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The Journal of Environment
& Development
Volume 17 Number 3
September 2008 269-291
© 2008 Sage Publications
Krishna Basin Development 10.1177/1070496508320532
http://jed.sagepub.com
Interventions to Limit Downstream hosted at
http://online.sagepub.com
Environmental Degradation
Jean-Philippe Venot
International Water Management Institute, Hyderabad
Bharat R. Sharma
International Water Management Institute, New Delhi
K. V. G. K. Rao
Indwa Technologies Pvt. Ltd, Hyderabad
Since India gained Independence, the Krishna basin has seen an increasing mobilization
of its water resources. Warnings of basin closure (minimal flow to the ocean) emerge dur-
ing dry periods. Basin water development and local rural dynamics have led to a degra-
dation of downstream ecosystems manifesting itself by salinizing soil and groundwater,
increasing pollution, making mangroves disappear, and desiccating wetlands. Reversing
this evolution requires the formal recognition of the environment as a water user in its
own right and the implementation of an environmental water provision. This provision
should be based on a two-tier allocation system with assured discharges in the irrigation
canals of the delta and to the ocean. This will lead to further commitment of water
resources, but this is needed to reconcile the social, economic, and environmental objec-
tives of sustainable development. Other measures facilitating integrated natural resources
management from the local to the basin level are needed too.
Introduction
Water use for urban, industrial, and agricultural growth is approaching and in some
cases even exceeding the availability of renewable water. Agroecosystem dynamics and
excessive infrastructural development result in overcommitment of water. This particu-
lar approach to water resources management and development has led to significant
degradation of various ecosystems (Pearce, Atkinson, & Mourato, 2006; Falkenmark,
Authors’ Note: Please address correspondence to Jean-Philippe Venot, IWMI c/o ICRISAT, Patancheru
502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India; e-mail: j.venot@cgiar.org.
269
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270 The Journal of Environment & Development
Finlayson, Chiuta, & Gordon, 2007), and many river basins in the world are facing an
environmental water scarcity (Smakhtin, Revenga, & Doll, 2004). However, to date,
most developing countries have paid little attention to this overcommitment and to its
environmental consequences. Management tools to reverse or mitigate this evolution
are rare.
The United States of America, South Africa, and Australia are countries where envi-
ronmental water requirements have been mainstreamed in water resources policies and
legislation. This mainstreaming led to the recognition of formal water allocation pro-
cedures as the most adapted tools to reconcile the social, environmental, and economic
objectives of sustainable development and integrated water resources management.
There is increasing evidence of the adverse impacts of water and land degradation on
people’s livelihoods (Emerton & Bos, 2005; Falkenmark et al., 2007; Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment [MEA], 2005). Therefore, balancing environmental require-
ments and human consumptive uses is now widely regarded as a top priority, and the
notion of environmental flows is establishing itself firmly. It is an attempt to find a
compromise between productive uses and some protection threshold. But achieving
this balance represents a considerable challenge in many of the world’s river basins,
especially in arid and semiarid areas of the developing world, as more vocal popula-
tions and associated water demands increase to sustain a broader economic develop-
ment (National Commission for Integrated Water Resource Development Plan, 1999;
United Nations Administrative Coordination Council/Inter-Secretariat Group on Water
Resources, 1992; World Water Assessment Program, 2003).
However, most developing countries do not have well-defined procedures for
effective water allocation, and water policies generally only list “allocation priori-
ties.” Although economically and socially or politically powerful users have com-
paratively well-developed methods for quantifying and justifying their water needs,
the ecosystems continue to be the silent and weak water user. As such, environmen-
tal water requirements have not yet received the required attention in water policies
and in the general discourse on water resource governance: They are generally
ignored, as the water flowing to the sea is considered to be “lost or wasted” (see
Government of Andhra Pradesh [GoAP], 2001a, and Smakhtin, Gamage, & Bharati,
2007, on the Indian case). The Indian National Water Policy of 2002 in particular
provides guidelines for prioritizing water allocation to different competing sectors
without mentioning how these priorities are to be translated on the ground. It pro-
vides precedence to drinking water over irrigation and hydropower. Industrial and
navigation needs are given the last priority. Environmental concerns are mentioned
and “ecology” is given fourth priority, but nothing is said on how this can be
achieved (Ministry of Water Resources [MoWR], 2002).
This article is a case study on the Krishna River basin in South India. The basin has
witnessed intense water development since India gained Independence, with little
regard to the limits of available resources (Venot, Turral, Samad, & Molle, 2007); agroe-
cosystems have dramatically evolved, resulting in downstream environmental degrada-
tion. The observed decline in the discharge to the ocean sends a strong signal: There is
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Venot et al. / Krishna Basin Development 271
only little scope for further water supply development, and further taming the Krishna
waters will exacerbate environmental degradation. Based on secondary data collection,
field interviews with key informants and farmers, and a comprehensive review of the lit-
erature, this article investigates the linkages between rural development dynamics and
the downstream environment in the Krishna basin to (a) understand when and how rural
development and environmental preservation come or do not come into conflict, (b)
investigate whether committed allocations for environmental flows could allow meeting
the environmental and social objectives of sustainable development, and (c) identify
other potential areas of intervention.
The first part of this article presents the main features of the lower Krishna basin.
The second section presents a methodology for water allocation in the framework of
environmental flows in a data-scarce context and applies this methodology to the
Krishna basin. The third section provides a historical assessment of water availabil-
ity and uses (water accounting) in the Krishna basin and depicts in further detail the
rural dynamics and the institutional context of the lower Krishna basin as some of
the main driving forces of downstream environmental degradation. The fourth sec-
tion describes the linkages between agriculture, aquaculture, and the environment in
the lower Krishna basin. A fifth section identifies possible interventions to mitigate
current environmental degradation. Finally, a short paragraph concludes.
The Krishna River originates in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra, drains the dry
areas of the Deccan Plateau, and forms a delta before discharging into the Bay of
Bengal. The Krishna basin drains an area of 258,948 km2 and covers parts of three
South Indian states: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra. Its climate is pre-
dominantly semiarid (with an average annual rainfall of 840 mm and potential evap-
otranspiration exceeding rainfall in all but 3 months during the peak of the monsoon;
Biggs et al., 2007). Seasonal and interannual rainfall variability is one of the main
characteristic of the climate of the Krishna basin (Biggs et al., 2007): River flows are
highly variable and this makes forecasting and management a challenge. This article
focuses on the impacts that rural development dynamics witnessed in the Krishna
basin during the last 50 years have had on the lower Krishna basin, located in Andhra
Pradesh (Figure 1), which bears the brunt of any intervention further upstream. The
lower Krishna basin, with an average annual rainfall of 650 to 1,150 mm, represent-
ing three main agroecosystems has an area of 8,746 km2 (Figure 1).
• The Krishna delta, where a large irrigation project irrigates 540,000 ha thanks to
gravity canals drawing water from a barrage on the Krishna River at Vijayawada.
The delta accommodates about 4 million inhabitants depending mainly on agricul-
ture and aquaculture.
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272 The Journal of Environment & Development
Figure 1
The Lower Krishna Basin in South India
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Venot et al. / Krishna Basin Development 273
of the world, notably in arid and semiarid areas, are closing (Murray-Darling,
Colorado, Indus, and Jordan River basins; a generally accepted definition of a closed
river basin is one where all available water is committed [Molden, 1997], resulting
in little or no discharge to the ocean during years with average precipitation) the
question of environmental flows is of crucial importance. Preserving ecosystems
through formal mechanisms of water allocation, which recognize the environment as
a water user in its own right, is needed; however, defining acceptable, if not optimal,
environmental flows is a critical issue. Estimates of environmental flows will deter-
mine to what extent a river basin is closed and how new water resources can be
developed. In closed or closing river basins, water resources cannot be further
extended without impinging on actual uses: Understanding the environmental
dynamics at stake and the interconnectedness between the environment and rural
development is crucial in order to match environmental concerns with the social and
economic objectives of sustainable development.
Environmental water requirements of a river basin can be defined, as a first
approximation, as an ecologically acceptable flow regime. It is designed to maintain
or upgrade a river in a desired, agreed, or predetermined status referred to as an envi-
ronmental management class ranging from the natural (pristine) environment to a
critically modified ecosystem. A detailed discussion of these notions can be found in
Smakhtin and Anputhas (2006) and Tharme (2003).
Defining an annual volume of water to be set aside for the environment (bulk allo-
cation), according to arbitrarily predefined preservation objectives, might be a futile
exercise: It does not have any sound ecological meaning. Yet such a desktop assess-
ment method constitutes the first step toward the recognition of the environment as
a water user in its own right (Smakhtin et al., 2004). It is a basinwide reconnaissance
assessment that has several advantages: It is rapid, generic, and non–resource inten-
sive (Tharme, 2003). As a result, this low-resolution estimate of environmental flows
based on a single arbitrary hydrological index (the discharge to the ocean) is con-
sidered to be most appropriate at the planning level of water resources development
and could be used as a preliminary flow target. This is particularly adapted to devel-
oping countries where the water governance structure is weak and hydrological and
ecological data scarce.
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274 The Journal of Environment & Development
Table 1
Annual Environmental Water Requirements (EWR) for the Krishna Basin
(Flow Measured at Vijayawada for Different “Protection Thresholds”)
Environmental Natural Slightly Moderately Largely Seriously Critically
Status Ecosystem Modified Modified Modified Modified Modified
Water availability and environmental status of the Krishna basin. Figure 2 pro-
vides the first striking indication of river-basin closure and environmental degrada-
tion: a decreasing discharge to the ocean and an altered flow regime. Before 1960,
river discharge into the ocean averaged 57 billion cubic meters a year (km3/year) and
the threshold of 48.5 km3/year, defining a natural ecosystem (Table 1), was reached
with 76% reliability. Since 1965, the river discharge has steadily decreased at an
average of 0.8 km3/year, falling to 10.8 km3 in 2000 (which is less than 19% of its
pre-1960 value) whereas it was almost nil in 2004 (0.4 km3). Only a little usable out-
flow, during the monsoonal period (July to October), reaches the ocean.
In standard condition, the average discharge to the ocean observed between 1988
and 2000 (between the last two major droughts) was 21.2 km3/year, but the thresh-
old of 14.2 km3/year defining a moderately modified ecosystem was only reached
with 60% reliability. Similarly, monthly flow regimes (right panel of Figure 2) show
that the Krishna basin is a moderately to largely modified ecosystem and that tam-
ing the Krishna waters leads to a 2-month delay in the peak outflows. This change
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Venot et al. / Krishna Basin Development 275
Figure 2
Evolution of the Krishna Discharge to the Ocean, Measured at the Head
of the Delta, and Monthly Flow Regimes for Different
Objectives of Environmental Preservation
Sources: Left panel, Biggs et al. (2007); right panel, Andhra Pradesh State Water Data Centre figures.
was also observed and analyzed by Smakhtin and Anputhas (2006), who suggest it
may have affected the lower Krishna basin biosystems: Altered flow regimes are
indeed one of the main threats to environmental sustainability (Bunn & Arthington,
2002).
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276 The Journal of Environment & Development
Figure 3
Water Flows and Uses in the Krishna Basin
with this infrastructural development, surface water–irrigated areas have more than dou-
bled since the 1950s: They covered 2.9 million hectares (Mha) in 1996-2002. At the
same time, groundwater-irrigated areas extended owing to the boom of groundwater
abstraction thanks to private pumps, shallow tube wells, and subsidized energy.
Groundwater-irrigated areas have more than doubled during the last 50 years: They
supplied about 1.9 Mha in 1996-2002. The total irrigated area in the Krishna basin cov-
ered 4.8 Mha in 1996-2002.
where
RF is the mean annual rainfall measured from the data set of the Climatic Research
Unit, University of East Anglia (2007).
Tin are water transfers entering the Krishna basin (noted imports in Figure 3). The
amount of water transferred from other river basins is estimated from government
statistics and data from water supply projects. In what follows, RF and Tin are pooled
together and designated as the net inflow in the Krishna basin.
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Venot et al. / Krishna Basin Development 277
Dpl is the depletion from any kind of land cover, and is estimated, as a first approximation,
as the evapotranspiration (ET) of a given land cover. Evapotranspiration in irrigated
fields and evaporation from reservoirs are derived from climate data and a
Penman–Monteith equation (Allen, Pereira, Raes, & Smith, 1998); evapotranspiration
by rain-fed agriculture and rain-fed vegetation is estimated after Biggs (in press) and
Bouwer, Biggs, and Aerts (2007). Land cover is estimated on the basis of land-use sta-
tistics at the district level (GoAP, 2006; Government of Karnataka [GoKT], 2006;
Government of Maharashtra [GoMH], 2005; and available online, with a subscription,
at www.indiaagristat.com).
P denotes human and livestock consumptive uses or processes. Domestic and industrial
uses are computed according to van Rooijen et al. (2008), assuming a water use effi-
ciency of 70% in each sector. Livestock processes are computed according to Peden,
Tadesse, and Misra (2007) and livestock statistics according to GoAP (2005), GoKT
(2006), GoMH (2005), and www.indiaagristat.com.
Tout are water transfers out of the Krishna basin (noted exports in Figure 3). The amount
of water transferred to other river basins is estimated from government statistics and
data from water supply projects.
Qout is the discharge to the ocean, measured at the head of the delta by the Irrigation
Department of Andhra Pradesh. Pre-1980 values are from Biggs et al. (2007),
whereas post-1980 values have been collected by the authors from the irrigation
department offices of Vijayawada and Hyderabad.
ΔS is the net change in water storage, including both groundwater and surface water
storage and is calculated as the closing term of the water balance, for example, the
difference between net inflows and outflows (evaporation from vegetation + human
consumptive uses + exports + discharge to the ocean).
Figure 4 quantifies the main changes of the Krishna basin agroecosystems. It illus-
trates that the main trend is a strong increase of irrigation depletion that has more than
doubled from 17.1 km3/year during 1955-1965 to 44.3 km3/year during 1990-2000. This
implied a 19% rise in the total depletion during the period 1955-2000. The total deple-
tion amounted to 181 km3 during 1990-2000, that is, 88% of the net inflow to the Krishna
basin. Consequently, the discharge to the ocean dramatically decreased and amounted
only to 10% of the net inflow during 1990-2000 (2% of the net inflow was exported to
other basins). This led to dramatic environmental changes in the lower Krishna basin (see
next section). According to Smakhtin and Anputhas (2006), preserving the moderately to
largely modified ecosystem of the Krishna basin would require an environmental flow
allocation of about 6.5 to 14.2 km3/year (Table 1). This will point to a rate of water
resources commitment of 94% to 98%, showing that resources will be fully committed
under average conditions. Yet this is needed to stop the increasing degradation of the
environment that distresses livelihoods in the lower Krishna basin.
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278 The Journal of Environment & Development
Figure 4
Historical Water Account of the Krishna Basin (1955-2000,
Nominal and Relative Value)
modernized and the actual project irrigates about 540,000 ha and is the “rice bowl”
of Andhra Pradesh. Agricultural and rural dynamics of the lower Krishna basin are
closely linked to the emergence of a large class of prosperous peasants or owner-
cultivators who can be best termed “farmer-capitalists” (Upadhya, 1988). These
agriculturalists largely benefited from the agricultural productivity boom of the
Green Revolution (1965-1985) and from a strong state-driven institutional support
to agricultural development until the mid-1980s (Landy, in press). They are both
involved in agricultural production and surplus commercialization and, on the basis
of their agricultural successes, they have progressively invested in other avenues
(agro-industries, industries, manufacturing activities, real estates) and in education
of their children. They dominate the social landscape of the lower Krishna basin but
also have a broader political influence in Andhra Pradesh.
In the mid-1980s, and furthermore with the liberalization of the Indian economy in
the early 1990s, the strong state-driven investments in rural development weakened:
This pushed rural India into what is called an “agrarian distress” (Suri, 2006). Despite
being less affected by this agrarian distress than rain-fed farmers in semiarid areas, the
farmer-capitalists of the lower Krishna basin looked for other economic opportunities.
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Venot et al. / Krishna Basin Development 279
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280 The Journal of Environment & Development
(1986), the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification (1991), the Indian Fisheries Act
(1997), the Coastal Aquaculture Authority Act (2005), etc.—for the most important one.
The lower Krishna basin is a vivid example of how local rural dynamics and iden-
tification of new economic opportunities (e.g., aquaculture) have led to the recon-
figuration of the institutional context in which resource extraction takes place. The
role and importance of local institutions have been diluted as the legal and institu-
tional framework of natural resources management broadened in line with the
increasing recognition of the importance of environmental preservation for sustain-
able development. This institutional formalization aimed at better preserving ecosys-
tems but often led to further degradation of the environment. This does not mean that
formalization is not needed: A strong institutional support is indeed essential to
achieve governance systems supporting integrated resources management to ensure
an environmentally sustainable development (Falkenmark et al., 2007; Gowing,
Tuong, & Hoanh, 2006), but this reminds us of the need for further integration and
coordination among different institutions that are generally pursuing overlapping but
conflicting objectives in the long run. What is required is making the existing legal
provisions context specific and their implementation effective. This could notably be
done by making these regulations more easily available, building up enforcement
mechanisms, training officials in the use and implementation of laws, improving the
still low awareness of these policies among stakeholders, etc. (GoAP, 2001b).
Finally, decision makers need to be convinced that protecting the environment can
yield both environmental and social benefits (Bunn & Arthington, 2002).
Wetlands, deltas, estuaries, and more generally coastal ecosystems are dramati-
cally affected by any changes in water use and availability (Ramsar Convention
Secretariat, 2006). The degradation of estuarine resources, owing to a variety of
human activities within and outside the estuaries, has become a major environmen-
tal concern in India (Bhatta & Bhat, 1998). The Krishna basin is no exception:
Warnings have emerged of environmental degradation in the lower basin because of
long-term evolution and short-term changes of the Krishna basin agroecosystems
and waterscape. Because of the inherent lack of suitable policies for regulating sur-
face water and groundwater use in the Krishna Basin, environmental threats are
likely, to be further sharpened and to dramatically affect the large population of the
fragile ecosystem of the lower basin.
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Venot et al. / Krishna Basin Development 281
levels are shallow as a result of the influence of the canal network (GoAP, 2003).
Seepage from unlined canals and return flows from irrigation are the main sources
of recharge for the fresh shallow aquifer (0-30 m) used for agricultural and drinking
purposes. The Krishna River is the main source of recharge for plains along the river
channel (van Doorm, 2001). Deeper aquifers are generally brackish to saline and
mainly recharged by slow seepage from upper levels and from the Krishna River
itself during the monsoonal period.
Short-term changes: Impacts of low irrigation canal flows. The long-term trend
of groundwater salinization has been further sharpened during the recent spell of
drought as lower flows in irrigation canals (flows averaged 4.8 km3/year during the
period 2001-2004 compared to a long-term average of 6.15 km3/year [1975-2000];
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282 The Journal of Environment & Development
Venot, Sharma, & Rao, 2008) and in the Krishna River itself (see above) caused
lower seepages, lower recharge of the upper aquifer, and further landward saline
water intrusion. Lower and delayed canal flows compelled farmers to change their
land use and cropping techniques (GoAP, 2003): They left some areas fallow and
continued tapping groundwater to irrigate the remaining cropped areas while return
flows concomitantly decreased. In spite of such adaptive strategies, paddy yields
have been strongly affected by water scarcity and hence livelihoods (yields 70%
below average were commonly reported in the tail-end regions of the Krishna delta
irrigation project; Venot et al., 2008). Many freshwater ponds located in the south
and east of the lower Krishna basin and historically supplied through the Krishna
delta irrigation canals have also not been supplied all year long. This has negatively
affected fish production in the region, and low water availability jeopardizes the sus-
tainability of aquaculture (Venot et al., 2008). Finally, lower flows in the canals have
led to domestic water shortage in the coastal zone, where brackish groundwater can-
not be used for domestic purposes.
There is a clear need for measures of drought mitigation and regulation of
on-farm practices to lessen the environmental consequences of a dry period.
Maintaining a minimal flow in the irrigation canals of the Krishna delta could be a
first step. It is needed to sustain the local agriculture but it could also indirectly par-
ticipate in the preservation of the lower Krishna basin environment as it would also
freshen the local aquifers through seepages. Interestingly, as early as 1976, the first
Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal (in charge of apportioning water among the three
states that share the Krishna water: Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Karnataka)
mentioned the role of irrigation canal flows to limit salinization in the lower Krishna
basin and designed its allocation accordingly (Government of India/Krishna Water
Disputes Tribunal, 1976). This allocation could be a good basis for further refine-
ment of the Krishna delta allotment given the backdrop of increased cropping inten-
sity and groundwater abstraction.
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Venot et al. / Krishna Basin Development 283
Between the mid-1970s and the early 2000s, mangrove covers had decreased by
about 2,200 ha in the lower Krishna basin. In 2001, mangroves covered about 8,000
ha, mostly in the mouth of the Krishna River (Venot et al., 2008). Mangrove areas
are now protected and the creation of Coastal Regulation Zones, in 1991, is a first
step toward integrated coastal management to notably regulate the exploitation of
this fragile ecosystem. However, implementation difficulties remain and mangroves
are still under the threat of several interconnected processes: (a) overgrazing, (b)
overexploitation of timber products (GoAP, 2001b), (c) conversion to shrimp ponds
(the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [2002] evaluated that
3% to 5% of all shrimp ponds in Andhra Pradesh had been dug in mangroves areas,
this being about 1,200 ha in the lower Krishna basin), (d) alteration of tidal flows in
and out of the mangroves and biota changes due to lower river flows and the forma-
tion of a sand bar in the mouth of the delta (Selvam, 2003), and (e) increasing pol-
lution due to agriculture and aquaculture return flows, etc.
Land Degradation
Salinity problems are common features of coastal areas and deltaic environments
(Gowing et al., 2006). But aquifer salinization and aquaculture development
observed during the last decade and a relative lack of drainage are likely to have
heightened the problem of soil salinization. The Andhra Pradesh Water Management
Project (APWAM, 2005) evaluated that strongly saline and alkaline soils covered
25,000 ha and an extra 45,000 ha had lower but significant salinity levels.
Decreasing irrigation canal flows and low rainfall further sharpen this problem:
Adequate supplies are needed for flushing and leaching salt-affected soils in the tail-
end areas of the canals but they are not available. This leads to further salinization.
Another source of land degradation is brackish aquaculture. First, soils are gen-
erally not adequately flushed and when done it is often with brackish groundwater:
They become highly saline and improper to other kinds of reclamation (GoAP,
2001b). Second, contamination of bacteria, fungi, and viruses can lead to large-scale
land degradation as observed during 1994-1996 (Brugere, 2006) even if shrimp
farming remains mainly extensive. Third, saline percolation from ponds contami-
nates neighboring fields, which become unsuitable for paddy cultivation.
Delineating different areas for aquaculture and agriculture could be a solution to
some of these problems (Gowing et al., 2006).
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284 The Journal of Environment & Development
is a tendency toward land losses to the sea as little water with lower sediment load
(because of sedimentation in the many reservoirs built in the Krishna basin) reaches
the ocean. Maintaining a given discharge to the ocean could allow limiting these
losses that have remained restricted to small areas in the mouth of the Krishna River
until now.
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Venot et al. / Krishna Basin Development 285
was strongly opposed by fishermen and farmers lobbies on the grounds that this move
was threatening their livelihoods. Land entitlements have however been cancelled and
it is estimated that about 19,500 ha of aquaculture ponds were demolished on June 15,
2006 (GoAP, 2007b). This required the involvement of police forces to maintain public
safety (“Operation Kolleru Resumes,” 2006). Some ponds still remain and the transfer
of the Conservator of Forests in charge of the protection of the Ramsar site under polit-
ical pressure highlights the political sensitivity of a measure affecting both large
investors and landless farmers pushed into precarious situations. Other measures to reju-
venate the lake are being taken or contemplated and the specialized organization
Wetlands International is entrusted with the writing of a multidisciplinary integrated
management plan for the restoration of the Kolleru Lake (Narsimhulu, personal com-
munication, May 7, 2007).
Since India gained Independence, the Krishna basin has witnessed an increasing
development of its water resources with little regard to the limits of availability and sus-
tainability. This led to a decreasing discharge to the ocean pointing out to the progres-
sive closure of the Krishna basin: altered flow regimes led to downstream
environmental degradation. However, the high discharges to the ocean observed in
2005-2007 (29 km3/year, owing to good monsoonal rains) highlight that the Krishna
basin is in transition and that there is scope for limiting and reversing environmental
damage for the benefit of local livelihoods. Mitigation measures could take several
forms.
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286 The Journal of Environment & Development
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Venot et al. / Krishna Basin Development 287
issues, often overlooked (Venot et al., 2007), and are based on the concept of “sur-
plus water” that has been questioned by Smakhtin et al. (2007) in the case of the
Godavari basin.
• Technical interventions such as the reconfiguration of the soil surface and subsur-
face drainage systems (APWAM, 2005);
• Regulation of local practices: monitoring the use of fertilizers and pesticides
through agricultural extension services, regulating groundwater access, and limiting
the depth and number of wells in use through policies of electricity supply and pric-
ing and policies of access to credit; and
• The delineation of zones with different development and environmental objectives:
the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification of 1991 is a first step forward but its
implementation is hindered by the current institutional setup of natural resources
management.
Conclusion
Rural development dynamics in the Krishna basin have led to rising overcommit-
ment of available water resources: signs of basin closure are apparent during dry peri-
ods and altered flow regimes have led to environmental damage in the lower Krishna
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288 The Journal of Environment & Development
basin, which (a) bears the brunt of any intervention upstream and (b) witnessed
dynamics of natural resources use whose short-term financial gains conflict with the
objective of a sustainable development. Environmental degradation manifests itself
by increasing soil and groundwater salinity, aquifers and surface water pollution,
scarcity of freshwater resources, shrinkage of mangrove covers and desiccation of the
Kolleru Lake. Recognizing the environment as a water user in its own right and
implementing an environmental reserve are difficult but necessary measures for both
environmental sustainability and the livelihoods of the vast poor population.
Given current data availability, present understanding of the hydrology and ecol-
ogy of Indian river basins, and current commitment of decision makers toward the
objective of environmental preservation, only average allocations administratively
defined are possible. The Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal is expected to reach a
decision between 2008 and 2010 and could be an appropriate platform to devise such
environmental allocation if made more responsive to local communities’ demands.
These average allocations still leave problems of management during dry years. But
once a basinwide planning or reconnaissance-level assessment is generally recog-
nized as necessary and benefits from a strong commitment of the different users and
managers, environmental provisions could evolve to a more complex set of environ-
mental flow rules defined in a polycentric governance setup allowing participation
of all for an integrated management of natural resources, notably water, at different
levels from the local level (regulating practices), to the state level (with notably inte-
grated coastal management), and finally the basin level (integrated basin manage-
ment and water allocation procedures with the involvement of both the federal and
the state governments) (for more precision on the rules, concepts and methodologies
that could be considered see, Tharme, 2003). That water development in the Krishna
Basin has happened with little regard to the formal allocation mechanisms defined
in the mid-1970s also illustrates the need for a clear governance system with legally
empowered actors who could act to stop any project contradicting the award of the
Tribunal (Venot et al., 2007). Ecology being only the fourth priority in the National
Water Policy of India, the latter is unlikely to be effective in its present form for the
purpose of environmental preservation. What is needed now is a strong commitment
of the decision makers toward the aim of environmental preservation (Falkenmark
et al., 2007) and this will only be achieved if managers and decision makers are con-
vinced that providing environmental flows can produce environmental as well as
economic and social benefits. More research is needed to link altered flow regimes,
environmental degradation, economic valuation of ecosystem services and social
and economic marginalization.
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Jean-Philippe Venot is a PhD scholar with the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the
Laboratoire Gecko at the University of Paris X-Nanterre, France. He is currently in the IWMI-Hyderabad
Office (India). His research involves issues of river basin management and the relationships between envi-
ronment and societies.
Bharat R. Sharma is a senior researcher with the International Water Management Institute (IWMI). He
is currently in the IWMI New Delhi office (India). His research involves issues of water management and
planning in India
K. V. G. K. Rao is currently an independent consultant in Indwa Techologies Pvt. Ltd. and has been work-
ing as an agricultural scientist for several Indian institutions over several decades.
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