Thermofluid Engineering (MEC 2920)

Thermodynamics
# Net work output for heat engines,
Sign Convention for Heat Transfer [1]
Wnet,out = Wout − Win (kJ)
”Q > 0: heat transfer to the system
# In terms of heat transfer,
Q < 0: heat transfer from the system”
Wnet,out = Qin − Qout (kJ)
Sign Convention of Work [1]
# Boundary Works for Different Processes [? , pp. 169]
”W > 0: work done by the system (1) General:
W < 0: wonk done on the system” Z 2
Wb = P dV
1

(2) Isobaric process:

Mass Related
Wb = Po (V2 − V1 ) (P1 = P2 = Po = constant)

ṁ = ρV̇ = ρAc Vavg (kg/s) (3) Polytropic process:

P2 V 2 − P1 V 1
V̇ = Ac Vavg = ṁv (kg/s) Wb = (n 6= 1) and P V n = constant
1−n

min − mout = ∆mCV (kg/s) (4) Isothermal process of an ideal gas:

X X
ṁ = ṁ V2 V2
in out
Wb = P1 V1 ln = mRTo ln (P V = mRTo = constant)
V1 V1
Energy Related Pure Substance

1 v = vf + xvf g
∆KE = m(V22 − V12 )
2
u = uf + xuf g
∆P E = mg(z2 − z1 )
h = hf + xhf g
V2
E = U + KE + P E = U + m + mgz (kJ)
2 s = sf + xsf g

V2 Ideal Gas Related

e = u + ke + pe = u + + gz (kJ/kg)
2
P v = RT
˙ = ṁemech P V2
Emech = ṁ( + + gz) (kW )
ρ 2 P V = mRT
Polytropic process
Ru
pV n = constant R=
M
Work Related P V = N Ru T

Wcycle = Qin − Qout (powercycle) P v̄ = Ru T

cP = cv + R
Wcycle = Qout − Qin (ref rigeration and heat pump cycle)
cP
k=
wf low = P v (kJ/kg) cv
 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats
Related COPHP = COPR + 1

For Ideal Gases,

1
COPR,rev =
∆u = u2 − u1 = cv,avg (T2 − T1 ) TH /TL − 1

1
COPHP,rev =
∆h = h2 − h1 = cP,avg (T2 − T1 ) 1 − TL /TH

For Solids and Liquids, Temperature Related

∆u ∼
= cavg (T2 − T1 )
!
QH TH
=
∆h = ∆u + v∆P QL TL
rev

Thermal Efficiency (ηth ) Related

T (◦ C) = T (K) + 273.15

Wnet,out QH − QL Miscellaneous
ηth = =
QH QH
T (K) = T (◦ C) + 273.15
TL
ηth,rev =1−
TH
V 1
v= =
Coefficient of Performance (COP) Related m ρ

ρ
SG =
QL QL ρH2 O
COPR = =
Wnet,in QH − QL
γS = ρg
QH QH
COPHP = =
Wnet,in QH − QL h = u + P v (kJ/kg)

General Energy Balance

Ein − Eout = ∆Esystem

∆Esystem = ∆U + ∆KE + ∆P E

Energy Analysis of for Open Systems or Control Volumes

Energy Transport by Mass,

!
2
˙ = ṁθ = ṁ h + V + gz
Emass (kW )
2

Energy Analysis of Steady-Flow Control Volumes,

Ėin = Ėout (kW )

V2 V2
X   X  
Q̇in + Ẇin + ṁ h + + gz = Q̇out + Ẇout + ṁ h + + gz (kW)
in
2 out
2
| {z } | {z }
f or each inlet f or each exit
 Entropy Related *** (b) Variable cP and cv (Exact)
I Any process:
δQ
dS = (kJ/K) P2
T s2 − s1 = so2 − so1 − R ln (kJ/kg.K)
P1
!
Z 2
δQ
∆S = S2 − S1 = + Sgen (kJ/K) Isentropic process:
1 T
P2
so2 = so1 + R ln (kJ/kg.K)
∆Sisolated ≥ 0 P1
!
P2 Pr2
For an internally reversible system: P1
=
Pr1
! s=constant
Z 2
δQ !
∆S = S2 − S1 = (kJ/K) v2 vr2
1 T v1
=
vr1
int rev s=constant

For Internally Reversible Isothermal Heat Transfer Processes: Reversible Steady-Flow Work:
Z 2
Q
∆S = (kJ/K) wrev = − vdP − ∆ke − ∆pe
TO 1

For Pure Substances: Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-Flow Devices:

Any process:
∆S = s2 − s1 (kJ/kg.K) Actual turbine work wa ∼ h1 − h2a
ηT = = =
Isentropic turbine work ws h1 − h2s
Isentropic process:
s2 = s1 (kJ/kg.K) Isentropic compressor work ws ∼ h2s − h1
ηC = = =
Actual compressor work wa h2a − h1
For Liquids and Solids:
Any process:
T2 Actual KE at nozzle exit V 2 ∼ h1 − h2a
ηN = = 2a
2 = h −h
s2 − s1 = cavg ln (kJ/kg.K) Isentropic KE at nozzle exit V2s 1 2s
T1
The Entropy Balance:
Isentropic process:
For any system undergoing any process:
T2 = T1 (kJ/kg.K)
Sin − Sout + Sgen = ∆Ssystem
For Ideal Gases:
*** (a) Constant cP and cv (Approximate) In rate form,
Any process:
T2 v2 dSsystem
s2 − s1 = cv,avg ln + R ln (kJ/kg.K) Ṡin − Ṡout + Ṡgen =
T1 v1 dt
T2 P2 For a general steady-flow process:
s2 − s1 = cp,avg ln − R ln (kJ/kg.K)
T1 P1
Isentropic process: X X X Q̇k
Ṡgen = ṁe se − ṁi si −
! !k−1 Tk
T2 v1
=
T1 v2
s=constant
! !(k−1)/k
T2 P2
=
T1 P1
s=constant

! !k
P2 v1
=
P1 v2
s=constant
 Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Statics Related
Z Z
X d
dp F~ = ~ dV +
ρV ~ (V
ρV ~ · ~n)dA
= −γ dt CV
dz
* Linear Momentum Equation for Steady Flow with Mul-
p = γh + p0 tiple Inlet and & Outlet Ports [2, Eq. 13-35]
X X X
pabs = pgage + patm F~ = ~ −
β ṁV ~
β ṁV
out in
FR = γhc A
Flow through Conduits
Ixc * Reynolds number,
yR − yc =
yc A
ρV L VL
Re = =
FB = γV µ ν
Fluid Dynamics Related * Developing Flow,

xf d
= 0.05Re (laminar f low)
du D
τ =µ
dy
xf d
10 ≤ ≤ 60 (turbulent f low)
τ D
µ= du
dy * For developed laminar flow,

F = ṁ2 V2 − ṁ1 V1 πD4 ∆p

Q=
128µl
P V2
+ + gz = constant
ρ 2 * Major & minor Losses,

* The Bernoulli Equation, hL = hL major + hL minor

p1 V2 p2 V2
+ 1 + z1 = + 2 + z2
γ 2g γ 2g ` V2
hL major =f
D 2g
* The Mechanical Energy Equation,
V2
hL minor = KL
2g
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp − hL − ht = + α2 2 + z2 * Friction factors for laminar flows,
γ 2g γ 2g
64
where, f=
Re
Ẇp /ṁ Ẇp
hp = = * Friction factors for turbulent flows,
g γQ
0.316
Ẇt /ṁ Ẇt f= (f or  = 0)
ht = = Re1/4
g γQ
!
* Linear Momentum Equation for Fixed Control Volume 1 /D 251
√ = −2.0 log + √ (f or  6= 0)
[2, Eq. 13-27] f 3.7 Re f
 Heat Transfer
based on [3]
Conduction

T1 − T2 ∆T
Q̇/A
Q̇cond = kA = −kA (W ) hc = (W/m2 · K)
∆x ∆x ∆Tinterf ace
k
α=
ρcP
1 ∆Tinterf ace
*** General Heat Conduction Equation Rc = = (m2 · K/W )
Variable conductivity:
hc Q̇/A
! ! !
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂T T1 − T2
k + k + k + ėgen = ρc
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t Q̇cond,cyl = (W )
Rcyl

1 ∂ ∂T
!
1 ∂ ∂T
!
∂ ∂T
!
∂T
ln (r2 /r1 )
rk + 2 k + k + ėgen = ρc Rcyl = (K/W )
r ∂r ∂r r ∂φ ∂φ ∂z ∂z ∂t 2πLk
T1 − T2
! ! ! Q̇cond,sph = (W )
1 ∂
r2 k
∂T
+
1 ∂
k
∂T
+
1 ∂
k sin θ
∂T
ėgen = ρc
∂T Rsph
r2 ∂r ∂r r2 sin2 θ ∂φ ∂φ r2 sin θ ∂θ ∂θ ∂t
r2 − r1
Fourier-Biot Equation for Constant conductivity [3, pp. Rsph = (K/W )
80]:
4πr1 r2 k
∂2T ∂2T ∂2T ėgen 1 ∂T
+ + + =
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 k α ∂t Convection
*** Thermal Resistance Concept
Q̇conv = hAS (TS − T∞ )
T1 − T2
Q̇cond,wall = (W )
−kf luid (∂T /∂y)y=0
Rwall h=
Ts − T∞
L
Rwall = (K/W ) Forced Convection - External flow
kA *** Parallel Flow over Flat Plate
For Laminar Flow, for P r > 0.6
Ts − T∞
Q̇conv = (W )
N ux =
hx x
= 0.332Re0.5 1/3
Rconv x Pr
k
1 For Laminar Flow, for P r > 0.6 and ReL < 5 × 105
Rconv = (K/W )
hAs hL
Nu = = 0.664Re0.5
L Pr
1/3

Ts − Tsurr k
Q̇rad = (W )
Rrad For Turbulent Flow, for 0.6 ≤ P r ≤ 60 and 5 × 105 <
ReL < 107 hx x
1 N ux = 0.8 1/3
= 0.0296Rex P r
Rrad = (K/W ) k
hrad As
For Turbulent Flow, for 0.6 ≤ P r ≤ 60 and 5 × 105 <
Q̇rad ReL < 107
hrad = = σ(Ts2 + Tsurr
2
)(Ts + Tsurr ) (W/m2 · K)
As (Ts − Tsurr ) hL
Nu = = 0.037Re0.8
L Pr
1/3
k
Q̇ = U A∆T (W )
For Entire plate [3, Eq. 7-24] valid for 5 × 105 < ReL <
107 & 0.6 ≤ P r ≤ 60,
1
UA = (W/K)
Rtotal N u = (0.037Re0.8
L − 871)P r
1/3
 * Special Case: Isothermal Surfaces with an Unheated
Started Section [3, pp. 451] q̇s
Ts = Tm +
* For Laminar Flow, h
N ux,f or ξ=0 0.332Re0.5
x Pr
1/3
(b) For Constant Surface Temperature:
N ux = 3/4 1/3
=
[1 − (ξ/x) ] [1 − (ξ/x) ]1/3
3/4
Q̇ = hAs ∆Tlm = ṁcP (Te − Ti )

2[1 − (ξ/x)3/4 ] Te = Ts − (Ts − Ti )exp(−hAs /ṁcP )

h= hx=L
1 − ξ/L
Ti − T e ∆Te − ∆Ti
∆Tlm = =
* For Turbulent Flow, ln[(Ts − Te )/(Ts − Ti )] ln(∆Te /∆Ti )

N ux,f or ξ=0 0.0296Re0.8

x Pr
1/3 *** Fully Developed Laminar Flow in a Circular Pipe [3,
N ux = = pp. 517]
[1 − (ξ/x)9/10 ]1/9 [1 − (ξ/x)9/10 ]1/9

5[1 − (ξ/x)9/10 ] (a) For Constant Surface Heat Flux:

h= hx=L
4(1 − ξ/L) hD
Nu = = 4.36
k
* Special Case: Uniform Heat Flux [3, pp. 451]
For Laminar Flow, P r > 0.6 and ReL < 5 × 105 (b) For Constant Surface Temperature:
N ux = 0.453Re0.5
x Pr
1/3
Nu =
hD
= 3.66
k
For Turbulent Flow, 0.6 ≤ P r ≤ 60 and 5 × 105 < ReL <
*** Developing Laminar Flow in the Entrance Region with
107
Constant Temperature [3, pp. 517]
N ux = 0.0308Re0.8
x Pr
1/3
(a) Circular tube:

*** Cross flow over a cylinder [Churchill and Bernstein 0.065(D/L)Re P r

(1977) [3, pp. 440]] N u = 3.66 +
1 + 0.04[(D/L)Re P r]2/3
" 5/8 #4/5
0.62Re1/2 P r1/3
 1/3  0.14
Re

N ucyl = 0.3 + 1+ Re P r D µb
N u = 1.86
[1 + (0.4/P r)2/3 ]1/4 282, 000 L µs

Valid for ReP r > 0.2 [3, pp. 452] (b) Parallel plates:
*** Flow across spheres [Whitaker (1972) [3, pp. 440]]
0.03(Dh /L)Re P r

µ∞
1/4
N u = 7.54 +
N usph = 2 + [0.4Re1/2
+ 0.06Re2/3
]P r 0.4
1 + 0.016[(Dh /L)Re P r]2/3
µs

The above equation is valid for 3.5 ≤ Re ≤ 8 × 104 , 0.7 ≤ *** For Fully Developed Turbulent Flow with Smooth Sur-
P r ≤ 380 and 1.0 ≤ (µ∞ /µs ) ≤ 3.2 [3, pp. 452] face
f = (0.790 ln Re − 1.64)−2 104 < Re < 106
Forced Convection - Internal flow
Critical Reynolds number for flow through tubes,
ReD,critical = 2300 N u = 0.125f Re P r1/3
*** Entrance Lengths
 
Lh,laminar ≈ 0.05ReD 0.8 1/3 0.7 ≤ P r ≤ 160
N u = 0.023 Re Pr
Re > 10, 000
Lh,turbulent ≈ 10D

Lt,laminar ≈ 0.05ReP rD = P rLh,laminar

N u = 0.023 Re0.8 P rn
where, (a) For Heating, n=0.4; (b) For Cooling of Fluid:
Lt,turbulent ≈ Lh,turbulent = 10D n=0.3
*** Heat Transfer Rates
(f /8)(Re − 1000)P r
 
(a) For Constant Surface Heat Flux: 0.5 ≤ P r ≤ 2000
Nu =
1 + 12.7(f /8)0.5 (P r2/3 − 1) 3 × 103 < Re < 5 × 106
Q̇ = q̇s As = ṁcP (Te − Ti )

q̇s As ”The fluid properties are evaluated at the bulk mean fluid
Te = Ti +
ṁcP temperature Tb = (Ti + Te )/2” [3, pp. 517]
 *** Turbulent Flow in Tubes - For Liquid Metals
(a) Ts = constant ( )2
1/6
0.387RaD
Nu = 0.6 + f or RaD ≤ 1012
N u = 4.8 + 0.0156Re0.85 P rs0.93 [1 + (0.559/P r)9/16 ]8/27

(b) q̇s = constant (6) Sphere (Lc = D):

N u = 6.3 + 0.0167Re0.85 P rs0.93 Nu = 2 +

0.589RaD
1/4
f or RaD ≤ 1011 and P r ≥ 0.7
[1 + (0.469/P r)9/16 ]4/9
Natural or Free Convection
Radiation
   
1 ∂V 1 ∂ρ
β= =− (1/K) Q̇emit,max = σAS TS4 (W )
V ∂T P ρ ∂T P

Q̇emit = σAS TS4 (W )

→ ρ∞ − ρ = ρβ(T − T∞ ) (at constant P )
Q̇absorbed = αQ̇incident (W )
For ideal gas,
Q̇rad = σAS (TS4 − Tsurr
4
)
1
βideal gas = (1/K) Q̇total = Q̇conv + Q̇rad
T
Natural Convection Over Surfaces ([3, Table 9-1]) Q̇total = hcombined AS (TS − T∞ )
(1) Vertical plate (Lc = L):
*** Radiative Properties
1/4
N u = 0.59RaL f or Ra = 104 to 109
Absorbed radiation Gabs
α= =
1/3 Incident radiation G
N u = 0.1RaL f or Ra = 1010 to 1013
Ref lected radiation Gref
ρ= =
( )2 Incident radiation G
1/6
0.387RaL T ransmitted radiation Gtr
Nu = 0.825 + f or entire range τ= =
[1 + (0.492/P r)9/16 ]8/27 Incident radiation G

(2) Inclined plate (Lc = L): *** View Factor Relations

”Use vertical plate equations for the upper surface of a cold Ai Fi→j = Aj Fj→i
plate and the lower surface of a hot plate.
Replace g by gcosθ for 0 < θ < 60o ” [3, pp. 540] N
X
(3) Horizontal plate (Lc = As /p): Fi→j = 1
*** (a) Upper surface of a hot plate (or lower surface of a cold j=1
plate) F1→(2,3) = F1→2 + F1→3
1/4 4 7
Nu = 0.54RaL f or Ra = 10 to 10
*** Radiosity for Diffuse, Gray Surfaces [i = αi (gray) and
1/3
αi + ρi = 1 (opaque)],
N u = 0.15RaL f or Ra = 107 to 1011
Ji = i Ebi + (1 − i )Gi (W/m2 )
*** (b) Lower surface of a hot plate (or lower surface of a
cold plate) *** Radiosity for Blackbody
N u = 0.27RaL
1/4
f or Ra = 105 to 1011 Ji = Ebi = σTi4
(4) Vertical Cylinder (Lc = L):
*** Radiation Heat Transfer in Two-Surface Enclosures
”A vertical cylinder can be treated as a vertical plate when”
(General Expressions)
[3, pp. 540]
Q̇12 = Q̇1 = −Q̇2
35L
D≥ 1/4
GrL σ(T14 − T24 )
Q̇12 = 1−1 1 1−2 (W )
(5) Horizontal Cylinder (Lc = D): A1 1 + A1 F12 + A2 2
 *** Radiation heat transfer equations for selected two-
surface arrangements gβ(Ts − T∞ )L3c
(1) Small Object in a Large Cavity ([2, Eq. 21-53]): GrL =
ν2
Q̇12 = A1 σ1 (T14 − T24 ) (W)
RaL = GrL P r
A1
where, A2 = 0 and F12 = 1
(2) Infinitely large parallel plates ([2, Eq. 21-54]): Miscellaneous

Aσ(T14 − T24 ) Heat conduction k

Q̇12 = 1 1 (W) α= =
1 + 2 − 1
Heat storage ρcP

4Ac
where, A1 = A2 = A and F12 = 1 Dh =
(3) Infinitely long concentric cylinders ([2, Eq. 21-55]): p

A1 σ(T14 − T24 )
Q̇12 =   (W)
1 1−2 r1
1 + 2 r2 General
where, A r1
A2 = r2 and F12 = 1
1
• Universal gas constant, Ru = 8.31447 kJ/kmol · K
(4) Radiation Heat Transfer between Concentric Spheres
([3, Eq. 13-40]): • Stefan-Boltzmann constant, σ = 5.670×10−8 W/m2 ·K 4

A1 σ(T14 − T24 ) • Surface Area

Q̇12 = (W)
1 1−2
 2
r1 – Cylinder, As = πDL
1 + 2 r2
– Sphere, As = πD2
 2
A1 r1
where, A2 = r2 and F12 = 1 • Volume
π 2
Non-dimensional Numbers – Cylinder, V = 4D L
π 3
– Sphere, V = 6D
hLc • Perimeters
Nu =
k – Square, p = 4a
ν µcP – Rectangle, p = 2(a + b)
Pr = =
α k – circular, p = πD

Bibliography
[1] M. J. Moran, H. N. Shapiro, B. R. Munson, and D. P. DeWitt, Introduction to Thermal Systems Engineering: Thermo-
dynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Heat Transfer. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.
[2] Y. A. Çengel, J. M. Cimbala, and R. H. Turner, Fundamentals of Thermal-Fluid Sciences, fourth edi ed. McGraw-Hill
Education, 2012.

[3] Y. A. Çengel and A. J. Ghajar, Heat and Mass Transfer Information Center:. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015.
Adapted from Table 15-2 of [2]
Adapted from Table 19-2 of [2]
Adapted from Table 19-3 of [2]
Adapted from Table 21-4 of [2]