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SACRED ARCHITECTURAL 'FORM' AND 'SPACE' AS SYMBOLS OF POLITICAL

IDEOLOGY AND AUTHORITY: A CASE STUDY OF SACRED CENTRE OF HAMPI

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SACRED ARCHITECTURAL 'FORM' AND 'SPACE' AS SYMBOLS OF
POLITICAL IDEOLOGY AND AUTHORITY: A CASE STUDY OF
SACRED CENTRE OF HAMPI
Prof Rupali Kavilkar has done her B Arch from DY Patil College of Architecture and Engineering, Kolhapur in
1994 and M Arch from YCMOU, Nashik in 2010. She worked in Muscat, Sultanate of Oman as Architect
during 1995 - 2004. Since 2004, she is working as Assistant Professor in Gogte Institute of Technology,
Belgaum. Her research interest is Study of Political Ideologies and Urban development.
rdkavilkar@git.edu

Dr Ravindra Deshmukh has done his B Arch from Visvevsarayya National Institute of
Technology, Nagpur in 1971; M Arch from The Indian Institute of Technology,
Prof Rupali D Roorkee in 1973 and PhD from Manipal University in 2009. He has 42 years of
Kavilkar, experience in profession, teaching and research, serving in North, South India and
B Arch, M Arch Africa. He was the UGC Fellow to the University of Chile in South America in 1998. He
was Fulbright Scholar chosen by the United State's Educational Foundation in India
(USEFI) to teach at the North Dakota State University, USA during fall of 2005. He
served as National Visiting Professor for the Indian Society for Technical Education
(ISTE) during 2006-07. He established Disaster Management Center at Manipal Dr Ravindra
University in 1999 and organized the 'National Program for Capacity Building of Deshmukh,
Architects in Earthquake Risk Management' (NPCBAERM) of the Ministry of Home B Arch, M Arch, PhD
Affairs' National Resource Institute at Manipal University. Currently, he is Professor at
Dr. B.N. College of Architecture, Pune.
ravindra.deshmukh@bnca.ac.in

ABSTRACT throughout the centuries. Analysis of interaction

Analysis of interaction between architecture and political
ideologies is done in many parts of the world. The current
research paper examines how "Form" and "Space" as
architectural elements of sacred architecture of Hampi
symbolise the royal authority or ideology. It presents
literature study of the relationship of Hampi's history, art
and architecture. It also includes site studies of Hampi's
monuments focusing on sacred centre of Hampi. It
reveals factors of "form making" and "space making" of
the temples that were used by the rulers to represent
royal authority and their ideologies. It puts forth that
temples played an important role in developing the
structure of the city and in the administration of
Vijaynagar dynasty. The paper concludes that the
strategic location of Hampi along the river Tungabhadra
in the mountainous range, the pivotal location of the
sacred centre, the monumental scale, focal elements
used, central courtyards, detailing, sculptures of
Virupakshi and Vithalla temple complexes indicate that
the rulers used these to represent royal authority and
their ideologies.
Keywords: Political Ideologies, Temple Architecture,
Sacred centre of Hampi.
Introduction
The relationship between architecture and politics has
been constantly intertwined and well demonstrated
01 www.iia-india.org JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS
between architecture and politics has been held in many
parts of the world. The analysis of evolution of the
relation between architecture and politics from one
regime to the next of particular regions has involved
many researchers.
Another perspective of the way thinking through
architecture helps in understanding the political scenario
of a particular time in place.
The studies indicate that there existed a dialogue
between different periods and regional architectural
history as well as urban development, landscape, interior
history. The ruling dynasties in history have used
architecture to mark their presence and authority in
society by the construction of public buildings,
commemorative monuments; symbols and public
celebrations (Tilotson GHR,1998).
Ruling regimes and political leaders not only constructed
public monuments to symbolise their political power but
religious structures such as churches, temples and
mosques were also used to proclaim political position of
the ruling bodies and recognition in the eyes of the local
masses.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this research is to investigate the built
form of the temple complex in order to reveal links
NOVEMBER 2014
between the design of the temple complex in Hampi and
how these exhibit the then political ideologies and
authority. Even though there have been studies that
describe and document the scared architecture of
Vijayanagar dynasty, influences of political ideas on the
design of the temple architecture are few. There are no
studies that explain the architectural "Form" and "Space"
as symbols of political ideology and authority in temple
architecture of Hampi.
This study will also have relevance more broadly for
designers and researchers in fields that investigate the
links between design works, for example, architecture
and symbolic values embedded within socio- political
contexts.
The following research questions are addressed in this
study:
i. Do the Temples constructed in Hampi during
Vijayanagar dynasty symbolise political ideas?
ii. What is the relationship of architectural 'form' and
'space' as symbol of political ideology and authority?
SCOPE OF STUDY
The scope of this research is limited to a review of the
factors related to the political environment (Vijaynagar
Dynasty) and its influence on temple complexes
(Virupakshi and Vithalla) of the city of Hampi. Thus, this
study focuses on the historical development of the city,
the ruling kingdoms, their ideas, and the extent of
development of the city. This research paper involves a
three-step process as follows:
1. Realising the importance of the interconnection
between politics, religion and architecture, there is a
need to set the background scene for this study. This
is done through a review of literature concerning
politics and architecture. The relationship of
architectural 'form' and 'space' as symbols of political
ideology and authority is studied.
2. Identifying the development of temple architecture
in Hampi, Vijayanagar Dynasty; the study includes
literature and site study of Hampi city.
3. Developing a theoretical framework to reveal
connections between the temple architecture and
political ideology and authority. Virupakshi temple
and Vithalla temple complexes are selected as
representatives of sacred core of Hampi for co-
relating temple architecture elements and political
ideology and authority.
THE RELATIONSHIP OF ARCHITECTURAL 'FORM' AND
'SPACE' AS SYMBOL OF POLITICAL IDEOLOGY AND
AUTHORITY
Architecture is a form of 'sign', which may convey
2014 NOVEMBER JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS
messages. From this, it can be said that rulers used
architecture to symbolise their political ideology and
authority. The symbols of authority were embedded in
design elements 'form' and 'space' (Ismail A. 2007). This
study highlights built form and space making as
exemplars on the relationship of architecture and
politics.
(I) Form is an important property in architecture, as it
has ability to develop a relationship between itself
and the perceiver. It also has the ability to symbolise
certain ideas, values and beliefs due to its existing
properties and function. (Cooler R. 2013) Therefore,
form is commonly used to express the authority of
the ruling body. This occurs when:
 Form is presented in monumental and dominant
scale, which dominates other existing structure and
its physical context.
 Form is portrayed in symmetrical composition or
hierarchical organisation with a dominant focal point
and richly decorated façade with embellishments
that show interplay of colour, texture and materials.
 Form is placed in a dominant context, such as higher
ground level in order for it to be portrayed as a
distinct structure in an open site.
(II) Space also is an important property, which has the
ability to symbolise the political ideology of the ruling
body due to its elemental properties. As stated by
Lefebvre (1991:99), "architectural space does not
simply mean to serve their own purposes but is also
part of the dominant discourse of power and
domination in society". Spatial organisation
symbolises the concept of power and authority.
This occurs when:
 Spaces are portrayed in exaggerated height, width
and depth with monumental scale structures, which
produce maximum spatial quality.
 Spaces are arranged in segments, in a symmetrical
and hierarchical manner along an axial path based on
linear and fanned syntax structures, to form a single
and dominant focal point.
 Spatial organisation is from a single entrance with no
transverse point, which results in constricted and
restricted movement within space segments. This
forms high visibility of surveillance within the spatial
organisation hence expressing patterns of authority
and control.
 Perceptual dominance is given to the primary space,
which is centrally positioned in the middle of the
entire spatial organisation, surrounded by ancillary
space.
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 Spaces are articulated and decorated with a rich
variety of materials, surface texture, embellishments
and interplay of painterly coloured effects.
The study identifies factors like monumentality,
hierarchical composition, focal points, and contextual
location as factors of "Form making" that express
authority.
Also exaggerated proportions, spatial arrangement, axial
entrance, dominates space, articulation are identified as
factors of "Space making" that express authority.
Fig 1a: Map of India Fig 1b: Location of Hampi showing
extent of Vijaynagar dynasty
As the research interest is the influence of political
ideology on the design of temple complexes in Hampi, Bellary district, Karnataka state, Fig 2 (2013) and is listed
the above factors, which focus on architectural form and as one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
spatial organisation, are referred to this purpose of study. India changed completely in the early 14th century by the
HAMPI: A CASE STUDY OF POLITICAL IDEOLOGY AND advent of the Muslim invasion. During such crucial time
ARCHITECTURE the Sangama brothers founded a new dynasty in 1336 AD.
New city called Vijayanagara or "the city of victory"
Hampi was the capital city of Vijayanagar Empire (1336- became the capital of this dynasty. Four dynasties, the
1565) founded by two Hindu princes called Hukka and Sangama, the Saluva, the Tuluva and the Aravidu, ruled
Bukka and symbolises stronghold of Hindu 'Art and from this city till 1565 AD and city was spread from the
Architecture' (Ananth P.2013). Hampi is located in river Krishna in the north to the three sea coast in the
backdrop of vast stretches of boulder-strewn hills in east, west and south, Fig 1 (Mlpkr 2007).

Architectural style and

Dynasty and Rulers Political Ideologies
major sacred structures built
Sangama Dynasty Deva Raya I Two distinct styles: Deccan tradition and the Main idea was laying the foundation of the
(1336-1485) Ramachandra Raya Tamil tradition. kingdom, for which conquest and
Harihara Raya I Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya consolidation of land and kingdom.
Selection of site for the city and design of the
Bukka Raya I Deva Raya II city was most important contribution. Assumed the role of protectors of Hindu
Harihara Raya II Mallikarjuna Raya faith and culture.
Transformed Virupakshi shrine into religious
Virupaksha Raya Virupaksha Raya II Established good administration and peace
monument.
Bukka Raya II Praudha Raya (Sengupta S, 2010).
Suluva Dynasty Two distinct styles: Deccan tradition and the Emphasis to hold and re-establish the
(1485-1505) Tamil tradition. empire together. (Wagoner P. 2001)
Narasimha Deva Raya
Thimma Bhupala Narasimha Raya II

Tuluva Dynasty Imperial style of building being evolved,
(1491-1569) standardization of design, building
TuluvaNarasaNayakaViraNarasimha techniques and temple construction were
RayaKrishna Deva Raya being developed.
Achyuta Deva Raya To improve agriculture, irrigation systems,
canals and water reservoirs were built.
Venkata ISadasiva Raya
Extension and Gopuram at Virupakshi
temple, Vithalla temple , Gopurams and
hundred columned hall.
Established unchallenged sovereign of
Southern India, peace prevailed and city
flourished.
The King assumed new title as lord who
establishes a king in the kingdom of the
heathers. (Sengupta S, 2010)
As protectors of Hindu faith and culture,
great initiatives in arts, cultural activities,
architecture and literature were developed.’

Aravidu Dynasty Imperial style of building evolved, bringing Disunity among the ministry developed,
Aliya Rama Raya Rama Deva Raya standardization of design, building thereby weakening the authority of the
Tirumala Deva Raya techniques and temple construction. royal family. (Sengupta S, 2010).
Venkata III
Sriranga I Sriranga III The downfall of the empire and Vijaynagar
city was abandoned.
Venkata II
Sriranga II

03 www.iia-india.org JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS NOVEMBER 2014

The site selected for the capital city Vijayanagara is
endowed with beautiful natural setting and is drained by
torrential Tungabhadra river, Fig 2 (2013). Dotted around
the hills and valleys are 500 plus monuments which
include temples, basement of palaces, remains of
aquatic structures, ancient market streets, royal
pavilions, bastions, royal platforms and treasury
buildings.
The group of monuments which have been declared as
'World Heritage Site' are located in the 'core zone'
measuring 41.8 sqkm.
The mapping of the site, in recent studies demonstrate
that most of the city's structures are aligned with natural
features thus showing a conscious effort to link spatially
the world of the king with that of Rama. The king was
occasionally compared to God and Hampi to Ayodhya,
especially in the Mahanavami festival (Dallapiccola A,
2001). As demonstrated by Fritz and Michell (1987):
Vijayanagara was the urban realization of cosmological
principles, which infused the ruler with divine power.
When political and military success combined with
sacred authority, the king and his capital came to have an
epic, almost mythical dimension.
Fig 2: View of Vijaynagar city
Fig 3: Map of Hampi showing Urban and Sacred Core.
2014 NOVEMBER JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS
The entire site during the Vijayanagar period was
designed on the basis of Town Planning principles of
spatial hierarchy. The 'Prime Archeological Area' or
'World heritage site' has been classified into two major
areas: Urban Core and Sacred Core as shown in Fig 3
(Anant P 2013).
Urban Core: To the south of the southern hillock is the
fortified city termed as the Urban Core. This area consists
of Royal Center and residential area of the common man
including the remains of palaces, public buildings,
noblemen's quarters, houses of common man, temples,
Matha's, Ashrama's, wells, etc.
Sacred Centre: The River Tungabhadra and the hillocks on
the north of the sacred centre provide natural protection
to this core. In this area four major temples are, the
Virupaksha temple, the Krishna temple, the
Tiruvengalanatha (Achyutaraya) temple and the
VijayaVithala temple.
Fig 4: Vithala Temple
Fig 5: Virupakshi temple Fig 6: Narasimha idol
The sacred centre also incorporates many smaller
structures, some of which are temples with halls and
porches, while others are simple shrines indicated only by
a few columns, a carved doorway, or a pedestal. Most of
these are clustered along the south bank of the river
between the Virupaksha and Vitthala Temples.
Associated with these numerous temples are sacred
icons of Vishnu, Nandi, and gigantic Narasimha (Fig 6) etc,
carved on boulders and in rocky clefts.
www.iia-india.org 04
THE SACRED ARCHITECTURE OF HAMPI AND
VIJAYNAGAR RULERS
During the Vijayanagara period, religious activities
intensified resulting in many temples been erected along
the river, on rocks and limited portions of level ground.
This religious architecture is on an urban scale, each
complex in itself constituting the nucleus of an urban
quarter. The temples are distinguished by their vast
rectangular enclosures, entered through towered
gateways, and approached by long streets flanked by
colonnades. Within the enclosures are shrines, altars,
halls, porches, stores, wells, tanks, Dhwajas, Stambas and
other features - all set in paved courtyards (Fritz J and
Mitchell G, 1987).
The artistic activity at Vijayanagar was closely associated
with the dynasties, which ruled the empires namely,
Sangama, Saluvas, Tuluvas and Aravidas. The vast extent
of the territory, which constituted the Vijayanagar
Empire, was from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal
across the Deccan Plateau and South India. (Srivastava
A.2013). All these domains had been the strongholds of
renowned dynasties such as the early and late Chalukyas,
the Hoysalas, the Cholas and the Pandyas. Because of
these varied artistic heritage the early phase of art
activity at Vijayanagara follows two distinct styles, one
influenced by the Deccan tradition and the other by the
Tamil. By beginning of the fifteenth century the former
style was abandoned, replaced by the latter, which
evolved as the "imperial style" of building bringing in
standardization of design, building techniques, and
temple construction. This facilitated that; temples
became larger and more complex in their spatial
organization and became increasingly similar.
"FORM MAKING" AND "SPATIAL ORGANIZATION"
PARAMETERS OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE OF HAMPI
Fig 7: Achyutaraya temple complex
The spatial organization of these structures provides the
setting for rites that also directly invoke the roles of the
king. The main contributions of the Vijayanagar period
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are the tall massive Gopurams (eleven storeys high). The
temple complex consists of a number of moderately sized
buildings including Mandapas, pillared halls, shrines,
bathing tanks around the central shrine dedicated to the
God, Fig 7(Srivastava A).The shrine of his consort (Amman
shrine), another of this dynasty's contribution is located
behind at the north west. The most important
contribution is the Kalyan Mandapa (open pillared
pavilion with raised platform) on the left of the main
entrance court.
SCULPTURAL DETAILS
Most of the dynasties had definite preference regarding
sculptural themes in sacred and secular buildings. There
is a marked shift in the preferences of the patrons from
martial and courtly scenes to the depiction of
mythological and religious themes. (Dallapiccola A,
2001).
Narrative sculpture: Narrative granite friezes craved in
expressionist style in shallow relief on courtly non-sacred
themes of the royal imagery is seen on the compound
wall of Hazara Rama Temple. The royal theme had rows
occupied by unending parade of elephants, splendid
horses led by grooms, sports and military parades, female
dancers and musicians. In the sixteen centuries, hunting
episodes, rearing of tigers were added and later
developed and transformed into yalis on piers and
columns. Mythological ones had gradually replaced the
royal theme, example Ramayana sculptures craved on
outer walls of Ramachandra Temple in early fifteen
century.
AUTHORITY OF THE TEMPLES
Another way in which regal wealth was displayed was by
making donations to a temple deity. Gifts of money, land,
or income from land were invested by the temple to
provide a continuous source of income. These
monuments like towered gateways (Gopurams),
enclosure walls, Mandapas often recorded their royal
donors in stone inscriptions.
Temples were the largest managers of agricultural land
during the Vijayanagara period (Appadurai 1978). Kings
contributed to the wealth of temples and land by
financing hydraulic works (Such contributions are
recorded in various inscriptions). Large tanks with sluices,
wells, ducts, and canals are found throughout the capital
and its environs; many of these facilities are still in use.
Such hydraulic systems were crucial in maintaining the
large population of the city.
VIRUPAKSHI TEMPLE
The oldest shrine still in active worship within the
Vijayanagara site is consecrated to Shiva as the consort of
NOVEMBER 2014
Pampa. Inscriptions referring to the 9th-10th centuries VITTHALLA TEMPLE
indicate that the temple existed before the foundation of
This is the most artistically accomplished religious
the Vijayanagara capital. The Sangamas transformed the
monument in the sacred centre. Vira Narasimha, the first
shrine into a major religious monument and the Tuluvas
ruler of the Tuluva dynasty, founded it in the first decade
extended it. The hall with piers with delicately carved
of the 16th century with additions made by his
columns and fantastic yalis ridden by warriors reveal the
successors. Krishnadevaraya added the hundred-
shift in sculpture. Krishnadevaraya erected the grand
columned hall built up to the southern enclosure wall,
Gopuram giving a monumental scale dominating the
while two of his queens each added a Gopura. A third
whole context. The broad colonnaded street served as
Gopura was an addition by Achyutaraya. In 1554, during
the main bazaar of Hampi.
the reign of Sadashiva, a magnificent "swing-pavilion"
was added. The temple is laid out in a standard pattern of
the period, with a sanctuary surrounded by a narrow

Fig 11: Plan-VitthalaTemple

Fig 8: Plan-Virupakshi Temple

Fig 12: Yali columns Fig 13: Garuda shrine

Fig 9: Plan-Virupakshi Temple

Fig 10a & 10b: Central court at Virupakshi Temple Fig 14: Cluster of musical colonettes
2014 NOVEMBER JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS www.iia-india.org 06
passageway on three sides, approached from the east
through two Mandapas, the inner one enclosed with side
doorways, the outer one open with access from three
sides. The temple stands in the middle of a paved
courtyard with Gopurams on three sides. The Garuda
shrine designed as a chariot with stone wheels is located
in the front. Subsidiary shrines and altars are aligned to
the east of the courtyard. Beyond the temple compound
runs a colonnaded street called the Vitthala Bazaar.

Table 2: Form making factors in Virupakshi and Vitthala Temple complex

Form Making factors Virupakshi Temple Vitthala Temple

Location of the city and especially of the sacred center along the river in the mountainous range reveal royal
authority.
The temples are located along the south bank of the river Tungabhadra , between these other shrines, icons ,
king's balance and Achyutaraya temple etc are clustered.
This stretch which is highly religious and articulated, forms a heritage path (Kannambadi D. 2004) from Virupakshi
to Vitthala temple.
Contextual Location

The eleven storied Gopuram dominates the The Garuda shrine in the form of chariot with stone
surrounding bazaar and the temple. chariots give monumental scale to the temple complex
courtyard.

Monumentality

Hierarchical composition with Gopurams focal point Symmetrical composition with Garuda shrine as focal
and series of courtyards, shrines, supported by figural point and clusters of musical collonettes of Vithalla
and animal carved columns. shrine display interplay of texture and forms.

Composition

07 www.iia-india.org JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS NOVEMBER 2014

Table 3: Space making factors in Virupakshi and Vitthala Temple complex
Space making factors Virupakshi Temple Vitthala Temple

Exaggerated height of Gopuram, the large scale of the The large courtyard enclosed by narrow passageway on
courtyards produce maximum spatial quality. all sides with three Gopurams, centrally located Vithalla
shrine and Garuda shrine produce rich spatial quality.

Exaggerated
proportions

Hierarchical segmental arrangement along an axis, form Symmetrical balanced organization portrays control
dominant focal space. Dominance is occupied by the and authority accentuated by multiple entrances.
main courtyard acting as a transition between the
outside and the sacred area.

Spaces arrangement/
Dominant space

Single entrance making axial, visual and physical Multiple entrances, leading to bazaar, river and heritage
movement path within segments, express authority path, opening up to the central courtyard create a
and control. powerful enclosure.

Axial entrance

Yalis, columns, coloured paintings on ceilings, cravings The cluster of musical collonettes at the Vithalla shrine ,
on the plinth, beams, brackets etc enrich the spaces. yalis on columns, embellishemnts on the plinth, Garuda
shrine create highly articulated spatial arrangement.

Articulations

Sacred and secular buildings take on a monumental purpose other than the display of royal power (Fritz
expression in stone, accompanied by a richly carved J,1986).
iconography: architecture and sculpture seem to have no
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At the beginning, an overall uniform aesthetic identity of
Vijayanagar is not identified, rather many styles co-
existed. With sixteen century a " Vijayanagar style"
emerged.
From accession of Krishnadeva Raya, when the power of
the empire was at its zenith, there was a conscious effort
to co-ordinate various artistic traditions to create a new
style recognizable by:
 Monumentality of proportions in architectural and
sculptural projects.
 Concern for overall planning
 Layout of ceremonial streets, colonnades and
bazaars
 The building and stucco decorations of Gopurams
 Addition of ceremonial Mandapas, hundred pillared
halls, fully modeled figures and animals supporting
Mandapa roofs etc.
 A new dimension in animal themes; development of
Yalis and horses with armed riders on the piers.
 The portrayal of kings as patrons of religious
establishments.
CONCLUSION
The study identifies that
1. Form symbolise political ideology /authority when
"Form" is in monumental scale, dominating its
surroundings, strategically located and laid in an
organised composition.
2. Spaces express the concept of political ideology
when "Spaces" are in exaggerated proportions,
arranged in segments creating focal points,
organised along a movement and are richly
articulated.
3. Factors that express political authority in the
Virupakshi Temple complex are the monumental
scale and dominance of the Gopuram, hierarchical
segmental arrangement of large scale courtyards
along an axial movement accompanied by artistically
craved surfaces and columns.
4. The exaggerated proportions of the central
courtyard with multiple entrances meeting at the
focal space with the Garuda shrine, the cluster of
musical columns and rich articulated spaces at the
Vithalla Temple portray the Political Ideologies of the
ruling dynasty.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The site visits to Hampi were supported by Karnataka Law
Society's Gogte Institute of Technology. A special thanks
09 www.iia-india.org JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS
to the Head of Department Prof. N.R.Tadkodkar, my
colleagues and III semester students for their help in
conduct of site study to Hampi. I also thank Prof. S.H.Patil
for accompanying me to the site visit. In depth thanks to
English expert my colleague Prof. Tarala Joshi.
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of Foundation of Vijaynagar Empire" Chapter two, Hampi
NOVEMBER 2014
 Discover the Splendours of Vijaynagar, Published by NATIVE WORDS
Niyogi Books, New Dehli, pg 40-43.
Ashramas-Residential areas in temple complex for
Sen Gupta S (2010), "From Zenith to Oblivion History of devotees, priests, etc.
Greatest Years of Vijaynagar Empire" Chapter three,
Hampi Discover the Splendours of Vijaynagar, Published Bazaars-Market streets
by Niyogi Books, New Dehli, pg 73-78 & 98. Dhwaja- Flag posts
Sen Gupta S (2010), "Krishnadeva Raya Profile of the Garuda- Eagle used as vehicle by the Gods.
Greatest Monarch of Vijaynagar Empire" Chapter Four,
Hampi Discover the Splendours of Vijaynagar, Published Gopuram/Gopura-Multi storied gateways of Dravidian
by Niyogi Books, New Dehli, pg 112-113. Temple complexes
Srivastava A, "Master plan - 2021 for Hampi local Kalyan- Marriage ceremony
planning area", available at the official website of Bellary
d i s t r i c t h t t p : / / w w w. b e l l a r y. n i c . i n / h m p / Mandapas-Pillared hall in a temple complex used for
REPORT%20PDFs/ CHAPTER-2.pdf rituals and ceremonies.

Wagoner P (2001), " Architecture and Royal Authority
under the early Sangama" Chapter two, New Light on
Hampi, edited by Fritz J. and Mitchel G. , published by
Marg Publications , Mumbai, pg -14.
Tilotson GHR (1998), "Paradigms of Indian Architecture
Space and Time in representation and Design" ,Published
by Curson Press, pg 14.
Mathas- Monasteries governed by a sage.
Nandi- Holy cow in sitting position, placed at the entrance
of shrines.
Stambhas- Posts erected to commemorate an event, like
light celebrations, victories etc.
Yalis- multi-animal figurate craved on pillars and columns.

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