999 62 49 The line chart of the above data set is shown below: 23female Dropouts 0 50 40 30 20 185 1996 1997 1998 1999 uu v “Explore * Discuss in class the following other types of graphs and when do we appropriately use these graphs. a. Pictograph b. Scatterpiot ive the characteristics of a good statistical graph. 24Name: : Instructor: Pate Sea MODULE 5 EXERCISE SET ‘Construct the bar graph of the following data set. GNP of European Countries For the year 1995 ‘Countries: GNP i Belgium 4.8% France 5.5% Germany 6.2% Denmark 2.4% Italy 45% Netherlands 47% United Kingdoms 5.11% Ml. Construct a multiple bar graph of the following data. INCOME OF 4 CITIES OF CEBU In 3 CONSECUTIVE DAYS Giies Day Tincome (pesos) | Day 2 Income (pesos) | Day 3 Income (pasos) 1. Cebu City 148,455 149,611 150,488 2. Toledo City 997,611 101,481 100,786 3. Mandaue City 140,452 148,614 149,415, 4. Davao City 113,488 122,464 130,782 25i Nw. Construct the pie chart of the following data on monthly budget. Expenses: Budget{(pasos) | Furniture 11,482 Books 4,862 Medicine 8.211 Food 5,380 Miscellaneous 8.482 Construct the line chart of the following data on enrolment. Year Male enrollees Female enrollees 2000 1350 1260 2001 1200 1001 2002 1505 923 2003 1423 832 2004 985 1123 2005 1625 1357 26MODULE 6 DATA ORGANIZATION: THE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE 1 key concepr: 64 62 63 64 Data in its original form and structure are called raw data. Example: The following final exam scores of 40 students are considered as raw data. 79 83 84 62 62 43 72 48 46 59 93 64 59 32 54 45 55 45 76 72 40 51 72 83 49 62 85 74 40 74 49 65 38 85 77 63 38 43 63 69 When these scores are arranged either in ascending or descending magnitude, then such an arrangement is called an array. It is usually helpful to put the raw data in an array because it is easy to identify the extreme values or the values where the scores most cluster. When these data are placed info a system wherein they are organized, then these partake the nature of grouped data. This procedure of organizing data into groups is called a frequency distribution table (FDT). Example: The following presents a frequency distribution table of the scores of fifteen Statistics students Scores Frequency () 10-19 5 20-29 4 30-39 3 40-39 2 50-59 4 5 The following are the basic components of a frequency distribution table. + Class Interval — these are the numbers defining the class ~ these consist of the end numbers called the class limits namely the upper limit and the lower limit Class Frequency (f ) - shows the number of observations falling in the class Class Boundaries - these are the so called “true class limits” classified as: - LOWER CLASS BOUNDARY (LCB) is defined as the middle value of the lower class limit of the class and the upper class limit of the preceding class - UPPER CLASS BOUNDARY (UCSB) is the middle value between the upper class limit of the class and the lower limit of the next class + Class sizé - the difference between two consecutive upper limits or two consecutive lower limits. (Classmark (CM) - midpoint or the middle value of a class interval Cumulative frequency — shows the accumulated frequencies of successive classes 265 - GREATER THAN CF (>CF) shows the number of observations greater than LCB - LESS THAN CF (CF f 5 9.5 995 145 5 16 4 19.5 29.5 24.5 9 10 3 25 395 345 12 6 2 39.5 49.5 445 14 3 1 49.5 59.5 54.5 15 4 Observe that this FDT has five class intervals. Specifically, the class interval 20-29 has frequency of 4. This means that there are 4 students whose scores are from 20 to 29. The. lower limit of this class is 20 and its upper limit is 29. Moreover, the LCB of this class is 19.5. This is obtained by taking the average of the lower limit of this class(20) and the upper limit of the preceding 20+19 39 =— =19.5. TaD ' Furthermore, the UCB of this class is 29.5. This is obtained by taking the average of the upper limit of this class(29) and the lower limit of the next/succeeding class(30), that is; uce = 2943059 = =29.5 2 Also, the classmark (CM ) is 24.5. This is obtained by taking the average of the lower limit (20) and the upper limit (29), that is; co = 2042949 2 2 class(19), that is; LC! Observe also that the < CF for this class interval is 9. This means that there are a total of 9 scores which are less than 29.5(meaning 29 down). Finally, the > CF for this class is 10. This means that there are a total of 10 scores which are greater than 19.5(meaning 20 up). Given a set of scores (raw data), how do we construct the FDT? Typically, there are no hard and fast rules as to how to construct an FDT. However, the following steps = ‘suggested. aa Step 1: Determine the number of classes. For frst approximation, itis ‘suggested to use the STURGES APPROXIMATION. FORMULA. K= 143,322 log n Where approximate number of classes n = number of cases Step 2: Determine the range R, where R = maximum value ~ minimum value Step 3: Determine the approximate class size C using the formula C = R//K. Its usually convenient to round off C to a nearest whole number, 28Step 4: Step 5: Step 6: Example: Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4: Step 5: Step: Determine the lowest class interval (or the first class). This class should _ include the minimum value in the data set. For uniformity, let us agree that for our Purposes, the lower limit of the lowest class interval should start at the minimum value. Detrmine all class limits by adding the class size C to the limits of the previous lass. Tally the scores / observations falling in each class. We now construct the FDT of the final exam scores of 40 students as shown in the raw data of Section 6.1 K =1+3322l0g n = 1+3.322 log(40) = 1+ 3.322 (1.60205) - Cc =RIK 61/6 10.167 C= 10 Let us decide to start at the minimum value. Thus, the lowest class is the class 32- 41, The classes are constructed by adding 10 to each class limit. Thus, we have: 320+ ae 4ae) = 51 5200 61 ea - m1 72), - 81 a 31 2 101 Determine now the frequency of each class by tallying the scores falling in each class. Classes Tally Frequency a2 at TH 5 42 - 51 HY III 9 sae 61 un ae 2 - 7 IT It ar m2 81 AYLI 8 820 - 1 Mm 5 2 101 | 1 n=40 29The following table presents the complete frequency distribution table indicating the class boundaries, the class marks as well as the cumulative frequencies, Classes Ja LGB) UCB CM. <CF. 5 315 415 36.5 5 40 i 2415) 51.5 465 14 35 4 515 615 65 18 26 8 615 15 665 26 22 8 715 815 765 34 14 5 815 91.5 865 39 6 1915) 101.5 965 40 1 Y coon Discuss the possible disadvantages of transforming the original raw scores int. frequency distribution table (FDT), " : ae 30Name: Instructor: Date: Score: ‘Schedule: MODULE 6 EXERCISE SET How many class intervals would you approximate to construct if you have a data set consisting of: a)70 scores | 2 7 b) 50 scores ¢) 100 scores d) 80 scores e) 85 scores ‘What is the approximate class size of a FDT whose range is 30 and which has? a) 4 class intervals “1 Ce ene b) 6 class intervals c)7 class intervals d) 5 class intervals e) 8 class intervals 31° WUCKNO Ryan fe Bice al . Ill. Complete the following FDT by filling in the blanks. Cisse f= CM —=iLCB_ UCB CF < 'V. Given the following sample scores of 50 students in a mathematics class, construct the complete _ frequency distribution table: (ws 72 38 49 384173 69 B85 73 25 52 42 443 62 65 (470 481 48044 «6104082472768 4, 54-5273 637975 AHO (ti g z g 54 65 50 49 65 45 74 Shep # Awonge: f ‘ ah 8M 08 OF Bo Te FOT of the se veorer of SD Students m era 8 Ses ee ee ne ' Be 2 oF = Bae oS Gece interval | ¢ licoluce | em | rer [eer Aa geh arnt Foy lee Lael 2 Pp newee 43> SI a |ne | se | 47 # e ‘Shep 83 Re max deere - min cape 4% = bo 3 lout rook | Se 22 %& = @1 -20 =F or oF w leo | cae | 2 32 Stepgi eC: Ce Weg 70* We a [owe t we [94 2 | 47 % a ma -_ 37 3 ee Lar 83 so V. The following data set presents thie IQ scores Students. Construct the complete frequency distribution table: 140 85 «686 «= 101.120. 86 4 100 95 84 88 115, 78 150 90 95 83 110 100, 98 100 98 85 84 90 78 105 100 86 87 100 FUT of 1@ scores Of 30 students Step 1 Avionge — 10 Ia ves Jem \ oer | ecr tee ee sal? | @ 2 : & 2 9 wo Te washes | i] de f 0 oT c [ery RT ae ww wm 1 o Fa a wo DN eRe fee V2, ie 7418 Shep 2: see ken 30 Step.4: sve interval Pel Oxia | wee Ne) 2 Vn es U480322 bog 30 ey Kees Ce Mes age mt cy mee | we Te % = ° THe Ese fut IP TS sere wilt be Cag tle cae V9 [A [wm Ia dcdin the. clecs imerval CA i ®, we curd up te KF Shep 3: Soe Rs RARTIA- winta + \- 78 272. zor To wenl $ icp ico ™ 3 B- og 1 pear 98 % - 101 a apr sons 98S 6 us ap Bieta ORE a N¢ - ter g ger -1ae WOE 1 mh - 137 oO laeee = (B7-L [BIL % BBR -14q BIE MG MBE ee et 4 144.0 fore cl pe |_-# by histegran oF eg ‘ot uo7 € 6 hog f 3 3 ° rt UcB The HE MEW Ree be Tet 7 WAC IC BE 8k BE REC BAC HBS tone Ler ie 24 26 2 2g 4 30 [2]GRAPHS ASSOCIATED WITH THE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE 1 key concert: 7.4 The information contained in a frequency distribution can be conveniently represented by means of a graph. Graphing the frequency distribution table is an effective device in presenting statistical data which therefore provides relationships on these data in pictorial form. 72 The histogram is a graph which is primarily composed of vertical bars that are interconnected making it an appropriate and a clear graph for continuous data. In a histogram, the base of each bar is the class boundary with its height equal to. its class frequency. Thus, a histogram is a continuous bar graph in which the class boundaries are plotted (on the horizontal axis) against the class frequencies (on the vertical axis). The following depicts the histogram of the frequency distribution table of the final exam scores of 40 students as illustrated in the previous example. 10 me aS "Sage BGunaal TE -3 The frequency polygon is a line chart which is constructed by plotting the class marks against 78 ee eat restoncies The graph is then oblained by connecing the consecutive pons using @ straight line. The polygon is closed by considering additional class marks at each end with a frequency of zero. Example: The following depicts the frequency polygon for data set on scores of 40 students. 3374 The ogi re the graphs of cumulative frequency distributions. Since there are two types of cumulative Toqvencee (< CF and > CF), then there also two types of ogives namely the ogive. The ogive is the graph where the > CF’ is plotted against the LCB Example: For the same data set on scores of 40 students, the following figures respectively present the ogive. a) ogive 40 354 30 25 >CF 20 415 51515 1S BSS, Lower Class Boundary wu ave erie How do you call to the class boundary which is the intersection between the ogive when these are drawn in one graph? 34q Score: Instructor: Schedule: MODULE 7 EXERCISE SET Bin crs kee ine te 1 Consider the following frequency distribution table. 7” Classes Frequency cm cb ucb tF 70-14 3 Mo9e-us 3 30 15-19 7 T We ae op 20-24 5 noe ae © 25-29 5 UD ac lee Be 30-34 8 Mime ir to 3539 2 Bogus 5° 30 8 Construct the: a)istogram j : ] is i 3 te ne rn onaree b) frequency polygon , wel Mc ee the ms Sei b: i: Py, g: ©) 0give Me Be me me one ar RR OASE Doumrmses (UCB) * . or”, Gee BGS ME OS HK wen cusps panigeses CLC)A test is given to a statement class of 50 students which resulted in the following scores. 63 50 47 45 4535 1 585 SS 74 8382554 48 5H BC soo 31 0 62385 TAA BK 7B 68 72 56 55 52 62 65 33 72 45 45 47 43 65 43 70 73 55 73 82 1.) Construct the frequency distribution table 2.) From the FDT in number 1, construct the: a) histogram b) frequency polygon c) ogive 36II MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY “When dealing with an assortment of facts or observations, the natural tendency of the human mind is to dichotomize.” - Anthony Stevens LEARNING OBJECTIVES Unit II aims to present a comprehensive discussion on the different measures of central tendency. The aspect of data analysis commences in this unit in which the studentis expected to grasp _the understanding and the computational skills of these measures. In particular, after completing this unit, the student shall be able to: «calculate the mean, median and mode both for grouped and ungrouped data; «identify the uses and limitations of these measures; ‘= calculate the other measures of location. 37mde = HR THE MEAN 8.1 The arithmetic mean or simply the mean of a data set is the sum of the values divided by the number of values. Thus, if X,, X, X,..Xy are the individual scores in a population of size NV, then the population mean 11 is defined as: =x N Example: The systolic blood pressure of 8 patients taking antihypertensive drugs recorded as: 90, 86, 70, 100, 110, 100, 75 and 83. If we treat the data as coming from a Population, then the population mean 41 is computed as: oD Xe Kit Ha tH tet ot Xe ty te = 8 _ 90+ 86+ 70+ 100 +100+110+ 75 +83 8 N 82 Ontheotherhand, if X,, X,, X, the sample mean X is defined as: Example: The cholesterol counts of a sample of 6 patients are recorded as follows: 122, 214, 175, 200, 198 and 211. Then the sample mean of this data set is computed as: y= 2% _ 12242144175 +200+198-+ 211 6 1120 6 = 186.67 _ Thus, the mean cholesterol count for the 6 sample patients is 186.67. 8.3 For grouped data or those which are placed in a frequency distribution table, the mean can be ‘approximated by the following formula: 38” F2UK yy. LK ae N where X = sample mean/ 41 = population mean JS = frequency of a class X = classmark of a class n = sample size/ N = population size Observe that the mean of a frequency distribution table is simply a weighted mean of the class marks where the frequencies partake the nature of the weights. Example: Consider the following FDT of the urine amylase of 15 patients. Classes | Frequency | 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 arena In approximating the mean, we need to construct the classmark X column and a column for AX . Thus, we have: Classes f x 70-19 5 145 20-29 4 245 30-39 3 345 40-49 2 445, 50-59 1 545 Hence, ¥ = LA. 475 77493 ments i lies only to interval or 8. mean is the most widely used measure of central tendency which appli “ino dats le very sensitive to extreme values and is easily affected by the value of every observation. ah Explore a). Ifa constant kis 1) added to or 2) subtracted from or 3) multiplied to, each of the scores in the data set, what happens to the new mean compared to the old mean of the original scores? b) What about if each of the scores is divided by a constant k, what happens to the new mean? 39Doing with Excel ‘Suppose we have the following samples scores in statistics of 8 students: Student Score tan 15 Jesse 10 Baby 20 Mila 18 Ejong 12 Macoy 20 Louris 18 Cherry 19 In computing the mean using Excel, we first construct the above data base as an Excel worksheet shown in the following figure: FIGURE 8-1: Excel Worksheet of the Scores of 8 Students in computing the Mean. Observe that we entered the 8 scores starting at cell B2 up to B9. Then using any unoccupied cell (B10), key in =AVERAGE(B2:B9) to compute the mean score of the 8 students. This gives us 16.5 as the mean score as shown in Figure 8-1u Approximate the mean given the following frequency distribution table. 7a) Classes 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89 90-94 95-99 SS x oe o ” ” $1 $1 L Neanos ‘los + 28) sone b) Classes 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 aaoromals 2MODULE 9 THE MEDIAN 9.1 The median denoted by Ma’, is the middle most value when the observations are arranged either in ascending or descending order. Example: Consider the following values which represent the creatinine phosphokinase level of 11 sample male patients (measured in unitsilter) 480 32 72, 131. 28 ye he et Putting the scores in an array, we have: 25, 28, 31, 32, 38, 12, 43, 45, 72, 84 - Observe that the middle most value in the array is 38, Hence, Md = 38. 9.2 Ifa data set has an even number of observations, then the medi two middle most values. is the average (mean) of the Example: Suppose we have the data on the number of OPD patients from Day 1 to Day 6. Day No. of Patients 7800 2400 5300 4500 2600 1000 onaena Putting the sales in an array, we have: 1000, 1800, 2400, 2600, 4500, 5300 Now notice that the two middle most values are 2400 and 2600, Hence, the median is Md = 2m 26 2500 93 For grouped data, the median can be approximated by the formula: medion clare ‘¢ 2 100 ~ “io” 100 * 7 Thus, the P.." class is the class where the < CF is greater than or equal to 25 for the first time. In the table, this is the class 135 - 139. Hence, LCBp,=1345, pop since 4 comple thandord. Jewatio n Pr ange rience 60and the population standard deviation is computed as follows: x H X- (X-n} RRO OD auaaa Thus, However, if the five men were taken as samples, then we have: 846434444 25 3 5 and the sample standard deviation is computed as follows: x x x-X (x-x) 8 5 3 9 6 5 4 1 3 5 2 4 4 5 A 1 4 5 a‘ 41 Hence, 6142.8 The sample standard deviation can be directly computed without computing the mean. This is given by the computational formula Example: For the same data set, we have: 2129 For grouped data, the sample standard deviation can be approximated by: Ls lx -x} (a-) where S = frequency X= classmark X = samplemean n = number of cases Example: Approximate the standard deviation s of the following FOT: Classes 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 Frequency 5 4 3 2 1 5 12.10 Solution: Referring to Section 8.3, the mean of this FDOT was computed to be X=27.83. The standard deviation is computed as follows: Classes f X ¥ (x-¥) (x-x) S(x-X) 10-19 5 14.5 27.83 13.33 177.69 888.45 20-29 4 24.5 27.83 3.33 11,09 44.35 30-39 3 34.5 27.83 6.67 44.49 133.47 40-492 44.5 27.83 16.67 277.89 555.78 50-59 1 54.5 27.83 26.67 711.29 711.29 > s(x -X) = 2333.34 =F wonce, = JL =*) : (a-) [7333.34 2.91 _ [733334 . eeer 14 " For grouped data, the sample standard deviation can also be approximated using the following computational formula: nds? (Ex ye n(n—1) sample standard deviation number of samples 15-1 where n f = frequency X = classmark 6Example: Verifying our result in the previous example, we have the following table. Clases of YX y? Ke IX 0-19 5 145 21025 105125. ° 725° 20-23 4 © 24.5 600.25 2401 98 30-39 334.5 1190.25 3570.75 103.5 40-49 2 © 44.5 1980.25 3960.50 89 50-59 1 54.5 2970.25 2970.25 545 n=18 DA? = 1395375 YK = 4175 Computing for s , we obtain: a PLtxt-OraF n(n—1) — |15(13953.75)—(417.5? 15(14) — |209306.25-174306.25 = J 210 35000 10 = v166.67 =12.91Doing with Excel In computing the mean absolute deviation using Excel, we go back to the data set on uric acid levels of 5 patients as follows: 7.8, 6.9, 10.8, 9.4, and 8.7 Then, creating an Excel worksheet as shown below: in computing the Mean Absolute Deviation We compute the mean absolute deviation by entering in any unoccupied cell, say B7, . =AVEDEV(B2:B6) and obtain 1.1 as shown in Figure 12-1. This result is the same as that presented in the example of Section 12.4. 65Doing with Excel i deviation, we go back to it Excel in computing for the standard de the examgls presented in Section 12,7, the ketogenic steroids of 5 men namely 8, 6, 3, 4 and 4. Using Excel, we first create an Excel spreadsheet as shown in Figure 12-2. URE 12-2: Excel Worksheet of the Ketogenic Steroids of 5 Men in computing the Sample and Population Standard Deviations, The using any unoccupied cell, say B7, the sample standard deviation (s) is obtained by entering =STDEV(B2:B6) which yields 2.0. If the data set were obtained from a population, then using any unoccupied cel, ‘say B9, the population standard deviation (c's obtained by entering =STDEVP(B2:B6) which yields 1.79. Respectively, these results are similar as those obtained in the example of Section 12.7 with -79 (population standard deviation) and 8 =2 (sample standard deviation) 66name: LUCIANO _, Ril P_ate:_RY 19,2010 _ score instructor__MU. ROME o ‘Scheduler Af /=: MODULE 12 EXERCISE SET ‘Compute the mean absolute deviation in each of the following data sets: 1. DATASETA: 13, w8 Suge segs pao s 3? $24.00 2.DATASETB: 22, 11, 4, 9, 6 3, 58 X=8-6 Mag 2 #4 B.DATASETC: 18, 24 42, 51, 36, 45 K-36 a NAp- 40 ee A.DATASETD: 55, 45, 65, 7.5, 85, 105 0 ~~ Ke 717 DAD 4-67 ‘ 5.DATASETE: 104, 314, 211, 512, 614, 13. K* 378 PAD > G&S 0WL Given the following FDT, approximate the mean absolute deviation. a) b) Classes 13-22 23-32 33-42 43-52 53-62 63-72 Re Bo BAD > [fF Classes 18-22 23-27 28-32 33-37 38-42 43-47 aarveoals x ne oe we 415 cad one 5 216-OS 6 y.94 2 70.83 QR? O3-Q@i = Q: Os-O1 = 2-04ML ‘Suppose the following data set represents the population values of the number of patients in vehicular accidents for a 7-month period. Month —_No. of Patients 380 450 100 560 250 420 300% Nooson| Compute the standard deviation. 2138-84 So H9-54 9,269.40 Ss 22,4§0- 40 IV. Consider the following sample values on the diastolic blood pressure of six hypertensive patients, 72, 80, 95, 85, 70, 65 Compute the standard deviation. 3 Re 77h eS Pw (rns 1034 (50-7244 Ge TATE (TMT Core HY (rey cs oe NOe V. Using the data set in IV, compute the standard deviation using computational formula. 0LndAayo | RAN fF: vi vil. oan SY uly 26, 2010 The following FDT presents sample systolic blood pressure of patients in a certain hospital. Compute the standard deviation. a) Classes 135 - 139 140-144 145 - 149 150 ~ 154 185 ~ 159 160 ~ 164 oy a] 2 Se) “ b) Classes 112-121 122-131 132-141 142-181 152-161 162-171 172-181 Neansal— Zonaaer| Using the data set in VI, compute the standard deviation using the computational formula, 70MODULE 13 OTHER MEASURES OF DISPERSION (QQ KEY Concepts: 13.4 132 13.3 134 ‘he GBetclantor arate (GU is enter measur of csarsion whi ined as tert of the standard deviation to its mean. This measure is especially useful when one compares the Variability of two data sets having diferent units. The population and sample coefficient of variations are respectively defined by: x 100% (population CV) (sample CV) ‘Th dtariquarerrangellG= to aference between he ns gurl and the est quartile, laR= O;-O, “The quate BEVIaHSA(QD) onthe other hand is defined as: Discuss in class the following: ‘What is a box-plot? How do we construct it? What is its use? How do we interpret a box-plot? eaegp 1Name: Date: Score: Instructor: ‘Schedule: MODULE 13 EXERCISE SET Given the following FDT of blood sugar levels of 40 patients, compute the a) Inter-quartile range _b) quartile deviation: Classes f % 0, then the distribution is positively skewed. If SK < 0 the distribution is said to be a negatively skewed. However, if SK = O then we say that the distribution is symmetric. Example: Consider again the FDT of the urine amylase of 15 patients. Classes =f vcr 70-19 5S 20-29 49 30-39 3 2 40-49 2 50-59 to Here we know that the mean XY = 27.83, the median Md = 25.75 and the standaré deviation s = 12.91. Thus, computing for SK , we have: sx = =Ma) ; 307.83~25.75) 12.91 Since SK > 0 then it can be concluded that the distributi skewed tothe right. ution of urine amylase is ”14.4 The measures of kurtosis show the relative flatness or peakedness of a distribution. A platykurtic distribution is one which is relatively flat. A leptokurtic distribution is usually peaked while a mesokurtic distribution is in between platykurtic and leptokurtic curves. The following figure depicts these three types of kurtosis. > Leptokurtic Mesokurtic Platykunic Discuss in class the following: a. Describe the skewness of the distribution of scores when a teacher gives a very easy exam. b. What about if a teacher gives a very hard exam? What do you think is the direction of skewness? : agName: Lucho instructor hoa _P ae Date: 2¢/i2/19 Score: l Schedule: MODULE 14 EXERCISE SET Determine the direction of skewness given the following information. a) X= 40.1 and Md = 39.01 b) X= 40.0 and Md = 43.52 c) ¥=5.11 and Md =5.11 4) Y= 150 and Md = 160 e) Y=15.5 and Md =5.15 ) X=7 and Md =7.2 9) X=6.9and Md =7.6 h) X= 46 and Md =64 i) X =37.8 and Md =387 5) X= Sema Ad = 5.62 a 422 a + 28 43 a 48 an At 725 42. ses s(x md) ¢ X= 384 aa Mog 3-P 36 24 4a M8 4 “45-52 2% 43 z 27 Bt 3 (4-2) ra Jot = 008 po 7 Md: 38438 6397 > Se ee 16 ry 4 uw a ey n a % % 8 8 41 4l co] 8 Cuan thastatpwing ungrouped data, compute the coefficient of skewness SK +. > a ry aIl Given the following frequency distribution table, compute the coefficient of skewness SK Classes fo» 726 3, In how many ways can we select a president, vice president and secretary from a group of 8 ‘persons? @x7KG * 376 a Yop) roe nadeoce moar ae plyddizey), eC” ain 4. Find nifP (1, 2)=72. os POSS Con nite ea can be formed from the letters of the word ATLANTA? ~*_7'_ 5, How many permutations that oe 17 ASB, To? WELL st Tipiv 6. Hom many permutations of the vowels of the English alphabet taken 2 at a time can be formed? ?(5,2) * 22 po en-Deo-sher4 a4 «(mY ar-anvr) 7. Find if P (1,3) = 24. or A retyin-2470 8, n how many ways can 8 people be seated at a circular table? | nis) Mieke. = (a-)"? Gedo : 9. How many permutations that can be formed from the letters of the word COMMITTEE? 7! -ge ay. ‘ aaa 10. Compute P (17, 2) Pdr)? (ery 87by be Dd he ~ ¢ wtemes? G fre G baltcnoat aol Je = 5 ones baht lig eit 4 edt Clg Sanh FREE of aye bide a @ extxs x 3 = 360 weags jro vegitinon + oiehaer left cheer of urlae GB 18 cass allin al a wie £4, Std of £14,519 086 eee + swit aay tse in A argentina iF ah mhagy 919 brand Bly egal me bags gals Isat AEF wg diglys vhae all brand oe meg" ey Xu.) wy = 74933600 order 6A tombomchion orb rot realtor) fe, ctr & Bor & a Cas) Sy 7 ze Pec) — 20a) + B40 wis! 6 COs a we Prod Soave ewe @ Cia) = Bile oO - = @ ’) : © 2 t )) ey cveerds te oy e(y) =a cas) 4MODULE 17 COMBINATIONS GQ key concepts: 17.1. Let us now tum to another counting technique, in which, unlike that of a permutation, the order does not matter. Consider a set S which consists of 17 elements. A combination of these n elements taken r at a time, or r-combination, denoted by C(x,r) or ( ) is defined as any r subset of S consisting of r elements. In other words, an r- combination of S is an unordered selection of r elements of Example: Let S =(1,2,3,4). Then the combinations of S taken 3 at a time are obtained by taking any subset of S consisting of 3 elements such as: {1,2,3}, (1.2.4), (1.3.4), and (23.4). Observe that the subsets; {1,3,2}, {2,1,3}, {3.1.2}, {3.2.1} and {2,3,1} are all sintifar to the subset {1,2,3). ‘Similarly, the following are the combinations of S taken 2 at a time. {1.2}, {1,3}, (1.4), {2,3}, {2,4}, and (3,4) 4 4 Using our notation, observed that C (4,3) = () = 4and cu2r(3) 6 17.2. The number of combinations of 1 objects taken r at a time C(n,r), is defined as: Example: Example: Solution: n n! Cinry=| jee In the above example: ; Bee ee ee ecto C@9)=( 5)" 34-3)! 31) Ol) 6 ! 4 4 we, 4 1 24 cw.n-(3)-ageq 2) 2Q) 4 In how many ways can a committee consisting of 4 men and 3 women be chosen from 6 men and 6 women? There are 2 tasks involved in the selection. The first task is to choose 4 men from 6 men and the second task is to choose 3 women from the 6 women. Now, the 4 men 6 can be chosen from the 6 men in ( A ways and the 3 women can be chosen from. 88Example: Solution: Example: Solution: 6 the 6 women (ware Accordingly, using the multiplication principle, jy, committees can be chosen in (3) (3) “ aOR TG 720 5 720_ (24)(2) (6X6) | 48 36 = 18(20) = 300 ways. A student is to answer 5 out of 8 questions in a quiz. a.) How many choices has he? b.) How many choices has he if he must answer the first 2 questions? 1a.) Since there is no regard to order in choosing 5 questions from the 8 questions 8)_ 8! then the 5 questions can be chosen in () = 517 Bowe b,) If he must answer the first 2 questions, then he can choose the 3 remaining ‘questions from the 8 — 2 = 6 questions left. Accordingly, this can be done in 6 ot 50 ways. 3) 313! How many committees of 4 members can be formed from 10 persons? Since the four members are to be taken from 10 persons without regard to order in which they are selected, then this is essentially a combination of the 10 persons taken 4 at a time. Thus, there are’ 10 (10,4) = ( *) 101 = 210 commitiees. Generally, which of the two has more arrangement of elements, P(n,t) or C(n,t)? Why? 89Doing with Excel |n computing the number of combi je ie ores mbinations of n objects taken r at a time using Excel, =COMBIN(n,1) in any unoccupied cell. The following example shows how to compute C(5,2) in an Excel spreadsheet. FIGURE 17-1; Excel Worksheet in computing C(5.2) eos bedi en tn Gln a grey te emplaces at & Standard a0 52 -carkdent Hwwrant 0 are be asnignd ae eves, How many oF trate WN Wwe Fe + be alciped as hSts cad reve Swe spkes ond Alece, Weert ® be assed a3 cashier, (nw boo V- spokes wally was can the aSignnent be nade? Vo haar tf (Ye) waaae (SSG) = 50,009 aye Gs pg sn can cle a yap Soma Ver of 1! ( Js 64 wagsa © § pews 2 Alerest con er Qs 3): sh 2 CER se com het Me oh Abcve ABC ABE ACD RCO ADE BDE ABD OE ACE BA BCE 5 bomber diel a alecnase fom a waline pennies nm F (5)(M5) (10) (1)Co) = 3280 Woy?Name: Date: Score: Instructor: ‘Schedule’ MODULE 17 EXERCISE SET Solve the following the problems: 1 ® 10. How many different committees consisting of 3 persons that can be formed by 5 persons A, B, C, Dand E. List all these committees. In how many ways can a team consisting of 3 men be chosen from 7 men? In how many ways can a team consisting of 3 men and 2 women be chosen from 7 men and 5 women? ‘A woman has 11 close friends. In how many ways can she invite 5 of them to a party? A student is to answer 10 out of 13 questions in an exam. How many choices has he? How many choices has he if he must answer the first two questions? 10 Compute C(10, 3)=| 5 Solve for n if C(n+2,4)=6C(1, 2) Five points are taken on the circumference of a circle, How many triangles can be drawn using these points? ‘Ten points are taken on the circumference of a circle. How many line segments connecting any two points on the circumference of a circle can be drawn by joining them in all possible ways? ‘An engineering firm wishes to hire 3 plumbers, 2 electronics and 2 machine operators. How many aifonent chosen can be made if 6 plumbers, 5 electricians and 4 machine operators are available? anMODULE 18 BASIC PROBABILITY CONCEPTS. v 2 Q) key concerts: 18.1 (BRBBEBIMAT the basis of statistical anal lysis, in making forecasts a val associated with mathematical or random experiments. A is any Procedure or process of obtaining a set of observations which may be repeated under asically the same conditions which lead to well defined outcomes. Tossing of a coin two times and rolling die are examples of random experiments. 182 Ina mathematical experiment, the sot of @IlIBOSSIBISTOUGOMES is called a denoted ‘An element (outcome) in a sample space is called a’ ‘An an the sample space. Example: Consider the experiment of rolling a die. Then the sample space S is the set S={1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6 } which has six sample points. Now,.define the following events: as follows: , ‘ E, = event of getting an odd number E, = event of getting even number E; = event of getting even prime number E, = event of getting a number > 6 Then notice that, E, = {1, 3, 5} E= (2, 4, 6} Es= {2}, Es={} or @ An event consisting of onl is called al itis called \n event thal Two events are said to be In particular, ‘he aS called an ple space on the other hand is a sure event. Example: In the previous example, observe that: 18.3 E, is a simple event E, and E; are compound events E,is a null event E, and E; are mutually exclusive events Are E; and £4 mutually exclusive events? Why? 2satisfy certain composition, 184 Since events may be represented by sets, then they do also * operations on events. i ple points in A The union of events A and B, denoted by A U B is the re oe i ee Poi OF ing or in both. The shaded area in the following Venn-diagram il D)INTERSECTION’ {The intersection of events A and B, denoted by AN B is the set ofall sample points in A and inB {pother words, the intersection of events A and 8 consists of all sample points which are in A and B. The shaded area in the following diagram represents A B. it ct to the Sample spate § GBlectoh of a A The como ment MPs denoted by Ar Teoh orn in the 93Example: Consider the experiment of tossing a coin three times. Then the sample space S 7% rss of 8 possible outcomes, thats AS ‘S = (HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT} WS ct Now, Let E = event of getting exactly two heads, F = event of getting at most one tail XK nen and G = event of getting at least one head. WON Thus, E t ' " HHT, HTH, THH. 4 F = ( HHH, HHT, HTH,THH) ~ iT G = (HHH, HHT,HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH} r Observe that: E UF = (HHT, HTH, THH, HHH) is therevent of getting exactly 2 heads , or at most 1 tail EF = (HHT, HTH, THH) is the event of getting exactly 2 heads and at ‘most one tail G*= (TTT) is the event getting no heads Example: Suppose we throw a fair die. Then the sample space $ is the set: S=(1,2,3.4.5.6) Let A be the event that an odd number occurs and B be the event that a prime number occurs. Then A ={1, 3, 5} and B = (2, 3, 5). Hence, A UB = (1, 2, 3, 5) is the event that an odd or prime number occurs. ANB ={3, 5) is the event that an odd prime number occurs, AS = {2, 4, 6) is the event that an even number occurs. Discuss the following: Let S be a sample space and suppose A is any event in S. Obtain the following a) AUS b) ANS ) St 4) oshea Saat fw ONT, MATH, HAT ie s ya, Arar, WETH, HeTT ae 4 THA TANT, THT, THOT Wid TTaw TTA, 1TH TETE : ce AE “ “~y 6 3 GPT, 24.25) 34,37, 4H AT, cH, ot, GH oT eahan qi 5g PE wt, H4, we He & < : M72... 16.16 “MODULE 19 «a PROBABILITY AXIOMS AND SOME PROPERTIES (@ key Concepts: 49.1 Let S be a sample space and let 4, be any event of S. The probability of A, denoted by P(A). is a real number satisfying the following exiome a a) 0< P(A)<1 b) P(S)=1 ©)If A and B are mutually exclusive, then, P(A U B)=P(4)+ P(B) ‘states that the probability of any event is a value between 0 and 1 inclusive. The n the other hand states that the probability of the sample space to occur is 1. jence in itself, the sample space § is called a,gureievent, Moreover, the shird’akiompstates that if ‘Aand B do not have common elements, then the probability of their union is just the sum of their probabilities, From these axioms, the following results are immediate: i) f Bis a null event, then P (@)=0 i) If A®is the compliment of an event A, then, P(4°)= 1- P(4) ii) If A and B are any two events, then P( AUB) = P(A)+ P(B) - P(A NB) 19.2 Probabilities can be approached in the following three ways: 2)PRIORIor CLASSICAL PROBABILITY, Here, the probability is determined even before the experiment is performed. It requires Cquaily ikely outcomes and assumes that a given procedure has different simple cronts and that each of these simple events has an equal chance of occurring, Thus, the probability of an event 4, P(A) is defined as: number of sample points in A_ P(A) = “umber of sample points in S vyposrenioRTarEMPIRICALPRORABIUT, <1") Here, the probability is determined by repeating the experiment a large number of times. Thus, rumber of times event A occurred _ P(A) = — her of times the experiment was conducted 96« suasecriEPROBGITY Here, the probability is determined by one’s judgement or intuition. In most cases, the probabilty is found by simply guessing or estimating its values based on knowledge of relevant circumstances. Example: Leta card be selected at random from an ordinary pack of 52 cards. Let 4 be event of getting a spade B be event of getting a face card no.of spades _13 _1 no.of cards 524 Then P(A) = no.of facecards 12 _ 3. P(g) = PS ee (2) mo.of cards 52.13 Saat, & Wow P(A 1 B)= event getting a spade and a face card. Hence, P(A N B)= nef spate fescors 3 Example: The probability that: i) an even number appears in the toss of a fair die is pz3-! 6 2 ii) a king appears in drawing a single card from an ordinary pack of 52 cards is a. - 52 13 ii) at least one tail in the toss of three fair coins appear is iv) a white marble appears in drawing a single marble from an 4 white, 3 red and 5 blue marbles is . Come p-—4_.! 44345 3 Example: bee 2 ane be chosen at f™indom from a lot containing 12 items of which 4 Let A = event that both items are defective B = event that both items are non-defective Find P(A)and P(B). ”Solution: Example:, Since the experiment is to choose 2 items from a lot of 12 items, then the sample 12 4 ways, the number of ways that 2 defective items can be chosen from 4 defective 8 items and B can occur in (3) = 28 ways, the number of ways that 2 non-defective items can be chosen from 8 non-defective items, Accordingly, - 6 (f P(A4)= probabitiy that both items are detective = = 1p Ps : 66 1 Gy 2814 P(B) = probability that both items are non-defective = 63 66 33 ‘The probability that a student passes Statistics is 0.60, the probability that he passes Chemistry is 0.85. If the probability that he passes at least one of the subjects is 0.95, ‘what is the probability that he will pass both courses? We are given P (Stat) = 0.60, P (Chem) = 0.85 P (Stat U Chem) = 0.95. Now, the probability that he will pass both courses is P (Stat 1 Chem). Using the fact that P(A UB)= P(A)+ P(B) - P(A NB), we have: P (Stat U Chem) = P (Stat) + P (Chem) — P (Stat 9 Chem) or equivalently P (Stat M Chem) = P (Stat) + P (Chem) — P (Stat U Chem) = 0.60 +0.85-0.95 = 0.50 What do you think is the probability that he wil fail in both courses? vi A) 8) 5 Vv Exolore if is a null event, explain why P(O) = 0 Use the following Venn diagram to explain why ~ P(AUB)= P(A) + P(B)- P(ANB) 8and 9 | Or fea or Ar hah # [rh A Ka) -4 yptaue)> 2 Dla a ealege OF a5 guadacbing Strcs O hae “ Sos wating, 0 ave Spay hedtcad hed 26 a gpiag to law schecd Gad & are P94 Banas cdiscls. Select ope qeaducke al conden. weet js te polarity, Act a shudant (8 ging To graducfe sche, ©) (uy = ¢ bebical | Giggle A vanis spe $6300 va | @ RO) = 2?) Pee es J 2 a ofa peas PC,+ PO) wae > eh Poe) + PCr) =A ae B i POD 4 L RCH) = (D gj > nedieal schus, ar Zrcn) 4 a geet ra: Ye = — ae © teshdeok wil Wave to tart pay eck his defered Audunt bans Content} & w-(") = we n(so)= Gy 7 2 om cards ace dean at inden. tind 4c yoshi _). (? v6)" G) + @®al oe wh > BOS, 2 3) = Tw wea” 2 awn? Gow y queen Cact)(4ec2) : awn he aes RE wot gor" : @) “4 pC = wt Pee B eee” Jere a Wat least rare dianends. (3c) +2, md(B\ +0) 507 UM @ar wast 2 ae Lae cons (vee lerecr) : wo)-(BY #) ¥(\(eh 4) Suez < ¢ aieS) 209 & wy) () POO) <4 @)Name: _ instructor: Date: Score: ‘Schedule: MODULE 19 EXERCISE SET Solve the following problems: 1. In tossing a fair coin a) what is the probabil ing a head or a tail? 6) of geting neither a head nor a tai? ny ©f geting @ head? b) of geting 2 2. A coin weighted so that the probability of getting a head is twice as the probability of getting a tail. a) Find the probability of getting a head. b) Find the probability of getting a tail? 3. Two cards are drawn at random from a pack of 52 cards. Find the probability that both are spades. .n and 20 women of which half the men and half the women have brown 40 mer 4. A team containg fhat a person chosen at random is a man or has blue eyes. eyes. Find the probability t PUD™ Wes Pete reds Woe Ye gris Fcots 5. A card is drawn from a pack of 52 cards. Wha Pe tis the probability of getting a king and a queen of hearts? °C) = B mm m von, rome GB “$2 earLet A and B the events such that 3 P(A) = 5. PCB) = 5 ana Pca B= Find: 1. P(AUB) vinve) «ACA 4 We) = wCA08) eErack aE 3 ale) = =) a 3. P(B‘) « 4. P(AUBY = 6. P(A NBY| A }@ eo yes He | ws ig MA ey vw 5G - \ eo PplM/ec)? & " *¢——__ & S-[CIOMGNED) G9 C14) a #,0,4), dG, Of 2) PGA) PGi: Ma 4) mud) =26 n(2ZcZ 4)= 12 cards Pare) 12 uwMODULE 20 CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY AND INDEPENDENCE i key concepts: 20.1 Let E be an arbitrary event in a sample space Swith P(E)>0. The probability that an event A occurs once E has occurred, or, in other words, the (@RGiQiSnal PrObaBilly” of Agiven E , written P(A | E)is defined as: P(ALE)= Rane) Example: Let a pair of fair dice be tossed. If the sum is 6, find the probal dice is a 2. Solution: vent that the sum is 6 (4,5), (2,4), (8,3), 4,295, 1) event that a 2 appears in at least one die (1, 2), (2,14), (2, 2), (2,3). (2.4), (2,5), (2,6), (3, 2) (4, 2), (5, 2), (6.2)} Then the probability that a 2 appears in at least one die given that the sum is 6 maybe translated as P(A | E). PANE) _ 2/36 2 P(E) 5/36 5S Now, P(A| E) Example: The probability that 2 student passes Statistics is 0.60, the probability that he passes ‘Communication is 0.85 and the probability that he passes both subjects is 0.50. If the Student passes Statistics, what is the probability that he will pass Communication? Solution: The probability of passing Communication .given that he passes Statistics is translated as P(C | S). Now we know that: P(S) =0.60, P(C),= 0.88, P(S VC) = 0.50 P(CAS) P(S) 0.50 Hence, P(C | S)= fols0taee 202 As a consequence of conditional probably, the following result called the Multiplication Theorem is immediate: P(AME) = P(E)® P(ALE) 101An um contains 1 lack and 2 rad balls. Two balls are drawn one after the othe, Example: Matis the probability thatthe first balls black and second ball is red? Solution: Let B = event that the first ball is black R = event that the second ball is red We want to find P(B > R) Now, on the first draw, there is 1 black ball out of 3 balls. Hence, P(B) = 1/3. Since oer was drawn, then only 2 red balls remain, and so P(R| B)=2/2=1. Thus using the Multiplication Theorem, P(BOR) = P(B)* P(R| B) = (13) 1) 3. 20.3 The following example illustrates the multiplication theorem using a tree diagram. Example: We are given three boxes as follows: Box | has 10 light bulbs of which 4 are defective. Box |! has 6 light bulbs of which 1 is defective. Box III has 8 light bulbs of which 3 are defective. We select a box at random and then draw a bulb at random. What is the probability that the bulb is defective? Solution: Here, we perform a sequence of two experiments: (1) select one of the three boxes (2) select a bulb which either defective (0) , or non-defective (N) The following tree diagram describes these processes and gives the probability of each branch of the tree. Using the Multiplication Theorem, the probability of choosing a detective bulb is: r(9f8}10}-08) P=0.31396 A i ~xample: A coin, weighted, so that P(H) = 2/3, P(T) = 1/3, is tossed. If heads appear, then a umber sn geted a random trom the numbers 1 trough 9; tals appear, then & at random fro pilty that ar oven elected a random from the numbers 1 through 5. Find the probably The following tree diagram shows the respective probabilities. Using the Multiplication Theorem, the probability of selecting an even number is: (5+5)+(3+4) 82 £2 2715 — 165 20.4 Anevent B is said to be independent of A if the probability that B occurs is not influenced by whether 4 has or has not occurred. Mathematically, independence is defined as: P(40.8)= Pld)» PCB) Example: Leta fair coin be tossed three times. Then the sample space S is: ‘S$ = (HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT) Consider the following events: ‘A =event that the first toss is heads. B= event that the second toss is heads. C = exactly two heads are tossed in a row. Then, P(A) = P (HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT ) 7 4.1 “B2 P(B)= ( HHH, HHT, THH, THT ) Cars s 2 103ous cx P(C) = (HHT, THH ) “34 1 ‘iso, P(A B) = P (HHH, HHT) = 1 P(AQC) = P (HHT) = ; 1 P(BO\C) = P (HHT, THH)= 7 ‘Accordingly, P(A)e and so A and B ai Moreover, observe that 11 P(A)e P(C)= 7G ama P(ANC) and so A and Care also independent. Finally, notice that P(B)eP(c)= +64 1 F242 P(BOC Aenea hence, B and Care not independent events. _ ‘The probability that A hits a target is 1/4 and the probability that B hits it is 2/5 What is the probability that the target will be hit if A or B each shoot at the target? We are given P(A) =1/4 and P(B)= 2/5. Our aim is to find P(A UB). Now, P(AU B) = P(A)+ P(B)- P(AMB) (P(4)P(B)) = P(A)+P(B)- Let A and B be events and suppose all elements of A are elements in B, that is ~\ Obtain: a) PIA|B) b) P(B}A)MODULE 20 EXERCISE SET ‘solve the following problems: Let Aand B be events with P(A)= Find a) P(A| B),b)P(B| A). Find P(B| A)ifa) A isa subset of B,b) A and Bare mutually exclusive Let A and B be events such that P(d)=2. PlB)= 5 and Pans)=+. ay vcare) > tease) Ay Find a) P(A| B),b) P(B| A) Deed: 4 . we ina certain university, 25% of the students falled in mathematics, 16% fale in chemistry and thin mathematics and chemistry. A student is selected at random. 10% of the students failed bot! ability that he failed mathematics? 2) If he failed chemistry, what is the pro! ability that he failed chemistry? b) If he failed mathematics, what Reem Cm) * onze a) p(m/e)= a Or1:2 Pe) Oe ne wey Ow SE 2 romney wore WeCeym)- aac °E A pair of dice is thrown. Find the probability that the sum is 10 or greater if a 5 appears on the first die. ny pare) © rae. (Ane) + 4 (6,0) , (€,6) { i rt ma) denis 12 & greater * © oe & 1B) + 5 appears a the Fur de 6 105 \10, A class has 12 boys and 4 girls. If th i. eae aera es ean selected at random from the class, wnat i Beit PLEIN = a4 % Soe in wes - wes pCa): ie ” ee * Vie = ‘A man is dealt 5 cards one after the other from an ordinary pack of 52 cards. What is the probability that they are all hearts? pews 6a" 4 wats wees oe ‘Abag contains 7 red marbles and 3 white marbles. Three marbles are drawn from the bag one after the other. Find the probability that the first two are red and the third is white. R= %e Se (0) a oe oe 3) ‘A.bag contains three coins, one coin is fair, one coin is two-headed, and one coin is weighted so if that the probability of heads appearing is =. A coin is selected at random and tossed. Find the probability that heads appear. 4 NA ae fe. Find the probability that tails appear. 4 at Refer to Problem 9 abo peasy grt 106GA suniey fouwd ad Act 4 aot of e Filipms We) 93747 Syed Neo he tas iS 0 doch in ay gp rev e(S)ay(D yrorth. WP to Pepe He select at ronda, Fred the ig : oii rat cach > hae vis @ dec 4240 0-20 vith, 3 ae 2 o s OA survey bas been ve 5 ey ade, it war Pand oct Poors (Sos Gr) 1(eyositoh Met 56 ZF teenage consumes eoeive “Heir Spoding oney Som part-tine (job Ws ver £),)¢ seeproc etd’ man teae we (EGY CT poebiry thet at leant 3 of thea wil have n F Ons Peo prt tome jaa. ee — 6 A Audent takes 6 question true /fate yee comm and on ch querhow. Tihd te a goal # tung oa et pig Sans 6 cottct anne, wee ere eaTHE BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION ( KEY CONCEPTs: 21.1 Alot of mathematical experiments often consist of epeated tals, each with only two possible outcomes; say one is labeled a success and the other, a failure. For instance, flipping a coin times results in two outcomes where each trial may result in a head or a tail. We may call the cocurrence of a head a success and the occurrence ots tall,a tates 21.2 Experiments of this type are called binomial experiments. More formally, a binomial experiment is one that possesses the following characteristice a. The experiment consists of 1 repeated trials. ». Each trial results in two outcomes, which may be classified as a success or a failure. ¢. The probability of a success, which we denote by P remains constant from trial to trial, 4d. The repeated trials are independent. 21.3 If a binomial trial can result in a success with probability p and a failure with pesbaity q=1—p, then the probability of exactly k successes in n repeated trials, denoted by b(k;1, p) is defined as: (ks, p) = (hte om (ne : 6 times and call heads a success. Then n = 6 because there are ea aa ee aera of getting a head in each toss which is equal to 1/2 and so q=1—p =1-1/2 = 1/2. a) The probability that exactly two heads occur (= 2) is (2:6, 112)= (;Joar (112) 6? = cay? (112)4 214! =15,(14) (1/16) = 15/64 107b (4:6, 112) + b (5;6, 1/2) + (6:6, 1/2) =(°) aoe any +8 ovat eas (8a aap -(S} : 6 6 +O ¢ays2) (172) +2 (a164y 4) an 1904) 5 192) )* S101 | = 15/64 + 6/64 + 1/64 = 22164 = 0.34375 Example: The probability that a patient recovers from flu is 0.40. If 15 people are contracted with flu, what is the probability that exactly 5 persons will survive? Solution: Here we have n= 15, k =5, p =O4and g=1-0.4 =06 Then the probability that 5 out of 15 people will survive is computed as (5; 15, 0.4) = (3) (0.4)° (0.6)"** 15! =~ (0.4) 0.6)” 5110104) 9) = (3003) (0.01024) (0.006046617) = 0.1859 21.4 Ina binomial distribution consisting of trials and success probability p , the mean v= np and the standard deviation o = /npq . Example: A fair die is tossed 200 times. Here the probability of getting a five is p probability of not getting a five is: g = 1p umber of getting a five is: = 1/6 and the = 1-46 = 5/6. Hence, the expectedand the standard deviation is: a= npq = GROTITEYSTO) Q cstv Give some practical applications of binomial experiments.