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Badanagki Et Al. (2018)
Badanagki Et Al. (2018)
Abstract: Dense granular columns are often used as a liquefaction mitigation measure to (1) enhance drainage; (2) provide shear reinforce-
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Colorado University at Boulder on 08/07/18. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
ment; and (3) densify and increase lateral stresses in the surrounding soil during installation. However, the independent influence and con-
tribution of these mitigation mechanisms on the excess pore pressures, accelerations (or shear stresses), and lateral and vertical deformations
are not sufficiently understood to facilitate a reliable design. This paper presents the results of a series of dynamic centrifuge tests to fun-
damentally evaluate the influence of dense granular columns on the seismic performance of level and gently sloped sites, including a lique-
fiable layer of clean sand. Specific consideration was given to the relative importance of enhanced drainage and shear reinforcement. Granular
columns with greater area replacement ratios (Ar ), for example Ar greater than about 20%, were shown to be highly effective in reducing the
seismic settlement and lateral deformations in gentle slopes, owing primarily to the expedited dissipation of excess pore water pressures. The
influence of granular columns on accelerations (and therefore, the shear stress demand) in the surrounding soil depended on the column’s Ar
and drainage capacity. Increasing Ar from 0 to 10% was shown to reduce the accelerations across a range of frequencies in the surrounding
soil due to the shear reinforcement effect alone. However, enhanced drainage simultaneously increased the rate of excess pore pressure
dissipation, helping the surrounding soil regain more quickly its shear strength and stiffness. At short drainage distances or higher Ar values
(for example, 20%), this could notably amplify the acceleration and shear stress demand on soil, particularly at greater frequencies that
influence PGA. The experimental insight presented in this paper aims to improve our understanding of the mechanics of liquefaction
and lateral spreading mitigation with granular columns, and it may be used to validate the numerical models used in their design.
DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001937. © 2018 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Soil liquefaction; Granular columns; Drains; Centrifuge modeling; Lateral spreading; Site performance.
Background and Introduction still exceed several meters, leading to extensive damage. Many
ground-improvement techniques such as densification, reinforce-
Past earthquakes have provided many examples of damage to ment, and methods that enhance drainage can be used to reduce
important geotechnical structures such as slopes, retaining walls, the risk of liquefaction and its associated ground deformations.
and embankments caused by soil liquefaction. For example, exten- In particular, the installation of dense granular columns made of
sive lateral slope deformations were reported by Seed (1987) and gravel or stone is an attractive mitigation method for slopes and
Tokimatsu and Asaka (1998) during the earthquakes in Niigata, embankments (Seed and Booker 1977). Depending on its installa-
Japan, in 1964; Loma Prieta, California, in 1989; and Kobe, Japan, tion procedure, this method is believed to mitigate the soil lique-
in 1995. Mitigation techniques are often warranted to prevent ex- faction hazard and its consequences through a combination of
cessive lateral deformations in slopes founded on liquefiable depos- densification, increased lateral earth pressures, shear reinforcement,
its and the subsequent damage to infrastructure. A reliable and and enhanced drainage (Baez 1995; INA 2001; Rayamajhi et al.
performance-based design of liquefaction remediation techniques 2016a).
for slopes requires a clear understanding of the influence of various Previous case histories have generally demonstrated a success-
mitigation mechanisms that control performance. ful performance of different types of compacted granular columns
Bartlett and Youd (1992) characterized liquefaction-induced lat-
in loose, saturated cohesionless soils (e.g., Mitchell et al. 1995;
eral spreading in mild (0.3–5%) slopes underlain by loose,
Mitchell 1986, 1988; Adalier 1996; Baez 1996; Boulanger et al.
saturated granular soils. Despite the low angle of these slopes,
1998; Koelling and Dickenson 1998; ISSMGE 2001). However,
the lateral deformations produced during earthquake loading could
although valuable insights can and must be drawn from case his-
1 tories, the influence and relative importance of each mechanism of
Graduate Research Assistant, Dept. of Civil, Environmental, and
Architectural Engineering, Univ. of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309. mitigation on the performance of the site and slope cannot be re-
Email: mahir.badanagki@colorado.edu liably evaluated from case histories alone in a systematic manner,
2
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil, Environmental and Architectural as is necessary for a reliable, performance-based mitigation design.
Engineering, Univ. of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309 (corresponding Seed and Booker (1977) introduced an analytical method for the
author). Email: shideh.dashti@colorado.edu design of drains based on radial consolidation or excess pore pres-
3
Research Associate, Dept. of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural sure (Δu) dissipation that is commonly used in practice. They rec-
Engineering, Univ. of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309. Email: peter ommended the use of gravel or stone columns with a hydraulic
.kirkwood@colorado.edu
conductivity at least two orders of magnitude greater than that of
Note. This manuscript was submitted on May 19, 2017; approved on
March 29, 2018; published online on July 6, 2018. Discussion period open the surrounding soil, to avoid significant Δu generation in the
until December 6, 2018; separate discussions must be submitted for indi- drains. This study had a number of limitations, including (1) the
vidual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Geotechnical and assumption of an infinite granular column permeability and ignor-
Geoenvironmental Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 1090-0241. ing the well resistance or clogging potential; (2) the assumption of a
ing soil. As a result, the reduction in the cyclic stress ratios induced the 3D transient hydraulic gradients. Volumetric deformations
in the treated soil was notably less than that predicted by the caused by partial drainage can be notable, as they occur while
conventional design approaches that assume strain compatibility. the hydraulic gradients are kept at their peak during shaking.
They subsequently provided a modified design approach to esti- Drainage-enhancing granular columns, such as those investigated
mate the reduction in cyclic stress ratios provided by dense granular in this study, locally reduce the duration, or the amplitude, of the
columns. elevated excess pore pressures. This, along with the altered shear
Elgamal et al. (2009) and Asgari et al. (2013) performed a stress and strain profiles, likely reduces the contribution of sedi-
numerical parametric study with a unit cell and showed that granu- mentation to the volumetric strains. However, the increased rate
lar columns could help reduce lateral displacements in treated of drainage likely increases the volumetric strains due to partial
soil due to a combination of drainage and shear reinforcement. drainage. The net effect of granular columns on the competing
Rayamajhi et al. (2016b) numerically showed that granular col- mechanisms leading to volumetric strains is uncertain and requires
umns can be effective in reducing lateral spreading through shear investigation.
reinforcement, even if liquefaction or generation of large excess This paper presents the results of three centrifuge experiments
pore pressures is not prevented. They also numerically identified that systematically evaluated the influence of dense granular col-
the surface pressure, length and diameter of the drains, area replace- umns and their various mitigation mechanisms and properties on
ment ratios, liquefiable soil depth, hydraulic conductivity, and the seismic performance of level and gently sloping sites underlain
slope angle as some of the key parameters influencing the lateral by a layered liquefiable deposit consisting mostly of clean sand.
displacement. However, the results presented in these numerical The data obtained from these experiments facilitated (1) the mecha-
studies were not validated with rigorous physical model studies nistic evaluation of the influence of granular columns and their dif-
or case history observations. ferent properties (for example, the area replacement ratio, shear
Although limited in quantity and scope, a number of physical reinforcement, and enhanced drainage) on the site and slope per-
model studies (for example, 1g shake table and centrifuge tests) formance in terms of the acceleration, excess pore pressure, settle-
have been conducted to evaluate the influence of different types ment, and lateral spread; and (2) the provision of data for the
of drains on site response and lateral spreading. Due to the diffi- calibration and validation of advanced numerical models in the
culties of drain installation in flight, the centrifuge experiments fo- future. Following validation, such models can be more reliably
cused primarily on the reinforcement and drainage mechanisms of used in the design or development of design guidelines for the
mitigation, as opposed to installation-induced densification or an mitigation of lateral spreading hazards using dense granular
accurate representation of the increase in lateral earth pressures columns.
in the surrounding soil, which may not be reliable in all cases, even
in the field. As an example, Adalier et al. (2003) performed cen-
trifuge experiments with stone columns in a uniform and level de- Experimental Procedure
posit of saturated, loose silt with an overlying model of a rigid
footing. This study showed that stone columns can be effective
Centrifuge Testing Plan
in reducing the foundation settlement by reducing shear strains
and generation of excess pore pressures in the underlying soil. They A series of three centrifuge experiments comprising five separate
did not, however, evaluate the influence of granular columns and models were designed and conducted at the University of Colorado
their properties on the performance of sites with more realistic (CU) Boulder’s 400g-t (5.5-m-radius) centrifuge facility. In these
layering and geometry and under different earthquake motions. tests, the primary goal was to systematically evaluate the influence
Centrifuge tests were more recently conducted by Howell et al. and relative importance of various granular column parameters on
(2012) to evaluate the performance of liquefiable slopes mitigated the performance of a level site and a gentle slope underlain by a
with prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs). This method did not in- layered liquefiable deposit during one-dimensional horizontal
troduce notable shear reinforcement and relied primarily on the earthquake loading. Fig. 1 shows the detailed plan and elevation-
drainage mechanism of mitigation. The study showed that PVDs view drawings of the model tests and their instrumentation layouts.
could be effective in expediting the dissipation of excess pore pres- The dimensions are presented at both prototype and model scales
sures and reducing the resulting lateral slope deformations, depend- following the accepted scaling relations (Tan and Scott 1985).
ing on the characteristics of the earthquake motion. The combined For all tests, as shown in Fig. 1, a dense layer (8 m thick in the
or independent influence of shear reinforcement and enhanced prototype scale) of Ottawa sand F65 was dry pluviated to attain a
drainage in slopes has not been experimentally evaluated. It is relative density (Dr ) of approximately 90% at the bottom of a
not clear, for example, whether the added shear reinforcement pro- flexible-shear-beam (FSB) container constructed of aluminum and
vided by stiffer drains (e.g., dense granular columns in comparison rubber at CU. Subsequently, a loose layer of Ottawa sand (8 m
with PVDs) would reduce the seismic demand or the deformations thick) with a Dr ≈ 40% was pluviated as the liquefiable material.
in slopes. This layer was subsequently overlaid by a 0.5-m-thick layer of
(Diam.=25mm) (D r =90%) diameter = 1.75 m (in prototype scale) were placed vertically at the
[1.75m] Silica silt bottom of the container prior to sand pluviation to avoid localized
densification during their installation. This was done to isolate the
115mm Ottawa sand
influence of drains from ground densification and to keep the den-
[0.5m]
[8m] D r =40%
7mm
Fig. 3. (Color) Photographs taken (a) during air pluviation of Ottawa Sand; (b) after model completion of Test 2; (c) showing horizontal LVDT
holders and setup designed for the centrifuge experiments; and (d) after model completion of Test 3.
To create accurate 3° slopes that were consistent among the motions, selected to cover a range of characteristics in terms of am-
models, the sand surface was vacuumed rather than scraped (to plitude, frequency content, and duration, thus enabling evaluation
minimize soil disturbance) with the aid of guide rails clamped of the impact of these properties on system performance. Table 1
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along the length of the container. After the model completion in provides a summary of the sequence and properties of the first three
Tests 2 and 3, the top surface of Monterey sand was sprayed with earthquake motions applied at the base of the model container.
a sugar solution (5% by mass), lightly heated, and left overnight to Fig. 4 shows the acceleration response spectra (5% damped) and
dry. This treatment kept the slopes intact during the model transport the Arias Intensity time histories of the base motions achieved in
across the lab floor to the centrifuge, but cementation effects were the centrifuge (the mean and their range of variability among the
removed when the sugar dissolved during saturation. three tests). Ample time was allowed between each phase of shak-
For all the treated models (Models 0, 1, 3, and 4), the granular ing to allow and monitor full excess pore pressure dissipation. The
columns were placed vertically at the bottom of the container at 1992 Mw 7.3 Landers Earthquake recording at the Joshua Tree sta-
predetermined positions in a grid prior to the pluviation of sand. tion was selected because of its longer duration and slower rate of
Rows and vertical columns of colored sand (Ottawa) were also energy buildup relative to the other records. The 1995 Mw 6.9
placed at various locations throughout the model, to enable meas- Kobe Earthquake recording at the Takatori station had a more rapid
urement and evaluation of various modes of deformation during buildup of energy and a shorter duration, but it was scaled to have a
model excavation. Figs. 3(b and d) show photographs of the fully lower amplitude in comparison with the Landers event (for exam-
assembled models. Figs. 3(b and c) also show the setup for meas- ple, in terms of the PGA). Finally, the 1994 Mw 6.7 Northridge
uring vertical and horizontal soil movements. The vertical LVDTs Earthquake recorded at the Newhall-WPC station was a near-fault
measured the settlement of bearing plates placed on the soil surface. record with a significant velocity pulse. The three selected motions
The vertical LVDT rods were free to slide horizontally across the also differed in their frequency content, as shown in Fig. 4, for the
surface of the bearing plate, while the plate displaced with the soil achieved or measured base motions.
owing to the nails placed around its perimeter. The nails had a
diameter of 0.9 mm and height of 9 mm in the model scale,
and their effect on the soil response was assumed to be negligible. Centrifuge Experimental Results
The horizontal LVDTs recorded lateral displacements along an ini-
tially vertical slot in an aluminum plate. This permitted the vertical During all tests, the data were recorded at a sampling rate of 3,500
settlement of soil without influencing horizontal displacement mea- samples per second. In the following sections, all the test results
surements [Fig. 3(c)]. The bearing plate for horizontal LVDTs was are presented and discussed in prototype units. The responses of
embedded in Monterey sand to resist the overturning moment aris- Model 0 (level ground with a single drain), Model 1 (slope with
ing from the inertia of LVDT rods. To minimize this moment, the 36 draining granular columns and Ar ¼ 20%), Model 2 (slope
LVDT rod was initially positioned near the base of the slot. without granular columns), Model 3 (slope with 25 granular col-
After dry preparation, the models were saturated with a hydrox- umns and Ar ¼ 10%), Model 4 (slope with 25 granular columns
ypropyl methylcellulose solution of 64 cSt viscosity, prepared per and Ar ¼ 10%, encased with latex membrane) were analyzed and
Stewart et al. (1998) and measured before use. The viscosity was compared on the basis of the recorded accelerations, pore water
70 times greater than that of water, to satisfy both the diffusive and pressures, and vertical and horizontal displacements, in order to
the dynamic scaling laws (Taylor 1995). A computer-controlled sat- provide insight into the effects of granular columns and their vari-
uration system was designed and implemented to improve the qual- ous properties on site and slope performance. Due to space limi-
ity and rate of saturation, similar to that proposed by Stringer and tations, only selected, representative results are presented.
Madabhushi (2009). Initially, the soil model was flushed with CO2
from the bottom of the container for about 1 h, after which it was
kept under constant vacuum. The fluid tank was placed on a scale,
and its vacuum level was subsequently controlled automatically to
maintain a safe and constant flow rate below that required for flow-
induced liquefaction (in this case, 19 g=minute just prior to reach-
ing the silt layer and then 2 g=min, based on Stringer and
Madabhushi 2009). Complete saturation of each model required
approximately 96 h.
the calibration and validation of numerical models in the future, within a radius of 2.5–8.5 m. Further, the ru values greater than 1.0
before adding the complexities of a slope and multiple drains. at the top of the liquefiable layer may indicate the possible forma-
Furthermore, drain systems are often designed for a unit drain tion of a water film below the silt interface and/or the slight settle-
cell surrounded by other drains on all sides. The performance of ment of PPTs with respect to the surrounding soil at that location.
a drain outside the unit cell framework (for example, drains at The slight movement of those PPTs with respect to colored sand
the edge of a group or in isolation) has not been adequately studied was confirmed during the excavation.
experimentally. The dynamic total head isochrones were used to show the di-
Fig. 5 shows a summary of the time histories of excess rection and magnitude of transient hydraulic gradients at different
pore pressure, vertical displacement, and horizontal acceleration times and the resulting flow tendencies around the drain. Fig. 6
recorded at three different radial distances from the single granular shows a comparison of the dynamic total head isochrones obtained
column at different depths in Model 0 during the Kobe motion. from the PPT recordings at three different radial distances from
Liquefaction, defined as an excess pore pressure ratio (ru ¼ the granular column center during the Kobe and Joshua motions.
0
Δu=σvo ) of 1.0, was observed quickly in the loose sand layer. Large At different radial distances, the isochrones indicated that liquefac-
excess pore pressures were also generated in the lower dense layer tion (ru ¼ 1.0) was achieved quickly within the loose layer
of Ottawa sand, causing liquefaction during the first motion but at a of Ottawa sand during all motions. The hydraulic gradients were
slightly slower pace. The accelerations generally showed large, generally formed upward from the dense layer toward the surface.
Fig. 5. (Color) Acceleration, excess pore pressure, and vertical displacement time histories during the first motion (Kobe) at three radial distances
from the single granular column in Test 1.
Fig. 6. (Color) Dynamic total head isochrones at three different radial distances from the granular column during the Kobe and Joshua motions.
tances from the drain center, as shown in Fig. 5, during the Kobe Fig. 9 shows a comparison of the excess pore pressure ratio (ru )
motion. Generally, significant settlements occurred both in the time histories at various depths together with the vertical and hori-
dense and loose layers of Ottawa sand during shaking due to sed- zontal displacements recorded at the top and toe of the slope during
imentation and partial drainage (εp-SED and εp-DR ), followed by a the three shaking events in the three models. The container base
smaller contribution from post-shaking consolidation (εp-CON ). As acceleration time histories are also provided for comparison.
the distance to the drain decreased, settlements within both loose The horizontal displacement is considered positive in the fall line
and dense layers of Ottawa sand generally reduced. Even though or downslope direction for all models. The rate of excess pore pres-
the drain tended to amplify volumetric strains due directly to partial sure buildup at all depths was generally decreased and the rate of
drainage (εp-DR ), it was shown to reduce the net volumetric settle- post-
ments at the surface by limiting the duration of large excess pore shaking dissipation increased when the Ar increased from 0 to 10%
pressures and therefore the extent of sedimentation (εp-SED ). The and to 20%, as expected. Similar to Model 0, the fastest rate of
patterns were similar during other ground motions. dissipation was observed at lower elevations, due to an upward flow
tendency, which is also shown in Fig. 8.
The time-frequency response (Stockwell spectra) of transverse
Influence of Granular Columns and Area Replacement accelerations recorded in the three models during the Kobe motion
Ratio on Slope Performance is shown in Fig. 10. The figure shows that the amplitude of soil
In this section, the effectiveness of granular columns is assessed in surface accelerations generally tended to decrease at lower frequen-
reducing the extent of excess pore pressure generation, accelera- cies over an extended period of time, as the Ar increased from
tions, and lateral spreading in a gently sloping site. The influence 0 to 10% (the left two plots on the top row of the figure). On the
and relative importance of the area replacement ratio (Ar ) of granu- other hand, the acceleration amplitudes increased considerably
lar columns was assessed experimentally. Models 2, 3, and 1 con- when Ar was increased from 10 to 20% (the right two columns in
tained a gentle slope treated with granular columns that had the figure), particularly at frequencies greater than 0.7 Hz during
Ar ¼ 0% (no drains); Ar ¼ 10%; and Ar ¼ 20%, respectively. and after strong shaking. This led to a notable increase in PGA in
Fig. 8 shows a comparison of the dynamic total head isochrones the top half of the liquefiable layer. This response may be explained
for the Kobe motion, which were obtained from the PPT recordings by the counteracting effects of shear reinforcement and enhanced
for Models 1 through 3 at the depths shown in Fig. 1. These drainage provided by granular columns. For both treated Models 3
(Ar ¼ 10%) and 1 (Ar ¼ 20%), the added shear stiffness of the col-
umns alone was expected to reduce the amplitude of accelerations
and shear stresses in the surrounding liquefiable soil, particularly at
lower frequencies. In the experiments, an Ar of 10% provided shear
reinforcement, resulting in a slight reduction of accelerations in
comparison with the unmitigated slope (Ar ¼ 0%) at frequencies
less than around 1 Hz. This model also enhanced the drainage rate,
but not sufficiently to noticeably amplify accelerations at higher
frequencies. At the accelerometer locations (midway between the
columns), the accelerations were in this case only marginally am-
plified or preserved at higher frequencies.
For the greater Ar of 20%, the drainage rates were increased
sufficiently to prevent soil liquefaction in most cases. Therefore,
the average soil stiffness was increased and the damping decreased
in comparison with Models 2 (Ar ¼ 0%) and Model 3 (Ar ¼ 10%).
This impacted the propagation and amplification of accelerations,
particularly above the dense Ottawa sand layer. The result was
more intense accelerations measured near the soil surface (the top
of loose Ottawa sand) across a range of frequencies, concentrated
around the strain-compatible fundamental frequency of the
treated slope (approximately 0.7–0.8 Hz as determined from the
Stockwell spectra) due to the combined effect of reinforcement
and drainage. These observations are in line with those in Model
Fig. 8. (Color) Dynamic total head isochrones recorded in sloped sites
0 and were consistent during various motions, despite their varia-
with granular column treatment of Ar ¼ 0, 10, and 20%, during the
tions in intensity, frequency content, and duration. These effects on
Kobe motion.
the amplitude and frequency content of the motions near granular
Fig. 9. (Color) Base acceleration, excess pore pressure ratio, vertical and horizontal displacement time histories recorded in sloped sites with granular
column treatment of Ar ¼ 0, 10, and 20%, during the Kobe, Joshua, and Northridge motions.
columns must be considered in evaluating liquefaction triggering in the central channel and close to the channel. Larger deviatoric
and consequences as well as the design of overlying structures. displacements downslope, for example, in Model 2 (Ar ¼ 0%), led
Fig. 9 shows the surface settlements at the top and bottom of the to smaller net settlements at the toe of the slope in comparison with
slope for each of the three models. These settlements were domi- the top, or with other models, during the first motion (Kobe) due to
nated primarily by volumetric strains and to a smaller degree by the bulging effect induced by rotational movements toward the cen-
deviatoric or shear strains, due to the slope’s small angle. For ex- tral channel. The settlements generally reduced during the sub-
ample, the settlements recorded at the top of the slope in Model 2 sequent motions due to densification in the prior motions as
were quite similar to those of a similar profile with level ground in well as the cumulative reduction in slope’s angle.
Model 0. The settlements recorded at the top of the slopes generally Lateral displacements were recorded in the slopes with the
decreased with an increasing Ar due to the reduction in the extent LVDT setup shown in Fig. 3(c) and the locations shown in Fig. 1.
and duration of large excess pore pressures and hence the reduction It is noteworthy that these measurements were sensitive to the
in volumetric strains caused by sedimentation and deviatoric strains rotation of the slotted aluminum plate and in many cases malfunc-
caused by the existing static and dynamic shear stresses. These fac- tioned. However, in comparison with the plates placed
tors were more significant than the increase in volumetric strains perpendicular to the slope in previous experimental studies, the
due to partial drainage. At the toe of the slope, the settlements were horizontal LVDT measurement system had a far smaller impact
more strongly affected by the deviatoric strains and rotational on the response of the slope and the development of lateral spread-
movements from the slope above, at times causing bulging or heave ing. The results from horizontal LVDTs that were subject to
Fig. 13. (Color) Base acceleration, excess pore pressure ratio, vertical and horizontal displacement time histories in sloped sites with granular
columns of Ar ¼ 10%, draining (Model 3), and nondraining (Model 4).
Fig. 15. (Color) Deformation of colored sand rows and columns after
the test during model excavation in sloped sites: draining granular
columns of Ar ¼ 20% (Model 1), no drains Ar ¼ 0 (Model 2), draining
granular columns of Ar ¼ 10% (Model 3), and nondraining granular
columns of Ar ¼ 10% (Model 4).
Fig. 14. (Color) Cumulative vertical and horizontal displacements in
sloped sites with granular columns of Ar ¼ 10%, draining (Model 3),
and nondraining (Model 4).
upon for preventing liquefaction if a large influx of fluid from ment of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering at the
the far-field is possible. The conventional design charts do not University of Colorado Boulder and the assistance of Mr. Balaji
account for such cases. However, even drains without adjacent Paramasivam, Mohamed Elmansouri, and Simon Petit in the execu-
drains can be somewhat effective in speeding up the dissipation tion of the centrifuge experiments presented in this paper.
of excess pore pressures in their vicinity after shaking, and they
tend to reduce net volumetric settlements.
• The use of granular columns in gentle, layered, liquefiable References
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Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic
experimentally shown to be a critical parameter in reducing both
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• The influence of granular columns on the seismic demand and improvement of a liquefiable soil layer using granular column and
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interest. Generally, shear reinforcement provided by the col-
vibro-stone columns.” Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Civil and Environmental
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• The possible reduction in accelerations and seismic demand due New York.
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be entirely relied upon for reducing the likelihood of liquefac- “Drainage capacity of stone columns or gravel drains for mitigating
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densification is expected during column installation. Neverthe- induced lateral deformation in a sloping stratum: Three-dimensional
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filters. modeling of prefabricated vertical drains for liquefaction remediation.”
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lines for port structures. Tokyo: A.A. Balkema.
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ISSMGE (International Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
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