Design & Development of Active Ankle Foot

Orthosis

A Project Report
Submitted by

Adnan Khan (111510005)

Ayush Moitra (111510019)

Mohit Pursnani (111510072)

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of

B.Tech. Mechanical Engineering

Under the Guidance of

Prof. Dr. Chougule Nagesh Kallappa

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled ‘Design and development of active ankle
foot orthosis’ submitted by Adnan Khan (MIS No. 111510005), Ayush Moitra
(MIS No.111510019), and Mohit Pursnani (MIS No. 111510072) in the partial
fulfilment of the requirement for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology
(Mechanical Engineering) of College of Engineering Pune, affiliated to the
Savitribai Phule Pune University, is a record of their own work.

Dr. Chougule Nagesh Kallappa

Dr. M.R.Nandgaokar
Associate Professor & Project Guide, Head of Department,
Mechanical Engineering Department, Mechanical Engineering Department,
College of Engineering Pune College of Engineering Pune

Date:
Place:

i
 Dissertation Approval

This dissertation entitled

Design & Development of an Active Ankle Foot Orthosis

By

Adnan Khan
Ayush Moitra
Mohit Pursnani

Is approved for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology

Of

Mechanical Department
College of Engineering, Pune
(An Autonomous Institute of Govt. of Maharashtra)

Examiners Name Signature

1. External Examiner _______________ ______________

2. Guide/ Supervisor _______________ ______________

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 Abstract

Many people with disabilities require positioning of the feet and stability at the ankles, which
is achieved through the use of an ankle-foot orthosis (AFO).

Models currently in use are bulky, uncomfortable, and hard to put on, especially for paediatric
patients. These patients visibly have trouble walking as their oversized shoes, necessary for
the insertion of the AFO, get in the way.

The goal of this research is to design a paediatric AFO with modifications to solve the current
issues. The design is constructed with many considerations taken into account. Input from
patients and parents, as well as from doctors and manufacturers, tells current problems.
Current designs provide modes for comparison. Finally, structure is kept paramount with
research into ankle biomechanics. Foot pressure testing ensures proper alignment.

The result is an AFO in which function is married with comfort and quality. A shoe has been
attached to the detachable struts of the AFO in order to reduce bulk and size, as well as
provide a medium for natural gait.

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 Declaration
I declare that this written submission represents my ideas in my own words and where others’
ideas or words have been included, I have adequately cited and referenced the original
sources. I also declare that I have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity
and have not misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact/source in my
submission. I understand that any violation of the above will be a cause for disciplinary action
by the Institute and can also evoke penal action from the sources which have thus not been
properly cited or from whom proper permission has not been taken when needed.

____________________ ____________________
(Signature) (Signature)

____________________ ____________________
(Name of the student) (Name of the student)

____________________ ____________________
(MIS No.) (MIS No.)

____________________
(Signature)

____________________
(Name of the student)

____________________
(MIS No.)

Date:
Place:

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 Acknowledgement
We are grateful to our College and Department of Mechanical Engineering for providing us
this great opportunity of working on this project. It is their visionary objective to encourage
student for the curriculum-oriented project that has created this extraordinary opportunity for
us.

We express our sincere gratitude towards Dr. Chougule Nagesh Kallappa for providing us
with an opportunity to pursue this project and guiding us throughout it. It would not have
been completely possible without his extensive teaching, guidance and support.

The team has greatly benefited from the faculty cooperation. It is their guidance and
excellence in respective fields that makes the project a sustainable venture. The various
facilities and labs made available to the team by the department have been instrumental in our
consistent progress. The provision of the required resources by the department has really
helped us throughout the tenure of the project.

The team is immensely grateful to Head of the Department Dr. M.R.Nandgaokar. It is his
support and encouragement to students to work on a project of their field of interest that has
made this possible.

We are immensely grateful towards Hon. Director Dr. B.B. Ahuja for being a constant
source of inspiration.

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 Table of contents:

1: Introduction…………………...………………………………………………………..….........1
1.1: Ankle Joint……………….….…………………………………………….……………...1

1.2: Ankle Injury…...………………………………………………………………….………4

1.3: Foot Drop…..……………………………………………………………………..……....5

2: Literature Review…………………...…………………………………..…………………..…...6
2.1: Bipedal Gait Cycle ……………….….……………………..…………………….....……6

2.2: Current Mechanisms & Drawbacks…...……………………………..……….………….12

2.3: AAFO (Active Ankle Foot Orthosis)…..……………………………………….………..15

2.4: Efforts Taken…...………………………………………………………....……………..17

2.5: 3-D Printing………………………………………………………………………….......20

3: Mechanisms……………………...…………………………………………….………..………24
3.1: Pneumatic Mechanism…………………………………..……………...……………....25
3.2 String Mechanism…………………………………………………..…………...……....26

3.3 SEA(Selected Mechanism)………………………………..………………...…………...27

4: Methodology…………………………...…………………………………..…………………...28
4.1: Foot Scan ……………….….……………..…………………..…………………....…...28
4.2: Design of AAFO……………………...……………………………..……………….....32

4.2.1 SEA ( Series Elastic Actuator) .…………………………………………….....32

4.2.2 AFO (Ankle Foot Orthosis) .……………………………………………….…35

4.2.3 Material Selection.………………………………………………………….....39

4.2.4 Specifications of components.……………………………………….………..41
4.2.5 Sensors.…………………………………………………………………….….49

4.2.6 Control Unit.…………………………………………………………….…….50

4.3: Control Algorithm…..…………………………….……………………………….……51

4.3.1 Gait Phase Detection.……………………………………………………….…51

4.3.2 Actuator Control.……………………………………………………………..53

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 5: Methodology…………………………...…………………………………..…………………..54
5.1: Maximum Load Condition ……..………………………….…………………...……...54

5.1.1 Internal Spring Holder (SEA)………………..………………………….….....55

5.1.2 Brace .…………………………………………………………….…………...58

6: Mechanisms……………………...…………………………………………….…………….…61
6.1: Procedure…………………………………..…………...…………………...……….....61
6.2 Assembly……………………………………..…………………..…………………......63

6.2.1 Initial Phase……………………………………………………………………63

6.2.2 Sensor Monitoring……………………………………………………………..64

6.2.3 Post Modifications………………………………………………………….….64

6.3 Bill of Materials………………………………..……………………….……...………...65

7: Observations and Calculations………………………………………………………..….……..67

7.1 Spring Calculations…………………………………………………………………….....67

7.2 Range of Motion………………………………………………………………………….68

7.3 Maximum Linear Thrust produced……………………………………………………….68

8: Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………….…………69
9: Future Scope……………………………………………………………………………………...70

10: References ……………….……………………………………………………….……………..71

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 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Ankle Joint

The ankle joint is formed by three bones; the tibia and fibula of the leg, and the talus of the foot:

Fig 1.1.1 – The bones of the ankle joint; tibia, fibula and talus. Note that the calcaneous is not
considered part of the ankle joint.

The tibia and fibula are bound together by strong tibio fibular ligaments. Together, they form a
bracket shaped socket, covered in hyaline cartilage. This socket is known as a mortise.

The body of the talus fits snugly into the mortise formed by the bones of the leg. The articulating
part of the talus is wedge shaped – it is broad anteriorly, and narrow posteriorly:

 Dorsiflexion – the anterior part of the talus is held in the mortise, and the joint is more stable.
 Plantar flexion – the posterior part of the talus is held in the mortise, and the joint is less stable.

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There are two main sets of ligaments, which originate from each malleolus.

 Medial Ligament

The medial ligament (or deltoid ligament) is attached to the medial malleolus (a bony prominence
projecting from the medial aspect of the distal tibia).
It consists of four ligaments, which fan out from the malleolus, attaching to the talus, calcaneus
and navicular bones. The primary action of the medial ligament is to resist over-eversion of the
foot.
 Lateral Ligament –
The lateral ligament originates from the lateral malleolus (a bony prominence projecting from the
lateral aspect of the distal fibula).
It resists over-inversion of the foot, and is comprised of three distinct and separate ligaments:

 Anterior talofibular – spans between the lateral malleolus and lateral aspect of the talus.
 Posterior talofibular – spans between the lateral malleolus and the posterior aspect of the
talus.
 Calcaneofibular – spans between the lateral malleolus and the calcaneus.

Fig 1.1.2 – Ligaments of the ankle joint.

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Movements and Muscles Involved –

The ankle joint is a hinge type joint, with movement permitted in one plane.
Thus, plantarflexion and dorsiflexion are the main movements that occur at the ankle joint.
Eversion and inversion are produced at the other joints of the foot, such as the subtalar joint.
 Plantarflexion – produced by the muscles in the posterior compartment of the
leg (gastrocnemius, soleus, plantaris and posterior tibialis).
 Dorsiflexion – produced by the muscles in the anterior compartment of the leg (tibialis
anterior, extensor hallucis longus and extensor digitorum longus).
Neurovascular Supply

The arterial supply to the ankle joint is derived from the malleolar branches of the anterior tibial,
posterior tibial and fibular arteries.
Innervation is provided by tibial, superficial fibular and deep fibular nerves.

Fig 1.1.3 – Movements of the ankle joint (Front)

Fig 1.1.4 – Movements of the ankle joint (Back)

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1.2 Ankle Injuries (Paralysis)

Foot drop is caused by an injury to the peroneal nerve. The peroneal nerve is a branch of the sciatic
nerve that wraps from the back of the knee to the front of the shin. Because it sits very close to the
surface, it may be damaged easily.

An injury to the peroneal nerve may also be associated with pain or numbness along the shin or
the top of the foot.

Some common ways the peroneal nerve is damaged or compressed include:

 Sports injuries
 Diabetes
 Hip or knee replacement surgery
 Spending long hours sitting cross-legged or squatting
 Childbirth
 Time spent in a leg cast

Brain or spinal disorders. Neurological conditions can contribute to foot drop. These include:

 Stroke
 Multiple sclerosis (MS)
 Cerebral palsy
 Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease

Muscle disorders. Conditions that cause the muscles to progressively weaken or deteriorate may
cause foot drop. These include:

 Muscular dystrophy
 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig's disease)
 Polio

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1.3 Foot Drop

Foot drop is a gait abnormality in which the dropping of the forefoot happens due to weakness,
irritation or damage to the common fibular nerve including the sciatic nerve, or paralysis of the
muscles in the anterior portion of the lower leg.
It is usually a symptom of a greater problem, not a disease in itself.

Fig 1.3.1 – Action of drop foot.

Foot drop is characterized by inability to raise the toes or raise the foot from the
ankle(dorsiflexion).

Foot drop may be temporary or permanent, depending on the extent of muscle weakness or
paralysis and it can occur in one or both feet. In walking, the raised leg is slightly bent at the knee
to prevent the foot from dragging along the ground.

Foot drop can be caused by nerve damage alone or by muscle or spinal cord trauma, abnormal
anatomy, toxins, or disease.

The poison can lead to further damage to the body such as a neurodegenerative disorder called
organophosphorus induced delayed polyneuropathy. This disorder causes loss of function of the
motor and sensory neural pathways. In this case, foot drop could be the result of paralysis due to
neurological dysfunction.

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 Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 BIPEDAL GAIT CYCLE

Fig 2.1.1 – Stance and Swing Motions in Gait Cycle

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 A (bipedal) gait cycle is the time period or sequence of events or movements during locomotion
in which one foot contacts the ground to when that same foot again contacts the ground, and
involves propulsion of the centre of gravity in the direction of motion. A single gait cycle is also
known as a stride.

Each gait cycle or stride has two phases:

 Stance Phase, the phase during which the foot remains in contact with the ground, and the
 Swing Phase, the phase during which the foot is not in contact with the ground.
The sequences for walking that occur may be summarised as follows:

1. Registration and activation of the gait command within the central nervous system.
2. Transmission of the gait systems to the peripheral nervous system.
3. Contraction of muscles.
4. Generation of several forces.
5. Regulation of joint forces and moments across synovial joints and skeletal segments.

Separation of the Gait Cycle along with Complete Range of Motion

Classification of the gait cycle involves two main phases: the stance phase and the swing
phase. The stance phase occupies 60% of the gait cycle while the swing phase occupies only
40% of it.

1. Heel Strike

Also known as initial contact, is a short period which begins the moment the foot touches
the ground and is the first phase of double support. 30° flexion of the hip and full extension
in the knee is observed. The ankle moves from a neutral (supinated 5°) position into plantar
flexion. After this, knee flexion (5°) begins and increases, just as the plantar flexion of the
heel increased. The plantar flexion is allowed by eccentric contraction of the tibialis anterior,
extension of the knee is caused by a contraction of the quadriceps, flexion is caused by a

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 contraction of the hamstrings, and the flexion of the hip is caused by the contraction of the
rectus femoris.

2. Foot Flat

In foot flat, or loading response phase, the body absorbs the impact of the foot by rolling in
pronation.The hip moves slowly into extension, caused by a contraction of the adductor
magnus and gluteus maximus muscles. The knee flexes to 15° to 20° of flexion. Ankle plantar
flexion increases to 10-15°.

3. Mid-Stance

In midstance the hip moves from 10° of flexion to extension by contraction of the gluteus
medius muscle.The knee reaches maximal flexion and then begins to extend. The ankle
becomes supinated and dorsiflexed (5°), which is caused by some contraction of the triceps
surae muscles. During this phase, the body is supported by one single leg. At this moment the
body begins to move from force absorption at impact to force propulsion forward.

4. Heel-Off

Heel off begins when the heel leaves the floor. In this phase, the body weight is divided over
the metatarsal heads. Here can we see 10-13° of hip hyperextension, which then goes into
flexion. The knee becomes flexed (0-5°) and the ankle supinates and plantar flexes.

5. Toe-Off

In the toe-off/pre-swing phase, the hip becomes less extended. The knee is flexed 35-40° and
plantar flexion of the ankle increases to 20°. In toe-off, like the name says, the toes leave the
ground.

6. Mid-Swing

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In the midswing phase the hip flexes to 30° (by contraction of the adductors) and the ankle
becomes dorsiflexed due to a contraction of the tibialis anterior muscle. [4] The knee flexes
60° but then extends approximately 30° due to contraction of the sartorius muscle.This
extension is caused by the quadriceps muscles.

Figure 4.3.2.1 The swing and stance phases of the gait cycle

Special Functions of the foot:

1. When the foot first touches the ground, it is unlocked; thus, it has more freedom of motion to
adapt to various terrains. Later, when the foot is about to leave the ground, it locks to become a
rigid lever that propels the leg forward with body weight. Although the foot has inherent
structural stability, the rigidity is achieved as a result of the external rotation of the entire lower
extremity. A, Truss. Wooden structure is analogous to bony structures of foot. Plantar fascia is
represented by tether between ends of bone. The shorter the tether, the higher the truss is
raised. B, Spanish windlass. Upper drawing, Metatarsal is represented by fixed wooden
structure, and proximal phalanx is represented by moving one. Rope attached to moving
structure represents attachment of plantar fascia to proximal phalanx. Lower drawing, As moving
structure turns, rope advances. C, Combined truss and Spanish windlass. As plantar fascia raises
arch of foot (upper drawing), it concurrently locks joints and makes a single unit from multiple
individual bones and joints (lower drawing).

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2. The axis of the subtalar joint is analogous to an oblique hinge. When rotation is imparted to
the superior aspect of the talus, it causes rotation of the calcaneus in the opposite
direction..External rotation of the leg produces inversion, and internal rotation causes eversion of
the calcaneus

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Schema of mechanism by which rotation of tibia is transmitted through subtalar joint into
foot. A, Outward rotation of upper stick results in inward rotation of lower stick; thus, outward
rotation of tibia causes inward rotation of calcaneus and subsequent elevation of medial border of
foot and depression of lateral border of foot as seen in C. B, Inward rotation of upper stick results
in outward rotation of lower stick; thus, inward rotation of tibia causes outward rotation of
calcaneus and depression of medial side of border of foot and elevation of lateral border of foot
as seen in D.

3. when the weight is transferred to the forefoot, an oblique axis through which all toes extend at
the metatarsophalangeal joints passes from the head of the second metatarsal (which is the most
distal) to that of the fifth metatarsal (which is the most proximal). This axis varies in orientation
to the long axis of the foot (from 50 to 70°). This phenomenon of the metatarsal break facilitates
external rotation of the leg at toe-off, and this in turn facilitates supination and hence rigidity of
the foot.

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2.2 Current Mechanisms and their drawbacks

Ankle Foot Orthosis

An ankle-foot orthosis, or AFO, is a support intended to control the position and motion of the
ankle, compensate for weakness, or correct deformities. AFOs can be used to support weak limbs,
or to position a limb with contracted muscles into a more normal position. In addition, AFOs are
used to control foot drop caused by a variety of neurologic and musculoskeletal disorders. Due to
the common use for addressing foot drop, AFO has become synonymous with the term “foot-drop
brace”.

The goal of AFO use is to stabilize the foot and ankle and provide toe clearance during the swing
phase of gait. This helps decrease the risk of catching the toe and falling.

Figure 2.2.1 Ankle Foot Orthosis

Drawbacks:

The AFO is able help individuals during normal walking by lifting their toe during initial
swing.
However, it does not remedy slap foot because the ankle moments required for controlled
plantar flexion are too large for the spring.

Further, this AFO also cannot account for different walking speeds. As an individual speeds
up, slap foot becomes more prominent and the foot needs to be raised faster for ground
clearance. Neither of these tasks can be accommodated by the current orthoses.

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 The current AFO also cannot compensate for other factors such as inclines or fatigue of
the muscles.

AFO can bring a very inefficient gait by the abnormal pelvic movement with a
compensation for the limited movement of ankle joint.

Physical therapy
Exercises that strengthen your leg muscles and help you maintain the range of motion in your knee
and ankle might improve gait problems associated with foot drop. Stretching exercises are
particularly important to prevent the stiffness in the heel.

Drawbacks: There have been reports of persistent pain and fractures of unknown origin
associated with physical therapy. Physical therapy can sometimes lengthen the duration of
pain or limit a patient’s range of motion.

In the elderly, walking backward during physical therapy may result in falls, which can
sometimes have serious consequences.

Functional electrical stimulation (FES)

Another option that may prove beneficial is a functional electrical stimulation (FES) device, which
is worn around your leg just under the knee and sends an electrical signal to the peroneal nerve,
which in turn causes the muscles that enable you to lift your foot to contract.

Drawback: High cost. FES devices cost can run upto 3-3.5 lakh rupees.
FES doesn’t work in a seamless manner that your brain and spinal cord are able to
coordinate.

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 Surgery
Depending upon the cause, and if your foot drop is relatively new, nerve surgery might be helpful.
If foot drop is long-standing, your doctor might suggest surgery that fuses ankle or foot bones or
a procedure that transfers a working tendon and attached muscle to a different part of the foot.

Drawbacks:
High cost of surgery. It is common to have some pain after surgery.

Drainage from the site of surgery. Sometimes the fluid that builds up at the surgery site
drains through the surgical wound.

Bruising around the site of surgery. After any surgical incision, some blood may leak
from small blood vessels under the skin. This can cause bruising, which is a common
occurrence.

Figure 2.2.2 Average walking speed

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 Figure 2.2.3 Effort of walking

2.3 Active Ankle Foot Orthosis (AAFO)

A passive Ankle-foot orthosis solves the problem of dropfoot to an extent but has many drawbacks
which have been stated above. The drawbacks of a passive AFO can be solved by an active ankle-
foot orthosis.

An active ankle-foot orthosis (AAFO) that controls dorsiflexion/plantarflexion of the ankle joint
to prevent foot drop and toe drag during walking. To prevent foot slap after initial contact, the
ankle joint must remain active to minimize forefoot collision against the ground.

A series elastic actuator in our AAFO to induce ankle dorsiflexion/plantarflexion. The actuator
was controlled by signals from force sensing register (FSR) sensors that detected gait events.

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 Figure 2.3.1 Body of an AAFO

A novel actuator linkage is to be designed in order to allow the entire actuation system to be
situated behind the leg, meaning the AFO is lightweight and discrete. The novel two degree of
freedom joint allows a significantly more natural gait and comfortable user experience than
conventional one degree of freedom AFOs .
AAFO not only prevents foot drop by inducing plantarflexion during loading response, but also
prevents toe drag by facilitating plantarflexion during pre-swing and dorsiflexion during swing
phase, leading to improvement in most temporal-spatial parameters.

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2.4 Efforts Taken

LEARNING SESSION BY Armed Forces Medical College (AFMC) Faculty

We were trained in the different movements of the ankle, the design procedure and the various
points to be considered while the production of orthosis.

Figure 2.4.1 Taking measurements to make casting

Figure 2.4.2 Casting made out of PoP

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 Figure 2.4.3 Examining various orthopaedic instruments

We learnt unique methods of manufacturing foot orthosis as per patient requirements as well as
need of cosmetic prosthesis.

Figure 2.4.4 Feet & Hand covers for orthopaedics

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We have also extensively researched on the human ankle joint.

To understand the intricacies of the ankle and to better visualize the ankle joint,

We have 3-D printed the ankle joint. This will help us in accurately mimicking the ankle joint for
our AAFO.

Figure 2.4.5 Human Ankle Joint 3-D printed.

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2.5 3-D Printing

3D printing or additive manufacturing is a process of making three dimensional solid objects

from a digital file.
The creation of a 3D printed object is achieved using additive processes. In an additive process
an object is created by laying down successive layers of material until the object is created. Each
of these layers can be seen as a thinly sliced horizontal cross-section of the eventual object.

3D printing is the opposite of subtractive manufacturing which is cutting out / hollowing out a
piece of metal or plastic with for instance a milling machine.

Working:

There are 3 main steps in 3D printing.

The first step is the preparation just before printing, when you design a 3D file of the object you
want to print. This 3D file can be created using CAD software, with a 3D scanner or simply
downloaded from an online marketplace.
Once you have checked that your 3D file is ready to be printed, you can proceed to the second
step.

The second step is the actual printing process. First, you need to choose which material will best
achieve the specific properties required for your object. The variety of materials used in 3D
printing is very broad. It includes plastics, ceramics, resins, metals, sand, textiles, biomaterials,
glass, food and even lunar dust!
Most of these materials also allow for plenty of finishing options that enable you to achieve the
precise design result you had in mind, and some others, like glass for example, are still being
developed as 3D printing material and are not easily accessible yet.

The third step is the finishing process. This step requires specific skills and materials. When the
object is first printed, often it cannot be directly used or delivered until it has been sanded,
lacquered or painted to complete it as intended.

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Advantages:-

1. Faster Production

3D printing is quicker than conventional manufacturing including injection molds and

subtractive production. Think the speed of a sports car versus the speed of a horse cart. Both will
reach their destination, but the time difference is significantly huge. From a prototype to a final
product, 3D printing tests ideas and designs quickly.

Faster design and prototype production means more time to iterate the prototype and find product
market fit before competitors. 3D printing production takes just hours. Conversely, testing ideas
and designs with conventional manufacturing methods can take up days, if not several weeks.

2. Easily Accessible

3D printing has been around for decades but it really did not take off until 2010. The explosion
of 3D printing interests has brought easier to use software and hardware to consumers as more
competition has entered the space. It’s never been easier to learn the technology and you can
incorporate it in a matter of days into your production cycle.

3. Better Quality

Traditional manufacturing methods can easily result in poor designs, and therefore poor quality
prototypes. Imagine a scenario where someone wants to bake a cake by combining all the
ingredients together, mixing them up, and putting them in the oven to cook. If the elements did
not mix well, the cake will have issues such as air bubbles or a failure to cook thoroughly. That
is how subtractive or injection molds can sometimes be.

4. Tangible Design and Product Testing

There’s no way seeing a product on the screen or virtually can compare to the actual feel of a
prototype. 3D printing offers that benefit. It is possible to experience the touch and feel of the
product prototype to physically test it and find flaws in the design. If a problem is found, you can
modify the CAD file and print out a new version by the next day.

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5. Cost-effectiveness

Labor costs play a huge role in determining the amount of money to be spent in developing a
prototype. Traditional prototyping methodologies including production runs and injection mold
are costly as they require a lot of human labor. With 3D printing, however, labor can be as little
as one person issuing a print command.

6. Creative Designs and Customization Freedom

Traditional manufacturing techniques are good at creating millions of copies of the same thing. It
results in same dull and boring designs without the capacity to be improved much. Making each
design unique with these techniques is extraordinarily hard.

3D printing allows for endless personalization, which makes it much simpler to accommodate
personal touches that are requested from customers.

7. Unlimited Shapes and Geometry

Old methods of manufacturing rely on molds and cutting technologies to generate the desired
shapes. Designing geometrically complex shapes can be hard and expensive with this
technology. 3D printing takes on this challenge with ease and there’s not much the technology
can’t do with the proper support material.

8. Can Implement Assorted Raw Materials

Product designers have to keenly calculate their steps when it comes to materials to use with
either subtractive or injection mold manufacturing. Furthermore, combining chemical and
physical elements is complicated. 3D printing easily accommodates a diverse range of raw
material including glass, metal, paper, ceramics, biomaterial, silver, etc.

9. Less Waste Production

CNC cutting and injection molding result in a lot of wasted resources. Both involve the removal
of materials from solid blocks. Unlike these two, 3D printing only uses material that is needed to
create a prototype part – no more, no less. Additionally, reusing the materials from a 3D print is
relatively straight forward. As a result, additive manufacturing creates very little waste, and
saves a company a lot of money.

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Adv of using it in bio med

Visualization:

A huge amount of 3D printing in the Healthcare industry is used for visualization.

Doctors can use the data from a CT scan to print a model of what they will be
operating on to scale. They use these models to prepare for complex surgeries
eliminating any surprises they may have run into otherwise.

Knee Replacement and prosthetics:

Knee replacements are a very effective treatment for end stage osteoarthritis of the
knee. Each one of the knee implant requires the patient’s bone to be cut differently
from another implant.

3D printing can revolutionize the fracture support as well utilizing the x-ray and
3d scan of a patient with a fracture and generates a 3d model in relation to the
point of fracture.

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 Chapter 3

MECHANISMS

The developed AAFO could pre-eminently induce the normal gait compared with SAFO.

AAFO can prevent the foot drop by proper plantar flexion during loading response and provide
enough plantar flexion moment as driving force to walk forward by the sufficient push-off during
pre-swing.
AAFO also can prevent the toe drag by proper dorsiflexion during swing phase.
In addition, SAFO can bring a very inefficient gait by the abnormal pelvic movement with a
compensation for the limited movement of ankle joint. On the other hand, the AAFO can induce
an efficient gait with the similar movement as in the normal gait.

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3.1 Pneumatic Mechanism

Pneumatic artificial muscle (PAM) is attached behind the distal shank part of PAFO and connected
to the hinged hind foot of the wearer. PAMs are widely used in rehabilitation devices owing to
generate high force and motions with soft-flexible structure. High forces can be obtained
depending on the applied air pressure value.

The pneumatic muscle has been used as similar to the biological muscles for plantar flexion.
Therefore the PAFO could provide the assistive force to the corresponding muscle. Solenoid
valves are used to control the input air pressure of the muscle by changing input signal.

PAM is responsible for plantar flexion motions. From the end of the mid stance through toe off,
PAFO have provided plantar flexion assist to prevent drop-foot. Pneumatic rotary actuator (PRA)
is mounted the lateral shank part of PAFO and connected to the hinged at the ankle joint of the
wearer.
PRA can be controlled bidirectional with a dual vane structure at the ankle joint. PRA can produce
20Nm assistive torque according to the applied air pressure without the need for any transmission.
The foot part was allowed to rotate through the 90° range of motion ability of the pneumatic rotary
actuator. PRA is responsible for dorsiflexion motions.

25
Disadvantages of pneumatic AFO
Too many moving parts, Can lead to losses in efficiency.
Bulky : proposed design will defeat the whole purpose of making the AFO active.
High procurement cost and expensive to manufacture.

3.2 String Mechanism

The AAFO is largely composed of a polypropylene AFO with a hinged ankle joint, the sensor unit,
series elastic actuator and strings attached to from the actuator to the back of the AFO.The sensor
unit detects the gait phase during walking and the controller controls dorsiflexion/plantarflexion
based on the output signals from the sensors.

The series elastic actuator provides the movement of an ankle joint based on signals from the
controller. Strings are attached to the back of the AFO whose other ends are connected to the
actuator.
The actuator will pull or push the strings according to the signals from the controller.

This pulling and pushing action will give rise to the movement of the ankle which will enable the
subject to walk normally without applying any external effort

26
3.3 Series Elastic Actuator Mechanism (Selected)

The ankle orthosis mimics the motion of the ankle joint as anatomically correct as possible.

The AAFO is of lightweight and flexible.

The material used for creating the AAFO is medically approved and patient compliant.

It can be suitable for many different indications and patient groups.

Promotes natural gait pattern.

Enhances strength and stability to control torsion forces

The AAFO is cost effective.

The subject doesn’t have to apply any external effort to perform the gait cycle.

27
 Chapter 4

METHODOLOGY

4.1 Foot Scan

3D scanning consists of turning a real-life object, such as an action figure, a room, an entire
building, or anything that has three dimensions and can be scanned, into a virtual 3D model.

There are two common types of 3D scanning, “ Depth and volumetric 3D Scanning”, and
“Photogrammetry”.

Acquiring the Hardware

1. The Kinect – Either the Xbox 360 or the Xbox One

28
 2. The PC adapter – The Kinect was made to be used in with an Xbox and hence will need a
“Kinect to PC” adapter.

3. A PC – A laptop or desktop computer with a free USB port.

Before you get started, make sure yours meets the minimum requirements listed below:

 64 bit Processor

 Dual core (3.1Ghz) or faster CPU

 4GB Ram

 Nvidia CUDA graphic card or a Kinect Fusion compatible GPU

 A compatible USB 3.0 port (Intel or Renesas chipset)

Downloading the Drivers and Software

Once you have your Kinect plugged in to your PC, you will need to download the drivers. This
allows the computer to handle the Kinect Sensor .

29
 Note : If running on Windows 10 based PCs , it’s very likely that the drivers will download
automatically after your PC recognizes the Kinect. If not the case, will need to download the
drivers from the Microsoft website.

Software which will allow Kinect for 3D scanning:

 3D Scan is a free Window’s 10 app which will use your Kinect to create 3D models. You
can download 3D Scan from Microsoft

 Skanect is a third-party software that is compatible with the Structure Sensor, Microsoft Kinect
or Asus Xtion. Skanect has both a paid and free version, the only main difference being that the
paid version allows you to export the model with more faces and in color. You can download
Skanect from Occipital.

 ReconstructMe, a project by the computer vision experts at PROFACTOR GmbH in Austria. An

easy-to-use, one-stop-application for real-time 3D reconstruction. Their usage concept is similar
to an ordinary video camera—you simply move around the person or object to gather images.

Scanning of the foot

Hovering the Kinect over the object and it will generate the model on the computer. A few points
to keep in mind in order to get better scans:

 Avoid rotating the object. Instead, move the Kinect 3D scanner around the object like if it were
orbiting the object.

o The software will use the background to help track the position of the object, so if you rotate
the object, the background you will be scanning at will always be the same which will make the
scanning harder.

o This applies mainly to Photogrammetry, but can still be applied to normal 3D Scanning.

 Make sure there is good enough and steady lighting through the entire scanning process.

30
 Positioning of the foot ( pre-scanning measures ) .Foot markers are drawn on the leg to be
scanned. This is to use it to scale the model accurately in the modelling software, and also to
locate the metatarsal break and the medial and lateral malleolus.

 Repeated circling was done around the leg for the same scan to capture all the details of the
leg.

31
4.2 Design of AAFO

The design of AAFO consists of many individual components:

4.2.1 SEA (Series Elastic Actuator)

The SEA controls the ankle movement of AAFO on the basis of the control signal of the motor.

The SEA includes a coupling, two spring meal plates, a ball nut metal plate, a end mount, four
compression springs, six bushings, one ball screw, one ball nut, two guide rails, two plunger and
a connecting ring with the orthosis. The ball screw and the ball nut convert rotations of a motor
into translational motors.

Figure 4.2.1.1 Internal components of an SEA

Joint motions of the AAFO can be adjusted by varying the number of revolutions and the
direction of the motor. In addition, an encoder, attached to the motor, controls the operating
conditions of the motor by transmitting information of the position and the speed to the slave
controller. Compression springs were inserted into the series elastic actuator for minimizing the
backlash caused by the motor and the shock occurred during walking.

The main problem lies within its availability and procurement cost. These devices are not

available as commonly as other methods of controlled actuation and the cost of obtaining one is

32
high

Printed series elastic actuator :

To make such actuators more accessible , we have made structurally optimized design concepts
that can be uploaded to the computer and 3D printed using industrial grade filaments such as
nylon 66 and used a linear ballscrew assembly which is easily obtainable

Similar to the conventional series elastic actuator, the printed series elastic actuator consists of a
DC motor, to which is attached an encoder. This motor is connected to the ball screw using a
rigid coupling. Rotation of the motor gives linear motion to the ball screw nut which sits inside a
ball screw nut block.

This block’s linearity is supported by the linear bearing attached to it, allowing it to slide along
the linear rail, which is on top of the entire SEA aluminium frame. The motion is limited
between the two flanges (motor and bearing), which is enough to cover the plantar and dorsi
flexion’s of an average human.

In order to have the compliancy, the 4 internal springs were placed between the internal spring
holders and the spring compartment as shown in fig.

The power transmission follows a path from the ball screw nut block, to the attached internal
spring holders, to the springs ,to the spring compartment.

As a sensory output, to measure the compression of the springs , a small but precise linear
potentiometer was attached between the internal spring holders and the external spring
compartment

33
.

34
4.2.2 Ankle Foot Orthosis (AFO)

It was designed to freely allow dorsiflexion/plantarflexion of the ankle joint but not to limit
motions in the other direction.(different distinct parts used their design and printing related
concepts print orientation in fill, total kg used).

The entire AFO brace consists of :

Calf Support
This part houses the DC Motor and the motor flange of the SEA.
Once inserted the SEA frame is then press fit into it.
The Velcro through the slots provided allow fastening of the leg right below the knee.

Ankle Support
This houses the bearing flange and also has slots for the upper male hinges

35
Heel Hinge

To be attached right behind the lower brace.

The main long pin is inserted through its hole for the linking of the heel links.

Ankle Hinges Male

Fixed to the ankle support these have protrusions to support both the weight of the body, the AAFO
and also the impact loads.

36
Ankle Hinges Female

These are mated with the Male hinges and provide support to them.

They become a part of the lower brace.

Brace

The main brace of the AFO, is shaped according to the patients foot scan and supports the two toe
srips.

This part takes the first contact to the impact loads

37
Toe Strips Big and Small

These are pressfit into their respective negatives provided on the base of the brace

Front Middle Back Out Sole

Made of a softer material these house the FSRs

These are fixed below the base of the AFO as a whole.

38
4.2.3 Material Selection – Nylon 6,6 and TPU

Nylon comes from a family of synthetic polymers known as polyamide . Nylon 6,6 is a
polyamide made by polycondensation of adipic acid methylenediamine , and contains a total of
12 carbon atoms in each repeating unit .

The properties which make Polyamides suitable for plastic applications are resistance to
toughness , thermal stability , good appearance , resistance to chemicals etc .

Performance characteristics

 Pursues excellent abrasion resistance and a high melting point .

 Has high tensile strength and exhibits only half of shrinkage in steam .
 Provides a very good resistance to photo degradation .
 Has good advantage over industrial products because it reduces moisture sensitivity in raw
products and has a high dimensional stability and melting point .

The fact that makes Nylon 6,6 resistant towards heat and fraction and enables it to withstand the
heat for retention is that it has a melting point of 268 degree C for a high synthetic fibre .

The physical properties of Nylon 6,6 are :

 Has a repeat unit with molecular weight of is 226.32 g/mol and crystalline density of
1.24 g/(cm)^3 .
 Has a long molecular chains resulting in more hydrogen bonds , creating chemical
springs and making it very resilient .
 Is an amorphous solid so it has a large elastic property and is slightly soluble in boiling
water .
 Is very stable in nature.
 Is very difficult to dye but once it is dyed it has a high color fastness and is less
susceptible to fading .
 Its chemical properties does not allow it to be affected by solvents such as water , alcohol
etc .
39
TPU is a block copolymer consisting of alternating sequences of hard and soft segments or
domains formed by the reaction of: (1) diisocyanates with short-chain diols (so-called chain
extenders) and (2) diisocyanates with long-chain diols. By varying the ratio, structure and/or
molecular weight of the reaction compounds, an enormous variety of different TPU can be produced.
This allows urethane chemists to fine-tune the polymer’s structure to the desired final properties of
the material. For example, a greater ratio of hard to soft segments will result in a more rigid TPU,
while the reverse is also true.

Properties of commercially available TPU include:

 high abrasion resistance

 low-temperature performance

 high shear strength

 high elasticity

 transparency

 oil and grease resistance

Benefits of Thermoplastic Polyurethane (TPU)

 Abrasion Resistance
 Impact Resistance
 Puncture Resistance
 UV Resistance and/or Filtering
 Chemical Resistance
 Hydrolysis Resistance
 Hardness (52A to 85D)
 Thermal Extremes
 Barrier Properties
 Fungal Resistance
 Antimicrobial

40
4.2.4 Specifications of the major components

This Permanent Magnet DC Motor with encoder is suitable for small and medium CNC
machines and for replacement of stepper motors to DC servos which gives high speed and
accuracy. This motor with drive can replace a stepper motor upto NEMA 34 size where high
speeds are required. Encoder is 500 Line optical encoder which gives 2000 PPR. Motor runs on
12 to 24VDC and gives 6000 RPM on 24V.

Features

 6000RPM @ 24V DC

 Hardened slotted shaft 8 mm diameter, 20 mm length

 Slot on shaft for easy coupling

 Mounting PCB of 40mm x 4 holes

 Motor Diameter 60 mm

 Length 127.5 mm without shaft

 1100gm weight with cables

 5kgcm torque@ 2000 RPM

 Replaceable Carbon Brushes

41
  Can also be used as normal DC motor without encoder

 No-load current = 600 mA, Stall current = upto 30A(Max)

The 0.18 degree resolution optical encoder with quadrature outputs for increment and decrement
counting. It will give 2000 transitions per rotation between outputs A and B. A quadrature
decoder is required to convert the pulses to an up or down count. The Encoder is build to
Industrial grade.

Force Sensor Resistor 0.5″ 14.7mm- Pressure Sensor

Features:

1. Easily customizable to a wide range of sizes

2. Cost-effective

3. Ultra-thin; 0.45 mm

4. Robust; up to 10 million actuations

5. Simple and easy to Integrate

42
 BTS7960 HIGH POWER DRIVER MODULE 43A

BTS7960 High Power driver module provides 5V power indicator on board. BTS7960 High
Power driver module comes with output Voltage indication of motor driver output end with heat
sink solder. Output current is infinitely adjustable to meet various applications. BTS7960 Power
driver large current (43 A) H bridge driver and 5V isolate with MCU, and effectively protect
MCU.

Specification:

 Just need four lines from MCU to driver module

 Isolation chip 5 V power supply

 Size: Approx. 4 * 5 * 1.2cm / 1.57x1.97x0.47inch

 Able to reverse the motor forward, two PWM input frequency up to 25kHZ

 Two heat flow passing through an error signal output

 The supply voltage: 5.5V to 27V

43
 ARDUINO UNO REV3

Microcontroller ATmega328P

Operating Voltage 5V

Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V

Input Voltage (limit) 6-20V

Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)

PWM Digital I/O Pins 6

Analog Input Pins 6

DC Current per I/O Pin 20 mA

DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA

Flash Memory 32 KB (ATmega328P) of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader

SRAM 2 KB (ATmega328P)

EEPROM 1 KB (ATmega328P)

Clock Speed 16 MHz

LED_BUILTIN 13

Length 68.6 mm

Width 53.4 mm

44
BOURNS 3048L-5-103 LINEAR MOTION POTENTIOMETER, 10KOHM, 20%, 250mW

Product Category: Slide Potentiometers

Series:3048

Termination Style :Wire Lead

Type :Linear Motion Potentiometer

Travel:12.7 mm

Resistance: 10 kOhms

Power Rating:250 mW (1/4 W)

Tolerance: 20 %

Taper: Linear

Length:31.75 mm

Width:8.28 mm

Height:8.28 mm

Mounting Type: Chassis Mount

Product: Slide Potentiometers/Faders

Element Type: Carbon

Life:500000 Cycles

45
 Rotary shaft potentiometer

 Feature : knurled shaft; resistance value : 10K Ohm; pin number : 3

 Thread diameter : 7mm/ 0. 28'; shaft Size : 6 x 8/mm/ 0. 24' x 0. 31' (DEL); base Size :
16 x 8mm/ 0. 63' x 0. 31'(D*t)

 Total Length : 24mm/0. 94 inch

46
 Linear Ball Screw Assembly

Linear Stage Actuator Parameter

Series: Rattm Motor CBX1605-100A
Profile Width: 42mm
Drive Type: CBX1605 Ballscrew
Screw precision grade: C7
Screw Pitch: 5mm
Linear Type: Square Linear Rails
Bearing Type: Single Square HGH Carriages
Motor Type: 6000RPM @ 24V DC Motor
Effective Travel Length: 100mm
Accuracy: 0.03mm / 0.001inch
Max. Speed: 50mm/s,2inch/s
Horizontal load: 30Kgs / 66.2lbs
Vertical load: 10Kgs / 44lbs
Axial Load Capacity: 22Kgs / 44lbs

47
Springs used

48
4.2.5 Sensory input

In order to detect gait phases, FSR sensors and the rotary potentiometer were used . FSR sensor
was a small flat resistor whose resistance changes nonlinearly with the applied force. FSR
sensors were used as ON/OFF switches to indicated ground contact measuring the voltage drop
across each FSR sensor connected in a voltage divider circuit . Totally four FSR sensors were
placed on the heel, the hallux, 1st metatarsal head and 5th metatarsal base. A rotary
potentiometer was attached to the hinged ankle joint of the AAFO to measure
dorsiflexion/plantarflexion angles during walking.(elaborate calibration and the specs).

Figure 4.2.5.1 FSR sensor.

49
4.2.6 Control Unit

The control unit is composed of a master processor to detect gait phase and a slave processor to
control the motor based on the detected signals. Output signals from the sensors are used as input
signals of the master controller (insert Arduino uno specs).

The master controller performs A/D conversion of the approved input signal, set up of FSR
sensors of reference voltage and compared continuously with detected signals. Then, gait phases
were determined by the gait phase detection algorithm.

The signal detected through the master controller is approved as the input signal of the slave
controller (insert motor controller) determining the number and direction of the motor rotation
through motor control algorithm according to the determined gait phase.

Figure 4.2.6.1 Master and slave controller

50
4.3 Control Algorithm

The control algorithm consists of the gait phase detection and the actuator positions
consisting of the transitions and sensory outputs.

4.3.1 Gait Phase Detection

The whole gait cycle is divided by five different gait events: HS (heel strike), FF (foot flat), HO
(heel off), TO (toe off), SW (swing) .

Figure 4.3.1.1 The five different gait events

Totally, six transition events were defined in both normal and pathological gaits. Gait events
were determined by FSR sensors and a rotary potentiometer.

T1 (swing ĺ heel strike):

In the swing phase, the algorithm waits for the transition to the heel strike phase, which
begins with the initial contact of the heel with the ground.

T2 (heel strike ĺ foot flat):

In normal situation, foot flat follows after the heel strike, which begins when both the
front and rear parts of the foot contact the ground. This event is detected when the heel
FSR sensor and at least one of the other three FSR sensors are ON.

51
T3 (foot flat ĺ heel off):
In the foot flat phase, the algorithm waits for the beginning of the heel off phase. The
heel off phase is detected when the heel FSR sensor is OFF.

T4 (heel off ĺ toe off):

In general, toe off follows heel off. Heel off begins when the hallux FSR sensor is ON
and front parts of the foot are OFF.

T5 (toe off ĺ swing):

In the toe off phase, the algorithm anticipates the transition to the swing phase. The
condition for the transition to the swing phase is that all FSR sensors are OFF.

T6 (heel off ĺ foot flat):

If the subjects lifts the heel and then places it back onto the ground (without going into a
swing phase, as in the normal walking), this event is detected in the gait phase detection
algorithm by a transition from heel off to foot flat. If the status of the heel FSR sensor is
ON during the heel off phase, the algorithm transits to foot flat phase.

Figure 4.3.1.2 The sensor relations with transitions

52
4.3.2 Actuator Control

Figure below shows the actuator control algorithm of AAFO.

0-15% is in the loading response, the actuator make the plantarflexion by making shorter the
length of SEA.
15-50% is from mid-stance to terminal stance phase, the actuator make the dorsiflexion by
making longer the length of SEA.
50-60% is in the pre-swing phase which is requested the largest and rapidest plantarflexion, so
the actuator make shorter the length of SEA most rapidly.
60-100% is in the swing phase, the actuator make the enough dorsiflexion to prevent dragging
toe until the next heel contact.

Figure 4.3.2.1 The swing and stance phases of the gait cycle

53
 Chapter 5

ANALYSIS OF AAFO
Major parts were taken into consideration. Static Structural analysis done in Fusion 360.

5.2 Calcaneal loading during walking and running

5.1 Maximum Load Condition

Fig: 5.1.1 Maximum GRF

54
During walking, there is an initial small peak in the vertical GRF, generated after ground contact
and termed the “impact” peak, followed by a bimodal waveform with peaks ranging from 1.0 to
1.5 body weights (BW) (1,5,34).

The profile for running has a more distinct initial impact peak, usually followed by a single
maximum peak achieved at mid stance, ranging from 2.0 to 3.5 BW (5,9,20,34).

It is assumed that the Avg weight of the person to be approx. 70 Kg.

Therefore, Max load condition =

For Walking = 1.5*9.81* 70 = 1058 N

For Running = 2.5*9.81*70 = 1732 N

According to these values, the major components were analyzed for various stress tests and
factor of safety considerations.

5.1.1 Internal Spring Holder (SEA)

Procedure:

1. All the points and surfaces of contact of both the internal spring holders were given 3
axis constraints.
2. While the surfaces were the springs come in contact were given the maximum
attainable load condition.
3. The model was the meshed and uploaded to the cloud for quick computation.

55
 The results were as follows:

Figure 5.1.1.1: Establishing Contact Constraints

Figure 5.1.1.2 Safety factor

Varies from 11.44 (min) to 15 (max)

56
 Figure 5.1.1.3: Displacement Variation

Varies from Minimum 0mm & Maximum 0.002428mm

Figure 5.1.1.4: Stress Variation

Varies from Minimum 9.8 * e-12 MPa to 18 MPa

57
5.1.2 Brace

Of the entire device, it was assumed that the section that supports most of the load and sudden
impact included the assembly from the Spring Compartment locks to the base of the main lower
brace.

1. Constraints were intuitively given to the area of the locks in contact with the Spring
Compartment and the parts (surfaces) of the brace that were in contact with the leg.
2. The base of the main lower brace was given maximum load condition.
3. The entire model was meshed and sent to the cloud for further computation.

The results were as follows:

Figure 5.1.2.1: Safety Factor Variation

Minimum safety factor is 15

58
 Figure 5.1.2.2: Stress Variations

Stress varies from a minimum of 0 Mpa to 0.4909 MPa

Figure 5.1.2.3: Displacement Variation

Varies from minimum of 0mm to maximum of 1.56*e-5 mm

59
 Figure 5.1.2.4: Strain Calculations

Varies from a minimum of 0 to a maximum of 3.88*e-6 mm.

60
 Chapter 6

FABRICATION

Design phase :

6.1 Procedure

The modelling of the whole system has been already described in the above chapters. The next
step in the development of the AAFO is manufacturing.

The method selected for manufacturing is 3D printing. Majority of the parts have been 3D
printed due to it’s cost effective nature.

The procedure is carried out using the following methods-

61
 Conversion of model to STL

The model obtained using Fusion 360 needs to be converted to STL format before it is
sent to the 3D printer for printing. The first step is the conversion of the model to STL.

 Slicing: From 3D model to 3D printer

Slicing is dividing a 3D model into hundreds or thousands of horizontal layers and is

done with slicing software.
Sometimes it’s possible to slice a 3D file within a 3D modelling software or in the 3D
printer itself. It is also possible that you are forced to use a certain slicing tool for a
certain 3D printer.
Slicing is done using the ‘Slic3r’ software. The layer height selected for the process is
0.35mm.

 Print settings

The layer height selected is 0.35mm.

Infill type- Rectilinear
Infill angle- 45 degrees
Infill percentage- 20%
Extrusion speed- 25mm3/sec
Print speed- 60mm/sec

62
6.2 Assembly

6.2.1 Initial Phase

 SEA aluminium frame is press fit into the whole of the calf support.

 Proceeding with the assembly of SEA, The first spring compartment is slid into the
frame.

 Springs are then inserted.

 The assembled ball screw nut block which includes the internal spring holder along its
side and the linear bearing below it is mated with the linear guide rail on the SEA frame.

 The next set of springs is then placed into the other side of the spring holder.

 The sliding of the next spring compartment partially finalises the assembly of SEA.

 Spring compartment locks are then used to pre-compress the SEA springs.

 The SEA frame along with its other components and the calf support is then finally
inserted into the ankle support.

 The long pin is first inserted into the already joined heel hinged which is situated at the
back of the calcaneus and then positioned in the center.

 The lateral and medial heel links is then joined first with the long pin and then with the
respective spring lock pins which were already press fit into the spring compartment
locks.

63
  The big toe strip and the small toe strip were then inserted into the lower part of the
brace.

6.2.2 Sensor Mounting

 LINEAR POTENTIOMETER

The body is first inserted into its hole provided on one of the internal spring holder. The
shaft of the linear potentiometer is then pushed through the clamping hole of its adjacent
spring holder. The shaft’s clamping is done only after it is positioned midway.

 FSR(Force sensing resistors)

Position of the 4 FSR’s were first marked and then slots were created in front, Back and
mid outsoles, Inorder to embed them into it. Paper tape was used to cover it for protection
and an additional layer was taped after inserting a small piece of cardboard between the
tapes

6.2.3. Post Modification

 The male and female ankle hinges along with the ankle support and the lower brace are
fixed in two places by threading, Strong zip ties through the holes created.

 The hinges are then mated allowing them to float in their respective position.
Slots were created along the sides of the outsole for the wires.

 The outsole was then placed on the back of the brace, Holes were created through both of
them and strong zip ties were used to hold them together.

 Cushioning was cut out and provided at the calf and ankle support and also for the insole.

 Velcro straps were then glued/zip tied on the necessary portions of the AFO

64
6.3 Bill of Materials

S.NO TYPE ITEM MATERIAL QUANTITY COST

1. SUPPORTS Calf Support Nylon 66 1
2. Ankle Support Nylon 66 1
3. Servo Motor - 1 1600
4. Motor Flange Aluminium 1
5. Ball Screw Bearing Chorme S. 1
6. Bearing Flange Aluminium 1
7. SEA Frame Aluminium 1
8. SEA Linear Rail SS 1
9. Motor Coupling Aluminium 1
10. Ball Screw SS 1
11. Ball Screw Nut SS 1
12. Ball Screw Nut Block Aluminium 1
13. Internal Spring Holder Nylon 66 4
14. Spring Compartment Nylon 66 1
15. Spring Compartment Nylon 66 1
SPRINGS Lock
16. Spring Lock Pins Nylon 66 2
17. Heel Link Nylon 66 2
18. Long Pin Nylon 66 1
19. Heel Hinge Nylon 66 1
20. Ankle Hinges Male Nylon 66 2
21. Ankle Hinges Female Nylon 66 2
22. Brace Nylon 66 1
23. FOOT Toe Strips Big Nylon 66 1
24. Toe Strip Small Nylon 66 1
25. Front Out Sole TPU 1
26. Middle Out Sole TPU 1
27. Back Out Sole TPU 1
28. AESTHETICS Cushioning Polystyrene 100
29. Velcro - 1 80
30. Encoder 6000ppm - 1 1000
31. Arduino UNO - 1 500
32. BTS 7960 Motor Driver - 1 1000
33. Power Supply 24Volts - 1 1400
34. Tanotis Linear - 1 4500
ELECTRONICS Potentiometer
35. FSR - 4 2500
36. 1.27mm Copper wires - 1 200
37. 2.8mm Copper wires - 1 100
38. Arduino serial cable - 1 60

65
Linear ballscrew assembly = 2000/-
Nylon printed objects – approx. 1000 grams 3000 rupees + printing and design charges 1500
rupees = 4500/-
Tpu printed objects – approx. 200 grams 460 rupees + printing & design charges 300 rupees =
760/-
ESTIMATED TOTAL COST = 20,300/-

66
 Chapter 7

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

7.1 Spring calculations

The series elastic actuator has pre compressed springs each with the spring constant :

K= 45.915

Due to its configuration all the 4 springs are between the internal spring holder and the external
compartment. Its force diagram can be represented as :

67
Springs shown in the diagram are all in parallel configuration. Therefore the equivalent spring constant
becomes :

Net Spring constant = 183.66 N/mm

For a system which has a compliancy of K net, the difference between the input force (F Motor) and the
output force (F Load) can be written as :

F motor – F load = k x

where x is the overall compression of spring.

7.2 Range of Motion

The Sea allows force to be applied through position control of the linear ball screw block. This is done
with the help of torsion of the motor being converted into linear thrust which is then controlled using the
advantage of SEA.

In accordance with the literature survey done , the ankle range of motion (ROM), in everyday activities,
the ROM required in the sagittal plane is much reduced, with a maximum of 30° for walking, and 37° and
56° for ascending and descending stairs, respectively. 5

Through the links the ROM for the flexion was obtained close to approximatly as 55°.

As far as the ROM for the inversion and eversion goes, small angles are able to be dampened out due to
the outsole provided at the base of the sole.

7.3 Maximum linear thrust produced:

The motor is able to produce a torque of 10 kgcm at an RPM of 1000

Motor torque = (Linear thrust * Lead)/(2pi*e)

Where Motor torque = 50kgmm =981 Nmm

Lead = 5mm

e= efficiency = 97% (of a ball screw)

Therefore for a linear speed of 83.33 mm/s, the linear thrust produced is 1195.78 N

This value is well above the maximum load levels at walking speeds (1058 N)

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 Chapter 8

CONCLUSION

The Active Ankle Foot Orthosis, rather, Printed Active Ankle Foot Orthosis, is developed to
adhere to most conditions and answers to a few important problem statement:

Due to its simple and innovative design, the printed parts of the AAFO are enough to meet its
structural strength requirements.

The link arrangement provides the necessary flexion angles.

With high performance sensors, accurate gait cycles can be achieved with close to normal
rehabilitation.

The SEA provides easy and an intuitive way of force control.

The motor and linear ballscrew assembly provides the necessary thrust to balance out heel strike
and foot propulsion forces.

The conforming AFO structure provides comfortable and accurate motions.

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 Chapter 9

FUTURE SCOPE

• 1. Can be extended to other parts of the body.

• The overall weight of the AAFO can be reduced.

• The overall scanning system can be made more efficient.

• Innovation in the process of manufacturing.

• Reduction in cost of the material.

• Time required for manufacturing can be reduced.

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 Chapter 10

REFERENCES

Biomechanics of the ankle Claire L. Brockett and Graham J. Chapman

Series Elastic Actuators Matthew M. Williamson

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE CENTRES OF PRESSURE UNDER THE FOOT WHILE WALKING

MICHAEL GRUNDY, BLACKBURN, P. A. TosH, R. D. MCLEISH and L. SMIDT, MANCHESTER,
ENGLAND

Foot biomechanics during walking and running.Chan CW1, Rudins A.

Modeling and Application of Series Elastic Actuators for Force Control Multi Legged Robots
Arumugom.S, Muthuraman.S, Ponselvan.V

Series Elastic Actuator: Design, Analysis and Comparison By Arnaldo Gomes Leal Junior,
Rafhael Milanezi de Andrade and Antônio Bento Filho

Development of an Active Ankle Foot Orthosis for the Prevention of Foot Drop and Toe Drag
Sungjae Hwang1, Jungyoon Kim1, Jinbock Yi1,3, Kisik Tae1, Kihong Ryu1, Youngho Kim1,

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