New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics

ISSN: 0028-8306 (Print) 1175-8791 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tnzg20

Petrography and geochemistry of lithic fragments

in ignimbrites from the Mangakino Volcanic
Centre: Implications for the composition of the
subvolcanic crust in western Taupo Volcanic Zone,
New Zealand

Stephen J. P. Krippner , Roger M. Briggs , Colin J. N. Wilson & James W. Cole

To cite this article: Stephen J. P. Krippner , Roger M. Briggs , Colin J. N. Wilson & James W.
Cole (1998) Petrography and geochemistry of lithic fragments in ignimbrites from the Mangakino
Volcanic Centre: Implications for the composition of the subvolcanic crust in western Taupo
Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 41:2, 187-199,
DOI: 10.1080/00288306.1998.9514803

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00288306.1998.9514803

Published online: 23 Mar 2010.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 537

View related articles

Citing articles: 16 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tnzg20
New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 1998, Vol. 41: 187-199
0028-8306/98/4102-0187 $7.00/0 © The Royal Society of New Zealand 1998
Petrography and geochemistry of lithic fragments in ignimbrites from the
Mangakino Volcanic Centre: implications for the composition of the subvolcanic
crust in western Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand
STEPHEN J. P. KRIPPNER
ROGER M. BRIGGS
Department of Earth Sciences
University of Waikato
Private Bag 3105
Hamilton, New Zealand
COLIN J. N. WILSON
Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences
Wairakei Research Centre
Private Bag 2000
Taupo, New Zealand
JAMES W. COLE
Department of Geological Sciences
University of Canterbury
Private Bag 4800
Christchurch, New Zealand
Abstract The Mangakino Volcanic Centre is the
westernmost and oldest rhyolitic caldera volcano in the
Taupo Volcanic Zone, North Island, New Zealand. The
largest eruptions from Mangakino occurred in two periods
of caldera-forming activity during 1.68-1.53 Ma (Period I),
and 1.21-0.95 Ma (Period IIA), producing several
voluminous widespread welded and nonwelded ignimbrites
and minor fall deposits. Other activity from Mangakino
generated fall deposits and rhyolitic lava domes. Lithic
fragments are common in all Mangakino ignimbrites (1-10
modal %), and consist of diverse lithologies including:
rhyolite, dacite, andesite, and basaltic andesite lava, welded
ignimbrite, tuff, volcanic breccia, biotite granite, granodiorite
porphyry, siltstone, sandstone, greywacke, metagreywacke,
metaconglomerate, biotite and hornblende-biotite schist.
Lithic populations in Period I ignimbrites are dominated by
andesite lavas, suggesting that there was a pre-existing
andesite volcano in the Mangakino area, geochemically
distinct from Titiraupenga and Pureora, the nearest roughly
contemporaneous andesitic volcanoes. Later ignimbrites that
erupted during Period IIA, contain predominantly rhyolitic
lava lithics, implying that significant dome building activity
occurred at Mangakino, which represented greater volumes
of rhyolitic lava than previously described from the area.
Petrographic, geochemical, and geophysical (density and
magnetic susceptibility) data measured from the lithic
G97026
Received 5 May 1997; accepted 11 December 1997
187
fragments are used to propose a model for the shallow crust
below Mangakino Volcanic Centre. This model postulates
eruptions through a basement of Mesozoic biotite schists
overlain by metagreywackes, a thin cover of Tertiary
sandstones and siltstones, and an overlying volcanic
succession of andesite, dacite and rhyolite lavas, welded
ignimbrites, and lacustrine sediments. Ignimbrite eruptions
incorporated comagmatic biotite granite fragments from the
crystallised margins of the silicic magma chambers, and
effectively sampled the subvolcanic crust and volcanic pile
from the vent walls en route to the surface.
Keywords volcanism; ignimbrites; Mangakino Volcanic
Centre; Taupo Volcanic Zone; lithic fragments; petrography;
geochemistry; subvolcanic crust
INTRODUCTION
Ignimbrites consist of three components: juvenile magmatic
material (pumice and glass shards); crystals (representing
phenocrysts in the magma chamber before or during
eruption); and lithic fragments. Lithic fragments represent
pre-existing rocks which have been incorporated into a
volcanic eruption by erosion or abrasion of the conduit walls
or disaggregation of vent chamber walls (L. Wilson et al.
1980). Lithic fragments may also be incorporated into a
pyroclastic flow by erosion of the land surface over which
the flow is travelling (Cas & Wright 1987).
Detailed studies of lithic fragments in pyroclastic
deposits may often represent the only source of information
about the nature of the crust underlying a volcano and earlier
volcanic activity. In particular, explosive rhyolitic eruptions
that may produce fall or flow deposits are so abrasive of
their conduit walls that they can essentially provide a
window into the nature and composition of the crust to a
considerable depth. This paper investigates the petrography
and geochemistry, density, and magnetic susceptibility of
lithic fragments in ignimbrites derived from Mangakino
Volcanic Centre (MVC).
Previous studies on the eruptives from the MVC have
focused on the stratigraphy (e.g., Martin 1961; Blank 1965;
Wilson 1986a, b; Houghton et al. 1987a, b; Grindley &
Mumme 1991), age (Soengkono et al. 1992; Houghton et
al. 1995; Wilson et al. 1995a, b), and geochemistry (Briggs
et al. 1993) of the widespread ignimbrites and fall deposits.
Preliminary work on the petrography and geochemistry of
lithic fragments in ignimbrites from MVC is found in Briggs
et al. (1993). This paper extends earlier work by describing
in detail the petrography, major and trace element
geochemistry, and density and magnetic susceptibility of the
lithic fragments as a guide to the nature of the volcanic and
subvolcanic crustal lithologies at Mangakino through its
eruptive history.
188
{ ] Mangakino
. f \ Maroa
Fig. 1 Position and setting of rhyolite caldera centres in the Taupo
Volcanic Zone (adapted from Houghton et al. 1995).
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) is a major Pliocene-
Quaternary NNE—SSW orientated, volcano-tectonic
complex, c. 300 km long and up to 60 km wide (Healy 1962;
Houghton et al. 1995) in the central North Island of New
Zealand (Fig. 1). Early volcanism in the TVZ (c. 2 Ma) was
restricted to andesitic volcanoes (i.e., Titiraupenga, Pureora)
in the western part of the TVZ (Cole & Teoh 1975; Froude
& Cole 1985). More extensive and explosive rhyolitic
volcanism has dominated the zone from c. 1.6 Ma onwards
(Houghton et al. 1995).
The MVC is the westernmost and oldest rhyolitic caldera
in the TVZ (Wilson et al. 1984; Houghton et al. 1995). It is
defined by a major gravity anomaly where the depth to
"basement" (i.e., rocks with a density of 2650 kg/m3) is
estimated to be 4 km (Rogan 1982). The modern topographic
expression of the centre is a basin (Mangakino Basin) lying
200—400 m below the surrounding ignimbrite plateau, partly
infilled by lacustrine sediments (C. P. Wood pers. comm.
1997) and ignimbrites, particularly the >200 m thick,
0.34 Ma Whakamaru-group ignimbrites (Martin 1965;
Wilson 1986a; Brown 1994).
Eruptive units attributed to the MVC have produced a
sequence of voluminous, widespread welded and nonwelded
ignimbrites, fall deposits, and minor lava domes (Wilson
1986a, 1995a, b; Briggs et al. 1993). Houghton et al. (1995)
divided the MVC ignimbrite sequence into two periods:
1.68-1.53 Ma (Period I) and 1.21-0.95 Ma (Period IIA).
New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 1998, Vol. 41
Te Awamutu LKaiapiro
Kihikihi
Kakepuku£ r"— \. Maungatautar
12
-I
Fig. 2 Sample localities and general landforms surrounding the
Mangakino Volcanic Centre. MVC caldera boundary outlined by
dashed line. Sample localities (from the metric topographic map
series Topomap NZMS 260) are: (a) Hinuera Quarry (Tl6/461614),
(b) Lichfield Quarry (T16/588490), (c) Duncan Road (T17/
542234), (d) Topaz Road (Tl 7/520151), (e) Maverick Road (Tl II
473140), (f) Leyland Road (Tl7/346901 ), (g) Waipapa Valley (Tl 7/
399081), (h) Waipari Gorge (T16/338270), (i) Mangaokewa Road
(SI7/191020), (j) Waipa Valley Road (SI7/120101), (k) State
Highway 30 (S17/092015), (1) Ahuroa Road (S17/116100).
Rhyolite lava domes (i.e., Tumai, 1.27 + 0.05 Ma, and
Whakaahu, 0.87 ± 0.08 Ma) that crop out within the MVC
have radiometric ages which occur outside these periods
(Briggs et al. 1993).
LITHOLOGY AND SAMPLE LOCATIONS
The ignimbrites from Mangakino are nonwelded to densely
welded, generally crystal-rich, pumice-rich ignimbrites.
Crystals constitute 10-30% and consist of plagioclase,
quartz, orthopyroxene, hornblende, titanomagnetite,
ilmenite, zircon, and apatite. We use the term "crystals" when
they occur in the matrix, and "phenocrysts" when in pumice.
Pumice clasts range in abundance 2-35%, usually 30-
200 mm in size, vary from dense to highly vesicular, and
their structure is often fibrous, but typically platy in the
Ahuroa and Ngaroma Ignimbrites.
Lithic fragments constitute 1-10 modal % and vary
widely in their lithology. Lithic fragments have been
collected from ignimbrites at 12 localities (Fig. 2), chosen
where the lithic fragments are >30 mm in diameter and are
suitable for petrological and geochemical analysis (Table 1).
All of the lithic fragments are interpreted to be vent derived
rather than incorporated into the ignimbrite from the land
surface over which the pyroclastic flow was moving. This
is because none of the lithic lithologies considered here have
any surface expression and each ignimbrite was emplaced
over a land surface dominated by greywacke and the
preceding ignimbrite(s), none of which form a significant
proportion of the lithic populations. At most sites, sampling
Krippner et al.—Petrography & geochemistry of Mangakino lithic fragments 189

2 of lithic fragments was restricted to layer 2 of Wilson &

1,30
Walker (1982), but some were from a ground layer (e.g.,
M T3
u u Q i Ngaroma and Ongatiti Ignimbrites) or from lithic lag
*£ 2 z
H ed
ca § breccias (e.g., Ignimbrite C) (Walker et al. 1980; Walker
0 0 cd
2 lo «Z o 1985).
JJJ j j C¿ C¿ ci
a zz Sample locations for lithic fragments were generally
oo OOMS Z
situated at medial distances (c. 10-50 km) from the inferred
source area of the ignimbrites. With a few exceptions (e.g.,
Ignimbrite C), proximal locations for ignimbrites from
Mangakino do not exist because of caldera collapse or burial
by younger eruptives. Dense lithic fragments of suitable size
for detailed study (c. >5 cm) are generally not found in
localities beyond c. 50 km.
The range of lithic lithologies and relative abundances
are summarised in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. Lithic types
include plutonic, metamorphic, sedimentary, and volcanic.
Plutonic types include biotite granite and granodiorite
porphyry; metamorphic types comprise metagreywacke,
metaconglomerate, biotite schist, and hornblende-biotite
B schist; and sedimentary types include greywacke, sandstone,
'B and siltstone. Volcanic lithic types consist of lavas (rhyolite,
00
dacite, andesite, basaltic andesite), welded ignimbrite, tuff,
> and volcanic breccia.
I The relative abundances of lithic types vary considerably
(Table 2). In general, the early Period I ignimbrites contain
lithic fragments dominated by andesite lava, whereas in the
'S
So later Period IIA ignimbrites there is a dominance of rhyolite
lava and welded ignimbrites. Plutonic and metamorphic
lithic types have been found only in the Ongatiti Ignimbrite
oo
ça
I
00 ca
and Ignimbrite C. Also, the widest variety of lithic types
occurs in the Ongatiti Ignimbrite, in contrast to the Kaahu
and Ignimbrite B, which have a restricted range.
S ca-
—
00

•cag S| PETROGRAPHY
The following is a brief summary of the petrography of the
^ ' C "ü S

c
B Ë
'o 'a
ÏÎ1IP ^ lithic types found in ignimbrites of the MVC. Further
detailed petrographic descriptions and electron microprobe
•S Sb a
ca ca q ^ ca
data for plagioclase, K-feldspar, orthopyroxene, clino-
pyroxene, hornblende, biotite, Fe-Ti oxides, and some glass
——¿— 'C^ « — .2 « ,2 U
u 43 B
00
•u
U 1> B «
'5 -5 'S '3
•11 B B •- U > analyses in lithic fragments are given in Krippner (1996).
.3 S obiS B -O
ca
c/T
u
-a Volcanic lithic fragments
!£ J d ^ J — J — — Já « Rhyolite lava
cd *-* ^j -^^ ¿¿ *^ ^-•^ o3 c
o Rhyolite lava lithic fragments are fine grained, vary from
> •" o o o o u o ° "3 aphanitic to phaneritic, and typically are vitrophyric or have
S
'I?
: 'S 43 JS 43 JS
1-t'•e-S t_i c j ¡ c ¿- c c t- r^;
bOcducducdcd&Oi»
a hyalopilitic groundmass. Rhyolites display variable
u — — — i oO
textures, are generally porphyritic, but may be glomero-
"3 ifiOOMNN
%g > T— 00 —' I porphyritic, flow-banded, spherulitic, or amygdaloidal.
Some have "spotted-dog" groundmass textures where the
SI o
T3
groundmass glass is variably devitrified and occurs in small
00
spherical patches, which are possibly incipient spherulitic
structures. Phenocrysts (av. 6-7%, range up to 12%) consist
««« i l&1&
l a 1l 1i a
g» of plagioclase (An25_37), quartz, Fe-Ti oxide (titanomagnetite
and ilmenite), and occasional biotite and orthopyroxene
C C -r
o O « 2 M S) S) oo C (En35).
ca

I cö .u .g ' | 3 ,
:> > >i
Ü ÇQ
Dacite lava
Dacite lava lithics contain higher proportions of ferro-
ca , , _
42
magnesian phenocrysts and lower quartz/feldspar ratios than
« gg
C
3
43
-ti
B
ca
oo
B
•il i rhyolite lavas. Phenocrysts consist of plagioclase, quartz,
Fe-Ti oxides, minor orthopyroxene (En64), clinopyroxene,
< D O
190 New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 1998, Vol. 41

and amphibole. Phenocryst abundances average 3-5% and

range 1-30%. Textures are similar to those in rhyolites (flow
banded, spherulitic, amygdaloidal) but are not so well
defined. The groundmass is typically hyalopilitic, and glass
in the groundmass is devitrified.

Pyroxene andesite lava

Pyroxene andesites are grey to dark grey, medium to fine
o £ grained, and porphyritic. They are 2-pyroxene andesites with
I?. phenocrysts of orthopyroxene (En65_7o), clinopyroxene,
abundant plagioclase (An56_5g), rare hornblende and Fe-Ti
oxides. The groundmass is typically intersertal with
Is microlites of plagioclase, pyroxene, and Fe-Ti oxides. These
pyroxene andesite lavas are different from those of Pureora
and Titiraupenga, where augite is the dominant pyroxene
(Cole & Teoh 1975; Froude & Cole 1985).

Hornblende andesite lava

Hornblende andesites are fine grained, porphyritic, and
contain phenocrysts of hornblende (edenite-pargasite),

If plagioclase (An25_5i) and biotite, set in a hyalopilitic or

trachytic groundmass. Fe-Ti oxides are rare or absent.

Basaltic andesite lava

Basaltic andesites are dark grey to black, medium to fine
il
3COJ33 grained, and porphyritic. Phenocrysts are mainly clino-
00 g, pyroxene, orthopyroxene, calcic plagioclase (An80_88), and
Fe-Ti oxides. The groundmass is fine grained, intersertal to
hyalopilitic, and contains microlites of plagioclase and Fe-

11
u o
Ti oxides.

Welded ignimbrite
Lithic fragments of welded ignimbrite show a large range
Í's in their abundances of pumice, crystals, and lithics, and can
«I be divided into three groups: (1) accessory co-eruptive
l11 recycled intracaldera fragments which exhibit mineralogical
and textural characteristics similar to those in the host
60 M
• i—i OT
c 'o ignimbrites (e.g., Ongatiti, Rocky Hill); (2) accessory welded
•s-g ignimbrites which are similar to previous ignimbrites in the
Uee 3
Mangakino succession, and contain plagioclase (An3Q_34),
1-8 quartz, orthopyroxene (En4g), amphibole (edenite), biotite,
Fe-Ti oxides, and accessory zircon and apatite; and (3) true
accidental welded ignimbrite lithics which do not match with
any surface analogues, and may represent previously
11 VI g (A undiscovered ignimbrites from an earlier period.
£-§ The last group of unknown welded ignimbrites are
IIo s distinct because they contain clinopyroxene (Eii4o_4i, Fei4_
a, T3 18, Wo42^t4), a phase notably absent in all other ignimbrites
C3 derived from Mangakino (Briggs et al. 1993). These welded
•53 s 5-a ignimbrite fragments are rare (found in Marshall and Rocky
11 ca
~ fe
c
Hill Ignimbrites) and are typically small (c. <20 mm).

Tuff
< OQ -
u u Tuffs are fine grained, light brown, well sorted, weakly
il ll 11 indurated, crystal-tuffs and vitric-tuffs. Quartz, plagioclase
(rare orthopyroxene), and Fe-Ti oxides are the dominant
9.1 § crystals, and are set in a very fine grained, cryptocrystalline,
devitrified hypocrystalline brown matrix.

Volcanic breccia
—
3
-g "8 Volcanic breccia lithic fragments are light to dark brown,
•g moderately indurated, and average maximum clast sizes vary
Krippner et al.—Petrography & geochemistry of Mangakino lithic fragments 191

8-20 mm. Angular to subangular rhyolite lavas are the

dominant clast lithologies in the volcanic breccias, with •
\ \ Trachyte
minor andesite lavas. Matrix abundance is up to 40%.
\Trachyandesite \ ^ ^
Plutonic/hypabyssal lithic fragments
Biotite granite Trachy-\ r•
basalt \
Biotite granite lithic fragments are leucocratic, hypidio- 6$ 6
morphic-granular, medium to coarse grained, and are
typically sheared and fractured and occasionally altered. O • \
\
*
Rhyolite
Plagioclase (An26-45») dominates the felsic assemblage with CM

K-feldspar (CT63) and minor quartz. Myrmekitic inter- \

growths constitute 5-10% of the rock, and ferromagnesian
minerals present are biotite (Mg#39-40), hornblende
(edenite), orthopyroxene, and Fe-Ti oxides.
Granodiorite porphyry
Very rare granodiorite porphyry lithics have been found in
the Ongatiti Ignimbrite and are greenish-grey, medium to
coarse grained, porphyritic, intensively fractured and altered.
Phenocrysts consist of coarse-grained plagioclase, medium-
grained quartz, and altered biotite (Mg#45^t7) in a felsitic
groundmass.
Sedimentary lithic fragments
Siltstone
Siltstones are light to dark brown, very fine grained, matrix
supported, and moderately indurated. Grains of quartz,
feldspar, and biotite are rounded to subrounded and rest in a
very fine grained matrix.
Sandstone
Sandstone lithics are light greyish-brown, fine grained,
poorly to moderately sorted, moderately indurated, and
matrix supported. Grains of subangular to subrounded
quartz, plagioclase, and Fe-Ti oxides are abundant, with
minor hornblende, biotite, pyroxene, and volcanic and
sedimentary rock fragments.
Greywacke
Greywacke lithic fragments are dark brownish-grey, fine
grained, grain supported, well sorted, and strongly indurated.
Grains consist of subangular to subrounded quartz, feldspar,
biotite, Fe-Ti oxides, and volcanic and sandstone rock
fragments. The matrix is very fine grained and makes up to
5% in some greywackes.
Metamorphic lithic fragments
Metagreywacke and metaconglomerate
Low grade (prehnite-pumpellyite) metagreywacke and
metaconglomerate lithic fragments are dark greenish-grey,
medium to coarse grained, and strongly indurated. They have
a typical low-grade metamorphic fabric with an assemblage
of quartz - albite - prehnite - pumpellyite - chlorite - epidote,
but relict grains of feldspar, amphibole, biotite and Fe-Ti
oxides persist. The rocks are cut by veinlets and stringers of
quartz-muscovite-calcite.
Biotite schist
Lithic fragments of biotite schist are dark grey, medium
grained, and weakly foliated and schistose. The mineral
assemblage is quartz - albite - biotite - hornblende - chlorite
Dacite
Andesite
\
Basaltic
andesite *
\
55 60 65 70 75
SiOz wt%
Fig. 3 Total alkalis (wt%) versus silica (wt%) diagram for MVC
lava and welded ignimbrite (whole rock) lithic fragments.
- magnetite - zircon. Biotite and minor hornblende are fine
grained (av. <0.03 mm) and define the foliation. Biotite is
notably granular in form, and the high abundance of both
biotite and quartz suggests the rock is metasedimentary.
Hornblende-biotite schist
Very rare hornblende biotite schist lithic fragments have been
found in the Ongatiti Ignimbrite and are dark greyish-green,
medium grained, and have a weakly developed, dis-
continuous and wavy foliation. The mineral assemblage is
quartz - albite - biotite - green/brown hornblende - chlorite
- titanite - magnetite. Hornblende and biotite-rich laminae
are separated by fine-grained xenoblastic quartz-rich and
albite-rich bands which have a granoblastic texture.
GEOCHEMISTRY
Geochemical analyses have been done on selected volcanic,
plutonic, and metamorphic lithic fragments in MVC
ignimbrites. Fifty-five XRF analyses and 19 ICP-MS
analyses for REE are given in Krippner (1996). Here, we
present selected analyses of lava, welded ignimbrite,
metamorphic and plutonic lithics (Table 3), and examine
their compositional relationships with known ignimbrites
and lavas derived from the MVC at the surface.
Major and trace element geochemistry
Major and trace element XRF analyses were done at the
Department of Geological Sciences, University of
Canterbury, using procedures outlined by Norrish & Hutton
(1969) with modifications by Schroeder et al. (1980).
Volcanic lithics
Compositions of volcanic lithics show a typical calc-alkaline
trend from basaltic andesite to medium-silica rhyolite (Fig. 3,
Table 3 Major element (normalised to 100%, volatile-free) and trace element XRF data of selected volcanic, plutonic, and metamorphic lithics sampled from Mangakino Volcanic Centre-
derived ignimbrites. * original values.

Sample no. WDR 5 MAM 6 MAM 11 MBDRl NL30 5 ONWG9 NL30 4 ICR9 WDR1 ONLI 11 ONLI 20 ONLI 22 0NWG2 ONLI 8
Ignimbrite Waioraka Marshall 'A' Marshall 'A' Marshall B' Ngaroma Ongatiti Ngaroma Ignimbrite ' C Waioraka Ongatiti Ongatiti Ongatiti Ongatiti Ongatiti
Grid ref. T16/543234 T17/473140 Tl 7/473140 T16/543233 SI7/092015 T16/338270 SI7/092015 Tl 7/399081 T16/543234 T16/588490 T16/588490 Tl 6/588490 T16/338270 T16/588490
Lithic lithology rhyolite rhyolite rhyolite rhyolite dacite pyroxene andesite pyroxene andesite basaltic andesite rhyolitic ignimbrite dacitic ignimbrite biotite granite granodiorite metagreywacke hbl-btot schist

SiO 2 74.63 72.16 74.17 74.48 68.81 57.69 61.20 55.45 72.32 68.05 70.67 67.34 61.9 67.55
TiO 2 0.26 0.37 0.30 0.27 0.59 0.76 0.62 1.35 0.35 0.49 0.33 0.4 1.1 0.46
A1 2 O 3 13.83 14.73 13.48 13.73 16.78 18.24 16.79 17.38 15.08 17.45 15.03 16.16 17.24 15.71
Fe 2 O 3 0.39 0.61 0.58 0.41 0.70 1.63 1.43 1.96 0.56 0.75 0.67 0.91 1.35 0.84
FeO 1.39 2.19 2.08 1.49 2.52 5.87 5.16 7.06 2.00 2.69 2.4 3.28 4.87 3.02
MnO 0.04 0.05 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.14 0.11 0.15 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.11 0.12 0.12
MgO 0.14 0.34 0.18 0.22 0.16 3.50 4.89 3.28 0.58 0.74 1.24 1.53 2.65 1.71
CaO 1.36 2.05 1.25 1.34 3.30 7.33 5.68 8.27 2.17 3.14 3.53 4.28 3.93 4.23
Na 2 O 4.52 4.20 4.81 4.54 3.95 3.29 3.08 3.39 3.76 4.72 3.89 4.26 4.83 4.41
K2O 3.42 3.24 3.04 3.45 3.13 1.39 0.96 1.26 3.04 1.87 2.17 1.7 1.71 1.94
P2O5 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.15 0.08 0.20 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.28 0.02
LOI* 0.73 0.69 0.32 -0.13 0.98 0.92 1.58 1.06 2.45 1.51 0.63 0.66 2.64 -0.27
Total* 99.51 100.15 99.83 100.21 100.06 100.12 99.50 100.38 99.71 99.53 99.64 99.79 99.6 98.52
Ba 783 773 755 766 747 406 436 321 761 708 421 454 861 <2
Rb 112 111 104 115 108 50 33 39 103 71 81 65 50 117
Sr 114 164 117 114 251 155 334 174 231 171 218 534 7
Pb 14 13 15 14 47 8 7 14 11 13 20 11 17 9
Th 12 11 10 13 13 5 2 3 12 10 8 6 7 16
Zr 245 191 277 242 188 121 84 131 160 209 96 117 119 19
Nb 8 7 7 8 10 2 <2 3 7 7 3 2 4 10
La 44 66 28 31 104 20 91 11 25 30 16 18 17 11
Ce 73 59 50 57 185 35 107 32 42 50 21 26 42 78
Nd 49 77 25 28 104 24 99 18 12 29 15 18 22 15
Y 42 43 36 27 43 23 45 23 15 32 15 23 25 85
V 12 12 7 13 46 201 171 373 30 37 53 76 191 212
Cr <3 3 4 <3 17 61 195 7 5 4 11 14 22 555
Ni 4 4 4 4 5 22 60 7 7 5 9 10 13 82
Zn 46 57 71 40 32 71 78 78 31 54 67 74 124 3
Ga 17 18 15 16 18 18 19 17 19 15 20 26 16 <5
K/Rb 253 242 243 249 241 231 241 268 245 219 222 217 284 138
Rb/Sr 0.98 0.68 0.89 1 0.43 0.19 0.21 0.12 0.59 0.31 0.47 0.3 0.09 17
Ba/La 18 12 27 25 7 20 5 29 30.4 23.6 26 25 50.6 0.18
V©

4^
Krippner et al.—Petrography & geochemistry of Mangakino lithic fragments 193

Plutonic lithics
Plutonic lithics range from 64.9 to 73.3 wt% SiC>2 and are
classified as granites and granodiorites (Cox et al. 1979).
Plutonic fragments display similar trends in major and trace
High-K Rhyolite
element abundances compared with volcanic fragments. All
High-K Dacite
plutonic lithics show the calc-alkaline trend of enriched LILE
relative to HFSE (Fig. 6). As with volcanic lithics, a variable
• negative Nb anomaly is present, implying a subduction
High-K Andesite
component in the petrogenesis of these plutonics (Hole et
High-K
ft* al. 1984).
Basaltic •
andesite Rhyolite Metamorphic lithics
Dacite Metamorphic lithics include low-grade metagreywacke and
# "Andesite ii - . ^ "
metaconglomerate, and medium-grade hornblende-biotite
Basaltic schist, which range in composition from 61.2 to 67.6 wt%
^ —

andesite SiC>2 (Table 3). The hornblende-biotite schist is notable for

Low-K Rhyolite
Low-K Low-K Dacite
Basaltic Low-K Andesite
andesite
56 60 64 68
SiO2 wt%
Fig. 4 K2O (wt%) versus SiO2 (wt%) diagram for MVC lava
and welded ignimbrite (whole rock) lithic fragments.
4). Only one high-silica (75.5 wt% SiO2) rhyolite has been
found, which may reflect sampling bias, although Briggs et
al. (1993) noted that low to medium silica rhyolites were
typical of the MVC. Andesite lava lithics range from low-K
to high-K types, and dacite and rhyolite lava lithics range
from medium-K to high-K types (cf. Graham et al. 1995).
Lava lithic fragments are also characterised by an overall
enrichment in the more mobile LILE (Ba, Rb, K, Sr) relative
to less mobile HFSE (Zr, Hf, Y) (Fig. 5), typical of calc-
alkaline magmas (Wilson, M. 1989; Rollinson 1993).
low abundances of Ba (<2 ppm) and Sr (7 ppm), and high
Cr (555 ppm) and Ni (82 ppm).
72 76 Rare earth element geochemistry
REE analyses were undertaken by ANALABS, Perth,
Australia, using sodium peroxide digestion and ICP-MS
analysis. Initial digestions of the rock powders were by total
acid digestion (including HF), which were later suspected
to be incomplete dissolutions because of refractory zircon,
an important accessory phase in MVC and other TVZ rocks.
This problem is considered to be resolved in these rocks by
using sodium peroxide fusions. REE data for six repre-
sentative lava lithic fragments are presented in Table 4.
Chondrite-normalised REE compositions of lava lithics
(Fig. 7) show patterns typical of a volcanic arc-subduction
signature, enriched LREE, and depleted and flat HREE
(Wilson, M. 1989) with silicic lavas more fractionated than
intermediate lavas.
Most lava lithics show negative Ce anomalies, a feature
previously noted by Briggs et al. (1993) for ignimbrites

Fig. 5 Chondrite-normalised 1000

trace element abundance diagram
for selected lava lithic fragments
in ignimbrites from MVC.
Normalising values from
Thompson et al. (1984).
3
'ÎZ
TJ 100-
O
.C
O
<D

LU
O) 10-
ü
(0

o
o 6

Ba Rb Th K Nb Ta La Ce Sr P Sm Zr Hf Ti Tb Y Yb
194 New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 1998, Vol. 41

1000' Fig. 6 Chondrite-normalised

trace element abundance diagram
ONLI 20 biotite granite for selected plutonic lithic frag-
ments in ignimbrites from MVC.
--O- - ONLI 22 granodiorite porphyry Normalising values from
Thompson et al. (1984).

•D
c clOO-
o
Ü

©
E
LU
CD 10-
Ü
cö

00 in
O) <M to 00
00 CO
to
Ö o

Ba Rb Th K Nb La Ce Sr P Zr Ti Y

derived from MVC, and considered to result from weathering
or vapour-phase alteration under oxidising conditions.
Furthermore, most silicic lava lithics display negative Eu
anomalies, also demonstrated by Briggs et al. (1993) to be
characteristic of ignimbrites from MVC.
GEOPHYSICAL DATA
Bulk rock density and magnetic susceptibility of selected
lithic fragments (Table 5) were measured to place
geophysical constraints on the subvolcanic crust at the MVC
and to provide some geophysical data which might be useful
for gravity and magnetic modelling of the centre. Bulk rock
density and magnetic susceptibility data for lithic fragments
probably provide the most useful information for modelling
purposes at the MVC, and also at other rhyolitic caldera
centres within the TVZ, because they represent local rock
types within the crust above the silicic magma chambers.
Wet bulk rock density measurements were determined
using the method described in Houghton & Wilson (1989).
Magnetic susceptibility measurements were done using a
Bartington MS2 Susceptibility Meter in the Geomagnetism
Laboratory, Department of Earth Sciences, University of
Waikato.
Discussion
Lithic fragments show a density range of 1400-2800 kg/m3
(Table 5), which is comparable to upper crustal rocks (Stern

Table 4 Rare earth element data for selected igneous lithic ejecta sampled from Mangakino Volcanic Centre-derived ignimbrites.
Samples digested by sodium peroxide fusion and analysed by ICP-MS.
Sample no.: ONWG9 NL30 5 ONAR9 WDR 5 MAM 11 ICR9
Ignimbrite: Ongatiti Ngaroma Ongatiti Waioraka Marshall 'A' Ignimbrite ' C
Location: Tl 6/338270 SI7/092015 S17/116100 Tl 6/543234 Tl 7/473140 Tl 7/399081
Lithology: andesite lava dacite lava rhyolite lava rhyolite lava rhyolite lava andesite lava
La 16.8 88.7 55.6 40.0 30.5 12.9
Ce 19.2 147.0 50.9 54.3 42.3 19.3
Pr 4.9 24.6 15.6 9.8 7.2 3.5
Nd 18.3 79.0 54.8 34.3 26.6 14.5
Sm 4.5 16.0 11.4 7.3 6.3 3.8
Eu 1.2 3.5 1.7 1.5 1.7 1.3
Gd 4.1 12.9 11.2 7.1 6.2 4.4
Tb 0.7 2.1 1.8 1.3 1.1 0.7
Dy 4.5 10.4 9.8 7.0 6.3 4.3
Ho 1.0 2.1 2.0 1.6 1.4 1.0
Er 2.7 5.3 5.2 4.4 4.3 2.7
Tm 0.5 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.4
Yb 2.5 4.8 5.0 4.5 4.4 2.7
Lu 0.4 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.4
Eu/Eu* a 0.86 0.24 0.46 0.64 0.84 0.98
(Ce/Yb)N 1.95 7.79 2.59 3.07 2.45 1.82
a
Eu/Eu* calculated using the geometric mean where Eu/Eu* = EuN/V[(SmN).(Gd>j)] (Taylor & McLennan 1985).
Krippner et al.—Petrography & geochemistry of Mangakino ignimbrites
1000
100-
•n
o
O ORIGIN OF LITHIC FRAGMENTS
ÙJ
LU
10-
J I I I L J I I I L
La Ce Nd SmEuGd Dy Er Yb Lu
Fig. 7 Chondrite-normalised REE abundance diagram for
selected lava lithic fragments in ignimbrites from MVC. Same
samples (and symbols) as for Fig. 5. Normalising values from
Nakamura(1974).
1986). The majority of the lithic fragment density values
are similar to the published data of Whiteford & Lumb
(1975). The volcanic breccia lithics have slightly higher
densities than the published values of Whiteford & Lumb
(1975), although this would only affect the modelling of the
gravity anomalies if they are significant components of the
crust. However, their low abundances in the lithic
populations suggest that they are a very small component
of the volcanic pile at the MVC. Biotite granite lithics were
not previously considered in gravity modelling at the MVC
because at the time the presence of these plutonic rocks was
unknown. Because of the potential for a large plutonic body
underlying the MVC, the biotite granite density data should
be considered for future gravity modelling.
Magnetic susceptibility measurements of volcanic lithics
are similar to those published for volcanic rocks (Whiteford
& Lumb 1975; Tulloch 1989). This suggests that modelling
of magnetic anomalies of the TVZ and MVC using published
195
volcanic data is suitable. However, as no published data exist
for metagreywacke/metaconglomerate and biotite granite
lithologies, the values measured here should be used for
future magnetic modelling at the MVC. Magnetic suscept-
ibility of schist lithic fragments should also be used as these
lithologies are unique to the centre.
Rhyolitic lavas
Only two rhyolitic domes or dome clusters of an age
contemporaneous with the ignimbrite activity have been
mapped at MVC, the Tumai lava dome (1.27 ± 0.05 Ma)
and Whakaahu lava dome (0.87 ± 0.08 Ma). However,
rhyolite lava lithics are abundant in ignimbrites from MVC,
especially in the later Period IIA ignimbrites, suggesting that
rhyolitic lava domes and flows were interspersed with
caldera-forming eruptions but were mostly buried by later
eruptives (Briggs et al. 1993).
Our petrographic and geochemical data support a genetic
relationship between the rhyolitic lava lithics and the
exposed, mapped rhyolitic lava domes. Both lithics and
exposed rhyolitic lavas have a similar petrography, consistent
phenocryst assemblages, and similar compositions as shown
on trace element abundance diagrams (Fig. 8A). Further-
more, the rhyolitic lava lithics also have comparable
compositions with the rhyolitic pumice clasts in the
ignimbrites (Fig. 8B).
Andesitic lavas
Andesitic lava lithic fragments are common in Period I
ignimbrites from MVC and less abundant in Period IIA
ignimbrites. Andesite lavas have not been mapped within
or on the rim of the Mangakino caldera, and the spatially
and temporally closest andesite lavas exposed are those at
Titiraupenga (K-Ar dated at 1.89 ± 0.02 Ma by Stipp 1968)
and Pureora (1.60 ± 0.10 Ma, Graham et al. 1995) volcanoes,
which lie 3-10 km south of the caldera rim. However, our
data show that the andesitic lava lithics are distinct from
Titiraupenga and Pureora andesites as shown on trace

Table 5 Mean and range of wet bulk rock density (kg/m3) and magnetic susceptibility (m3 k g ' x l O 3 )
values for selected lithic fragments sampled from Mangakino Volcanic Centre-derived ignimbrites.
n, number of samples measured.
Wet bulk Magnetic susceptibility
rock density (kg/m3) (m3 kg -1 xlO- 3 )
Lithic lithology n range mean range mean
Greywacke 2 2400-2700 2550 204-313 259
Argillite 1 2300 2300 223 223
Sandstone 1 2600 2600 - -
Siltstone 2 1800-2000 1900 - -
Volcanic breccia 3 2300-2500 2400 266-760 491
Crystal tuff 1 1900 1900 321 321
Ignimbrite 15 1400-2400 2000 129-750 471
Rhyolite lava 8 2200-2500 2400 248-735 405
Dacite lava 5 2000-2400 2300 202-641 432
Andesite lava 9 1900-2800 2400 376-1371 707
Metagreywacke/metaconglomerate 3 2300-2600 2400 15-130 54
Biotite schist 4 2400-2700 2600 174-220 190
Hornblende-biotite schist 1 2700 2700 35 35
Grandiorite porphyry 1 2400 2400 - -
Biotite granite 3 2200-2600 2400 300 300
196 New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 1998, Vol. 41

JUU-
1000
B O-- - WDR 5

\ ^ ^ O-- - MAM 11
S
/
T3 - NL30 5
•o
100-
g 100-
I
a>
i
j»
jo
LU
LU 10-
m 10- a
Ü
<s

4
U 0.042

- 0.865
« S

- 11.8
V- 0.35

U 120
0)

- 46
(D (o n
o o
i l _

Ba Rb Th K Nb La Ce Sr P Zr Ti
Ba Rb Th K Nb La Ce Sr P Zr Ti Y

Fig. 8 Chondrite-normalised trace element abundance diagrams comparing rhyolite lava lithics with: (A) Whakaahu/Tumai rhyolite
lava domes. Bold lines represent lower and upper compositions of selected rhyolite lava lithics (11 samples; Krippner 1996). Composition
of Tumai lava dome (MP1 64) is thin line, Whakaahu lava dome (MP89) is dashed line (both compositions from Brown 1994); and (B)
Mangakino Volcanic Centre-derived rhyolitic ignimbrites. Bold lines represent lower and upper compositions of rhyolitic Mangakino
ignimbrites. Normalising values from Thompson et al. (1984).

1000 have included the plutonic lithics found here at MVC. Brown
et al. (in press) concluded that the major and trace element
geochemistry, including REE contents, and Sr, Nd, and Pb
isotopic compositions of the plutonic lithic fragments
suggest that the majority were broadly comagmatic with the
associated rhyolitic lavas and ignimbrites of the TVZ and
probably represent the crystallised margins of the silicic
magma chambers.

Sedimentary lithics
The volcanic breccia lithics are composed predominantly
of clasts of rhyolite lava and are considered to have
formed from epiclastic sedimentation during periods of
rhyolite dome building and collapse, or intracaldera
postcollapse rockfall or rock-slide resulting from sliding
Ba Rb Th K Nb La Ce Sr P Zr Ti Y
and slumping of oversteepened caldera walls (Fritz et al.
1990; Nelson et al. 1994). Some rhyolite clasts also show
glassy, fine-grained chilled margins similar to hyalo-
Fig. 9 Chondrite-normalised trace element comparison of clastite breccia, which suggests subaqueous emplacement
andesite lava lithics with Titiraupenga and Pureora andesite lavas. (McPhie etal. 1993).
Bold line is lower and upper range of andesite lava lithic
compositions (10 samples; Krippner 1996). Thin line is average The sandstone and siltstone lithics may be Tertiary in
Type 1 Titiraupenga andesite (Froude & Cole 1985). Dashed line age although pollen grains, diatoms, or marine fossils have
is average Pureora andesite (Cole & Teoh 1975). Normalising not been found. Some sandstones and siltstones, however,
values from Thompson et al. ( 1984). There are no data for Th, Nb, are volcanogenic with a high felsic volcanic rock fragment
La, Ce, and Y in Cole & Teoh ( 1975) and Froude & Cole ( 1985). content, and an origin from epiclastic sedimentation within
the caldera may also be possible.

element abundance diagrams (Fig. 9). The andesitic lithics
have higher abundances of Ba, Rb, Zr, and Ti compared with
Titiraupenga or Pureora (Cole & Teoh 1975; Froude & Cole
1985). The volume of andesite in MVC ignimbrites implies
there must have been a buried andesite volcano in the
volcanic pile beneath MVC which is discrete from
Titiraupenga or Pureora and older than the Period I
ignimbrites (i.e., older than 1.68 Ma).
Plutonic lithics
Brown et al. (in press) have studied the plutonic lithic
fragments from a number of ignimbrites in the TVZ, and
Metamorphic lithics
The metagreywackes and metaconglomerates are most likely
fragments of the Mesozoic basement which crops out in the
Hauhungaroa Ranges to the west of TVZ (Grindley 1960).
However, comparisons with the data of Reid (1983) and
Beetham & Watters (1985) using major and trace element
geochemistry cannot distinguish whether the MVC
greywacke lithics are derived from Torlesse or Waipapa
Terrane, and further geochemical data are required to
determine this.
The biotite and hornblende-biotite schists are also
considered to be derived from Mesozoic basement, although
 Krippner et al.—Petrography & geochemistry of Mangakino lithic fragments
WEST
Post-MVC ignimbrites
Period I A ignimbrites
a. (ave. p=2000 kg/m3) ."
o . domes and flows
CO
. Buried andesite volcano
- (ave. p=240Q kg/m3)-"?
-%~ Tertiary siltstones/sandstones
(ave. p=2250 kg/m3) \
Hypabyssal
^ granodiorite porphyry
\ (ave. p =2400 kg/m3)
I 1^ Comagmatic plutonics
. -biotite granite
_(ave. p= 2400 kg/m 3 ) >
Depth to magma chamber/s , \ Magma chamber
= 7-17 km (Ewart et al. 1975)
Fig. 10 Schematic diagram for the subvolcanic crust and volcanic pile at the Mangakino Volcanic Centre.
their trace element abundances show lower Ba, Sr, P, and
Zr and higher Y contents relative to the average Eastern and
Western basement composition of Reid (1983).
Model of the subvolcanic crust and volcanic pile
A previous concept of the structure and composition of the
upper crust in the TVZ (Grindley 1960) proposed a Mesozoic
basement of greywacke and argillite overlying crystalline
granite and large-scale rhyolitic magma bodies, overlain by
a Quaternary cover of ignimbrites, rhyolite domes and flows,
with interbedded lacustrine siltstones, diatomites, fluvial
conglomerates, and sandstones. Nairn (1989) displayed
similar features in cross-sections of the Okataina Volcanic
Centre with multiple intracaldera ignimbrites, rhyolitic lavas,
and lacustrine sediments.
Browne et a!. (1992), Nairn et al. (1994), and Wilson et
al. ( 1995a) also described buried andesite volcanoes in parts
of central TVZ. Geophysical modelling by Stern (1987)
suggested that all the subvolcanic basement of the TVZ was
of "andesitic" composition. Deeper metamorphic and
plutonic rocks have been postulated by Graham et al. (1988)
and Browne et al. (1992).
We propose a more detailed and revised model for the
composition of the subvolcanic crust and volcanic pile at
the MVC (Fig. 10), based on petrography, geochemistry, and
some geophysical measurements of the lithic fragments in
the ignimbrites. The model takes into account the recent
geophysical models of the MVC by Stern (1986) and
Soengkono (1995), and is separated into two components:
the volcanic pile and the subvolcanic crust.
Volcanic lithic fragments (lava, welded ignimbrite,
volcanic breccia, airfall tuff) are inferred to be predominantly
vent derived and are thus suggested to comprise the volcanic
pile at the MVC. These rock types are consistent with the
mapped rocks within the TVZ. The volcanic pile is modelled
197
EAST
Whakaahu Rhyolite
lava dome
Lacustrine sediments
Eroded rhyolite lava
^ - ^ Period I MVC ignimbrites
(ave. p=2000 kg/m 3 )
Mesozoic greywacke/argillite
(ave. p=2450 kg/m 3 ) ; "
Metagreywacke/ metaconglomerate
(ave. p=2450 kg/m 3 ) '' N ^
Biotite and hornblende biotite schists
l (ave. p=2600 and 2700 kg/m3) .
' \ ' i ^ ' , /•
s -. / v / N
(-300 km3)
as interdigitating rhyolite lava domes and flows, intracaldera
ignimbrites, localised lacustrine sediments (Wilson et al.
1995a), epiclastic volcanic breccias, and possibly epiclastic
sandstones and siltstones. These units rest on a buried
andesite volcano and associated lava flows.
The subvolcanic crust component is modelled to consist
of: (1) uppermost layers consisting of sandstones and
siltstones of inferred Tertiary age; (2) a deeper Mesozoic
basement of greywacke, argillite, and conglomerate and their
regionally metamorphosed equivalents—low-grade
metamorphic prehnite-pumpellyite facies (metagreywackes/
metaconglomerates) grade into medium grade biotite and
hornblende-biotite schists; and (3) plutonic (biotite granite)
and hypabyssal (granodiorite porphyry) rocks formed from
the crystallisation of MVC rhyolitic magmas and associated
magmatic intrusions.
Our data indicate that lavas are present in significant
volume within the volcanic pile of the MVC. Andesite lava
lithics indicate that either there was an andesite volcano
which predated the initiation of activity at the MVC, or
andesitic volcanism was also generated at the MVC
(Ignimbrite C of Wilson (1986a) is of andesitic composition).
The andesite lavas are geochemically different from the
nearest andesitic volcanoes of Titiraupenga and Pureora, and
hence the buried andesite volcano is presumed to be a
separate edifice. Abundant rhyolitic lava lithics which are
geochemically and petrographically comparable to the
mapped rhyolite lava domes at the surface provide evidence
for significant dome-building episodes in the development
of the MVC.
There are significant differences in lithic populations in
Period I and IIA ignimbrites, with andesitic lavas dominating
Period I ignimbrites, and silicic lavas and welded ignimbrites
dominating Period IIA ignimbrites. These differences
suggest changes in the depth to subvolcanic crustal rocks
198 New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 1998, Vol. 41
and thickening of the volcanic pile with time. This is most
likely related to subsidence and down-faulting of crustal
rocks and caldera infilling by volcanic rocks during the
evolution of the volcanic centre.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The lithic fragments in ignimbrites at MVC consist of
diverse lithologies including: volcanic (rhyolite, dacite,
andesite, and basaltic andesite lavas, welded ignimbrites,
tuffs, volcanic breccias), plutonic (biotite granites),
hypabyssal (granodiorite porphyry), sedimentary
(greywackes, sandstones, siltstones), and metamorphic
(metagreywackes, metaconglomerates, biotite and
hornblende-biotite schists).
2. There is a buried andesite volcano at the MVC with an
age older than c. 1.6 Ma that is geochemically discrete
from Titiraupenga or Pureora, the nearest andesitic
volcanoes to the south.
3. A significant quantity of buried rhyolitic lava is present
in the volcanic pile at the MVC. Previous work on the
nature of volcanism at MVC inferred it was dominated
by explosive rather than effusive volcanism because
there are only two rhyolite dome lavas exposed at the
surface (Wilson et al. 1984; Wilson 1986a; Briggs et al.
1993). However, the existence of rhyolitic lava lithics
in every ignimbrite derived from MVC except for
Ignimbrite B, suggests that there must be rhyolitic lavas
buried within the volcanic pile and that rhyolitic dome
building intercalated with explosive volcanism is more
prevalent than previously thought.
However, questions arise as to the age of the rhyolitic
lava lithics. Geochemically they have similar compo-
sitions to the two exposed rhyolite domes, indicating
some petrogenetic relationships, but their chronological
relationships remain unknown. Nevertheless, the
presence of rhyolitic lava lithics in the earliest Period I
Ngaroma Ignimbrite suggests rhyolitic precursor activity
before explosive volcanism (i.e., >c. 1.6 Ma).
4. The subvolcanic basement of the MVC includes
greywacke, low-grade metamorphic rocks (meta-
greywacke and metaconglomerate), and medium grade
metamorphic rocks (biotite and hornblende-biotite
schist).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the New Zealand Foundation for Research, Science and
Technology for financial support through a FRST subcontract to
the University of Canterbury. We would like to thank Stephen
Brown at the Department of Geological Sciences, University of
Canterbury, for assistance with XRF analyses; Stu Brown for
constructive reviews of the manuscript; Frank Bailey for
draughting assistance; and Elaine Norton for word-processing of
the manuscript.
REFERENCES
Beetham, R. D.; Watters, W. A. 1985: Geology of Torlesse and
Waipapa terrane basement rocks encountered during the
Tongariro Power Development project, North Island, New
Zealand. New Zealand journal of geology and geophysics
28: 575-594.
Blank, H. R. 1965: Ash-flow deposits of the central King Country,
New Zealand. New Zealand journal of geology and
geophysics 8: 588-607.
Briggs, R. M.; Gifford, M. G.; Moyle, A. R.; Taylor, S. R.; Norman,
M. D.; Houghton, B. F.; Wilson, C. J. N. 1993: Geo-
chemical zoning and eruptive mixing in ignimbrites from
Mangakino volcano, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand.
Journal of volcanology and geothermal research 56:
175-203.
Brown, S. J. A. 1994: Geology and geochemistry of Whakamaru
group ignimbrites and associated rhyolite domes, Taupo
Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. Unpublished PhD thesis,
lodged in the Library, University of Canterbury,
Christchurch, New Zealand.
Brown, S. J. A.; Burt, R. M.; Cole, J. W.; Krippner, S. J. P.; Price,
R. C.; Cartwright, I. in press: Plutonic lithics in ignimbrites
of Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand: sources and
conditions of crystallisation. Chemical geology.
Browne, P. R. L.; Graham, I. J.; Parker, R. J.; Wood, C. P. 1992:
Subsurface andesite lavas and plutonic rocks in the
Rotokawa and Ngatamariki geothermal systems, Taupo
Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. Journal of volcanology and
geothermal research 51: 199-215.
Cas, R. A. F.; Wright, J. V. 1987: Volcanic successions—modern
and ancient. Sydney, Allen & Unwin.
Cole, J. W.; Teoh, L. H. 1975: Petrography, mineralogy, and
chemistry of Pureora andesite volcano, North Island, New
Zealand. New Zealand journal of geology and geophysics
18: 259-272.
Cox, K. G.; Bell, J. D.; Pankhurst, R. J. 1979: The interpretation
of igneous rocks. London, George, Allen and Unwin.
Ewart, A.; Hildreth, W.; Carmichael, I. S. E. 1975: Quaternary
acid magma in New Zealand. Contributions to mineralogy
and petrology 51: 1-27.
Fritz, W. J.; Howells, M. F.; Reedman, A. J.; Campbell, S. D. G.
1990: Volcaniclastic sedimentation in and around an
Ordovician subaqueous caldera, Lower Rhyolitic Tuff
Formation, North Wales. Geological Society of America
bulletin 102: 1246-1256.
Froude, D. O.; Cole, J. W. 1985: Petrography, mineralogy and
chemistry of Titiraupenga volcano, North Island, New
Zealand. New Zealand journal of geology and geophysics
28: 487-496.
Graham, I. J.; Grapes, R. H.; Kifle, K. 1988: Buchitic meta-
greywacke xenoliths from Mount Ngauruhoe, Taupo
Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. Journal of volcanology and
geothermal research 35: 205-216.
Graham, I. J.; Cole, J. W.; Briggs, R. M.; Gamble, J. A.; Smith,
I. E. M. 1995: Petrology and petrogenesis of volcanic rocks
from the Taupo Volcanic Zone: a review. Journal of
volcanology and geothermal research 68: 59-87.
Grindley, G. W. 1960: Sheet 8—Taupo. Geological map of New
Zealand 1:250 000. Wellington, New Zealand. Department
of Scientific and Industrial Research.
Grindley, G. W.; Mumme, T. C. 1991: Magnetic stratigraphy and
correlation of ignimbrite eruptions of the Mangakino Basin
and Tokoroa Plateau. New Zealand Geological Survey
record 43: 25-36.
Healy, J. 1962: Structure and volcanism in the Taupo Volcanic
Zone, New Zealand. In: McDonald, G. A.; Kuno, H. ed.
The crust of the Pacific Basin. American Geophysical
Union geophysical monograph 6: 151-157.
Hole, M. J.; Saunders, A. D.; Marriner, G. F.; Tarney, J. 1984:
Subduction of pelagic sediments: implications for the
origin of Ce-anomalous basalts from the Mariana Islands.
Geological Society of London journal 141: 453-472.
Houghton, B. F.; Wilson, C. J. N. 1989: A vesicularity index for
pyroclastic deposits. Bulletin of volcanology 51: 451-462.
Krippner et al.—Petrography & geochemistry of Mangakino Lithic fragments
Houghton, B. F.; Gifford, M. G.; Wilson, C. J. N.; Briggs, R. M.
1987a: Ignimbrite structure of the Tokoroa-Kinleith area,
western central volcanic region. New Zealand Geological
Survey record 20: 57-62.
Houghton, B. F.; Wilson, C. J. N.; Stern, T. A. 1987b: Ignimbrite
stratigraphy of a 457 m deep drillhole near Tokoroa. New
Zealand Geological Survey record 20: 51-55.
Houghton, B. F.; Wilson, C. J. N.; McWilliams, M. O.; Lanphere,
M. A.; Weaver, S. D.; Briggs, R. M.; Pringle, M. S. 1995:
Chronology and dynamics of a large silicic magmatic
system: central Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand.
Geology 23: 13-16.
Krippner, S. J. P. 1996: Petrology and geochemistry of lithic ejecta
sampled from Mangakino volcanic centre-derived
ignimbrites, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand.
Unpublished MSc (Tech) thesis, lodged in the Library,
University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand.
McPhie, J.; Doyle, M.; Allen, R. 1993: Volcanic textures. A guide
to the interpretation of textures in volcanic rocks. Centre
for Ore Deposits and Exploration Studies, University of
Tasmania, Tasmania.
Martin, R. C. 1961: Stratigraphy and structural outline of the Taupo
Volcanic Zone. New Zealand journal of geology and
geophysics 4: 449-478.
Martin, R. C. 1965: Lithology and eruptive history of the
Whakamaru Ignimbrites in the Maraetai area of the Taupo
Volcanic Zone. New Zealand journal of geology and
geophysics 8: 680-701.
Nairn, I. A. 1989: Sheet V16 AC—Mount Tarawera. Geological
map of New Zealand 1:50 000. Geological Survey of New
Zealand.
Nairn, I.A.; Wood, C. P.; Bailey, R. A. 1994: The Reporoa caldera,
Taupo Volcanic Zone: source of the Kaingaroa Ignimbrites.
Bulletin of volcanology 56: 529-537.
Nakamura, N. 1974: Determination of REE, Ba, Fe, Mg, Na and
K in carbonaceous and ordinary chondrites. Geochimica
et cosmochimica acta 38: 757-775.
Nelson, C. H.; Bacon, C. R.; Robinson, S. W.; Adam, D. P.;
Bradbury, J. P.; Barber, J. H.; Schwartz, D.; Wagenas, G.
1994: The volcanic, sedimentological, and paleo-
limnological history of the Crater Lake caldera floor,
Oregon: evidence for small caldera evolution. Geological
Society of America bulletin 106: 684-704.
Norrish, K.; Hutton, J. T. 1969: An accurate X-ray spectrograph
method for the analysis of a wide range of geological
samples. Geochimica et cosmochimica acta 33: 431-453.
Reid, F. W. 1983: Origin of the rhyolitic rocks of the Taupo
Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. Journal ofvolcanology and
geothermal research 15: 315-338.
Rogan, M. 1982: A geophysical study of the Taupo Volcanic Zone,
New Zealand. Journal of geophysical research 87:
4073-4088.
Rollinson, H. R. 1993: Using geochemical data: evaluation,
presentation, interpretation. London, Longman Group.
Schroeder, B.; Thompson, G.; Sulanowska, M.; Ludden, J. N. 1980:
Analysis of geological materials using an automated X-
ray fluorescence system. X-ray spectrometry 9: 198-205.
Soengkeno, S. 1995: A magnetic model for deep plutonic bodies
beneath the central Taupo Volcanic Zone, North Island,
New Zealand. Journal of volcanology and geothermal
research 68: 193-207.
Soengkono, S.; Hochstein, M. P.; Smith, I. E. M.; Itaya, T. 1992:
Geophysical evidence for widespread reversely magnetised
pyroclastics in the western Taupo Volcanic Zone (New
Zealand). New Zealand journal of geology and geophysics
35: 47-55.
199
Stern, T. A. 1986: Geophysical studies of the upper crust within
the Central Volcanic Region, New Zealand. In: Smith,
I. E. M. ed. Late Cenozoic volcanism in New Zealand.
Royal Society of New Zealand bulletin 23: 92-111.
Stern, T. A. 1987: Asymmetric back-arc spreading, heat flux and
structure associated with the Central Volcanic Region of
New Zealand. Earth and planetary science letters 85:
265-276.
Stipp, J. J. 1968: The geochronology and petrogenesis of the
Cenozoic volcanics of the North Island, New Zealand.
Unpublished PhD thesis, lodged in the Library, Australian
National University, Canberra, Australia.
Taylor, S. R.; McLennan, S. M. 1985: The continental crust: its
composition and evolution. London, Blackwell Scientific.
Thompson, R. N.; Morrison, M. A.; Hendry, H. L.; Parry, S. J.
1984: An assessment of the relative roles of the crust and
mantle in magma genesis: an elemental approach.
Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society London
A30I: 305-320.
Tulloch, A. J. 1989: Magnetic susceptibilities of Westland-Nelson
plutonic rocks: discrimination of Paleozoic and Mesozoic
granitoid suites. New Zealand journal of geology and
geophysics 32: 197-203.
Walker, G. P. L. 1985: Origin of coarse lithic breccias near
ignimbrite source vents. Journal of volcanology and
geothermal research 25: 157-171.
Walker, G. P. L.; Self, S.; Froggatt, P. C. 1980: The ground layer
of the Taupo Ignimbrite: a striking example of sedi-
mentation from a pyroclastic flow. Journal ofvolcanology
and geothermal research 10: 1-11.
Whiteford, C. M.; Lumb, J. T. 1975: A catalogue of physical
properties of rocks: vol. 3—listing by rock type.
Geophysics Division report 107. Wellington, Department
of Scientific and Industrial Research.
Wilson, C. J. N. 1986a: Reconnaissance stratigraphy and
volcanology of ignimbrites from Mangakino Volcano. In:
Smith, I. E. M. ed. Late Cenozoic volcanism in New
Zealand. Royal Society of New Zealand bulletin 23:
179-193.
Wilson, C. J. N. 1986b: King Country ignimbrites: guide to
excursion C5. In: Houghton, B. F.; Weaver, S. D. ed. Taupo
Volcanic Zone: Tour Guides Cl, C4, C5 and A2. New
Zealand Geological Survey record 11: 115-144.
Wilson, C. J. N.; Walker, G. P. L. 1982: Ignimbrite depositional
facies: the anatomy of a pyroclastic flow. Journal of the
Geological Society London 139: 581-592.
Wilson, C. J. N.; Rogan, A. M.; Smith, I. E. M.; Northey, D. J.;
Nairn, I. A.; Houghton, B. F. 1984: Caldera volcanoes of
the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. Journal of
geophysical research 89: 8463-8484.
Wilson, C. J. N.; Houghton, B. F.; McWilliams, M. O.; Lanphere,
M. A.; Weaver, S. D.; Briggs R. M. 1995a: Volcanic and
structural evolution of Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand:
a review. Journal ofvolcanology and geothermal research
68: 1-28.
Wilson, C. J. N.; Houghton, B. F.; Kamp, P. J. J.; McWilliams,
M. O. 1995b: An exceptionally widespread ignimbrite with
implications for pyroclastic flow emplacement. Nature
378: 605-607.
Wilson, L.; Sparks, R. S. J.; Walker, G. P. L. 1980: Explosive
volcanic eruptions, IV. The control of magma properties
and conduit geometry on eruption column behaviour.
Geophysical journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 63:
117-148.
Wilson, M. 1989: Igneous petrogenesis, a global tectonic approach.
London, Unwin Hyman.