Science

Spacecraft Dynamics and Control
Two-Body Problem
Muhammad Farooq Haydar
Flight Dynamics and Control Center

Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Institute of Space Technology, Islamabad
October 9, 2019
M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, IST) Spacecraft Dynamics and Control October 9, 2019 1 / 80

Outline
1. Two-Body Problem
2. Constants of Motion
3. Conic Sections
4. Elliptical Orbits
5. Parabolic Trajectories
6. Hyperbolic Trajectories

Outline
1. Two-Body Problem
3. Conic Sections
Two-Body Problem
» At any given instant, the gravitational forces from celestial bodies (Earth,
sun, moon, and the planets) simultaneously influence the motion of a space
vehicle.

Two-Body Problem
vehicle.
» The magnitude of the gravitational force of any celestial body acting on a
satellite with mass m is
GM m
Fgrav = (1)
r2
where M is the mass of the celestial body (Earth, sun, moon, etc.), G is the
universal constant of gravitation, and r is the separation distance between
the gravitational body and the satellite.

Two-Body Problem
vehicle.
GM m
Fgrav = (1)
r2
» (1) is an inverse-square gravity law.

Two-Body Problem
vehicle.
GM m
Fgrav = (1)
r2
» (1) is an inverse-square gravity law.
» The gravitational force acts along the line connecting the centers of the two
masses.

Two-Body Problem
» The Earth attracts the satellite with gravitational force vectorF21 and the
Dynamics
satellite attracts Earth with force F12 .
GMm
F12 = F21 =
r2
F12
F21
Earth, M Satellite, m
r
Figure 2.1 Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
moon, m3
F21
Two-Body Problem
r
» Consider a three-body system (Earth, satellite, moon) with mutual
gravitational forces among all three bodies:
moon, m3
F31
F32
F13
F23
F12
F21
Earth, m1 Satellite, m2
Figure 2.2 Gravitational forces for a three-body system.
F21 and the satellite attracts Earth with force F12. The reader should note that Eq. (2.1
presents the(FlyCon,
M. F. Haydar magnitude
IST) of theSpacecraft
mutually attractive
Dynamics gravitational forces.
and Control October 9, 2019 5 / 80
F21
Two-Body Problem
r
» Consider a three-body system (Earth, satellite, moon) with mutual
gravitational forces among all three bodies:
moon, m3
F31
F32
F13
F23
F12
F21
Earth, m1 Satellite, m2
» Note that Fij =Figure −Fji2.2 Gravitational

. (1) shows that forces
theformagnitudes
a three-bodyare
system.
equal, or
k Fij k=k Fji k.
F21 and the satellite attracts Earth with force F12. The reader should note that Eq. (2.1
presents the(FlyCon,
M. F. Haydar magnitude
IST) of theSpacecraft
mutually attractive
Dynamics gravitational forces.
and Control October 9, 2019 5 / 80
Two-Body Problem
» Applying Newton’s second law to satellite mass m2 for the three-body
problem:
m2 r̈2 = F21 + F23 (2)
where r̈2 is the satellite’s acceleration vector relative to an inertial frame of
reference or a frame that does not accelerate or rotate (over-dot notation to
d2 r
indicate a time derivative, e.g., ṙ = dr
dt and r̈ = dt2 ).

Two-Body Problem
problem:
m2 r̈2 = F21 + F23 (2)
d2 r
dt and r̈ = dt2 ).
» We can extend (2) to an N -body system
N
X
m2 r̈2 = F2j (3)
j6=2,j=1
which is reduced to (2) when N = 3.

Two-Body Problem
problem:
m2 r̈2 = F21 + F23 (2)
d2 r
dt and r̈ = dt2 ).
N
X
m2 r̈2 = F2j (3)
j6=2,j=1

» Integrating (3) yields the satellite’s motion [velocity ṙ2 (t) and position r2 (t)]
in an N -body gravitational field.

Two-Body Problem
problem:
m2 r̈2 = F21 + F23 (2)
d2 r
dt and r̈ = dt2 ).
N
X
m2 r̈2 = F2j (3)
j6=2,j=1

» Integrating (3) yields the satellite’s motion [velocity ṙ2 (t) and position r2 (t)]
in an N -body gravitational field.
» Note that problem is nonlinear due to inverse square gravity; so no analytical
solutions are available =⇒ only numerical integration (Runge-Kutta etc.)

Two-Body Problem
» It is possible to obtain analytical solutions for the satellite’sTwo-Body
motionOrbital
if weMechanics
only
consider two bodies
Z
Earth, M
r
r1
Satellite, m
r2
Inertial frame O
(XYZ)
Y
X
Figure(no
where XYZ is an inertial frame 2.3 rotation
Two-body or
system.
acceleration).
Clearly, Eq. (2.3) is reduced to Eq. (2.2) when N = 3 as in Figure 2.2. Integrating Eq. (2.3)
allows us to obtain the satellite’s motion [velocity r2 t and position r2(t)] in an N-body
Two-Body Problem
» It is possible to obtain analytical solutions for the satellite’sTwo-Body
motionOrbital
if weMechanics
only
consider two bodies
Z
Earth, M
r
r1
Satellite, m
r2
Inertial frame O
(XYZ)
Y
X
Figure(no
where XYZ is an inertial frame 2.3 rotation
Two-body or
system.
acceleration).
» Vectors r1 and r2 are the inertial (absolute) positions of the Earth and
Clearly, Eq.
satellite (2.3) istoreduced
relative to Eq.
the XYZ (2.2) when N = 3 as in Figure 2.2. Integrating Eq. (2.3)
frame.
Two-Body Problem Two-Body Orbital Mechanics 9
Earth, M
r
r1
Satellite, m
r2
Inertial frame O
(XYZ)
Y
X
Figure 2.3 Two-body system.

» The position of the satellite relative to the Earth (using vector addition):
Clearly, Eq. (2.3) is reduced to Eq. (2.2)
r when
= r2N −= 3ras1in Figure 2.2. Integrating Eq. (2.3) (4)
gravitational field. However, we cannot obtain analytical solutions of the general
N-body problem [note that the inverse-square gravity (2.1) is a nonlinear function].
We must employ numerical integration schemes (such as Runge–Kutta methods) to
obtain solutions to the N-body problem.
It is possible, however, to obtain analytical solutions for the satellite’s motion if we only
consider two bodies. These closed-form solutions will provide the basis for our analysis
of space vehicle motion throughout this textbook. Figure 2.3 shows a two-body system
comprising the Earth (mass M) and satellite (mass m). Coordinate system XYZ is an iner-
tial Cartesian frame that does not rotate or accelerate. Vectors r1 and r2 are the inertial
Two-Body Problem Two-Body Orbital Mechanics 9
Earth, M
r
r1
Satellite, m
r2
Inertial frame O
(XYZ)
Y
X
Figure 2.3 Two-body system.

» The position of the satellite relative to the Earth (using vector addition):
Clearly, Eq. (2.3) is reduced to Eq. (2.2)
r when
= r2N −= 3ras1in Figure 2.2. Integrating Eq. (2.3) (4)
» Applying Newton’s
gravitational second law
field. However, to each
we cannot mass
obtain particle:
analytical solutions of the general
N-body problem [note that the inverse-square gravity (2.1) is a nonlinear function].
We must employ numerical integration schemesGM (suchmas Runge–Kutta
r methods) to

obtain solutions to the N-body Earth : Mr̈1 =
problem. (5)
r2 r
It is possible, however, to obtain analytical solutions for the satellite’s motion if we only
consider two bodies. These closed-form solutions will provide the basis
for our analysis
GM m −r
of space vehicle motion Satellite
throughout this textbook.
: mr̈ 2 =
Figure 2.3 shows a two-body system
2
(6)
comprising the Earth (mass M) and satellite (mass m).rCoordinate r system XYZ is an iner-
tial Cartesian frame that does not rotate or accelerate. Vectors r1 and r2 are the inertial
Two-Body Problem
» Adding the equations for earth and satellite:
Mr̈1 + mr̈2 = 0 (7)

Two-Body Problem
Mr̈1 + mr̈2 = 0 (7)
» Integrating:
M ṙ1 + mṙ2 = c1 (8)
we get the velocity of the center of mass of the two-body system, since
M r1 + mr2
rcm = .
M +m

Two-Body Problem
Mr̈1 + mr̈2 = 0 (7)
» Integrating:
M ṙ1 + mṙ2 = c1 (8)
we get the velocity of the center of mass of the two-body system, since
M r1 + mr2
rcm = .
M +m
» This shows that the center of mass is not accelerating.

Two-Body Problem
» Our goal is to develop a governing equation for the satellite’s motion relative
to a single gravitational body M.

Two-Body Problem
» Taking the second time derivative of the relative position vector (4):
r̈ = r̈2 − r̈1 (9)

Two-Body Problem
r̈ = r̈2 − r̈1 (9)
» Now, substitute the absolute acceleration vectors of the Earth and satellite:

GM −r Gm r
r̈ = 2 − 2
r r r r

Two-Body Problem
r̈ = r̈2 − r̈1 (9)

GM −r Gm r
r̈ = 2 − 2
r r r r
» Or,
G(M + m)
r̈ = − r (10)
r3

Two-Body Problem
r̈ = r̈2 − r̈1 (9)

GM −r Gm r
r̈ = 2 − 2
r r r r
» Or,
G(M + m)
r̈ = − r (10)
r3
» Finally, because mass m is negligible we have GM + m ≈ GM .

Two-Body Problem
r̈ = r̈2 − r̈1 (9)

GM −r Gm r
r̈ = 2 − 2
r r r r
» Or,
G(M + m)
r̈ = − r (10)
r3
» Finally, because mass m is negligible we have GM + m ≈ GM .
» Defining the gravitational parameter µ ≡ GM ,
µ
r̈ = − r (11)
r3
we get the two-body equation of motion.
Two-Body Problem
» Solving
µ
r̈ = −r (12)
r3
will yield the position and velocity vectors [r(t)and v(t) = ṙ(t) ] of the
satellite mass m relative to the central gravitational body M .

Two-Body Problem
» Solving
µ
r̈ = −r (12)
r3
Assumptions

Two-Body Problem
» Solving
µ
r̈ = −r (12)
r3
Assumptions
1. The two bodies are spherically symmetric so that they may be considered as
particles or point masses.

Two-Body Problem
» Solving
µ
r̈ = −r (12)
r3
Assumptions
2. The mutually attractive gravitational forces are the only forces acting in the
two-body system.

Two-Body Problem
» Solving
µ
r̈ = −r (12)
r3
Assumptions
two-body system.
3. The mass of the satellite is negligible compared with the mass of the celestial
body.

Two-Body Problem
» Solving
µ
r̈ = −
r (12)
r3
Assumptions
two-body system.
3. The mass of the satellite is negligible compared with the mass of the celestial
body.
3 3
» µearth = 3.986(105 ) km
s2 and µmoon = 4, 903 s2
km

Outline
1. Two-Body Problem
3. Conic Sections
Conservation of Angular Momentum
» Linear momentum of a satellite is simply the product of its mass m and
velocity vector v.

velocity vector v.
» Angular momentum H (or “moment of momentum”) is defined by the
cross-product of position vector r and linear momentum mv
H = r × mv (13)

velocity vector v.
H = r × mv (13)
» The time derivative of angular momentum (for a satellite with constant
mass) is
Ḣ = ṙ × mv + r × mv̇ (14)

velocity vector v.
H = r × mv (13)
mass) is
Ḣ = ṙ × mv + r × mv̇ (14)
» Because ṙ = v, the first cross product is zero, and the term mv is equal to
the force F acting on the satellite.

velocity vector v.
H = r × mv (13)
mass) is
Ḣ = ṙ × mv + r × mv̇ (14)
» So,
Ḣ = r × F (15)

velocity vector v.
H = r × mv (13)
mass) is
Ḣ = ṙ × mv + r × mv̇ (14)
» So,
Ḣ = r × F (15)
» Since the central-body gravitational force is the only force acting on the
satellite. This attractive force is aligned with the position vector r and hence
the cross product r×F is zero.

velocity vector v.
H = r × mv (13)
mass) is
Ḣ = ṙ × mv + r × mv̇ (14)
» So,
Ḣ = r × F (15)
» Since the central-body gravitational force is the only force acting on the
satellite. This attractive force is aligned with the position vector r and hence
the cross product r×F is zero.
» Hence, the satellite’s angular momentum H vector is constant for two-body
motion.
he “specific angular momentum” or angular momentum per unit mass of a satellite in
wo-body orbit is
» The “specific angular momentum” or angular
h = r × v = constant momentum per unit mass of a (2.1
vector
satellite in a two-body orbit is
Position and velocity vectors (r and v) will change as a satellite moves along its orbit bu
he angular momentum h remains v = constant
h = ra×constant vector.
vector. Figure 2.5 shows an arc of
vr = r∙
Angular momentum h =r × v
v
γ
(out of the page)
vθ = rθ
∙ Satellite
Local
r
θ horizon
Reference direction
Orbital
path
M. F. Haydar Figure 2.5 Angular

(FlyCon, IST) momentum
Spacecraft and
Dynamics and flight-path angle, October
Control γ. 9, 2019 13 / 80
he “specific angular momentum” or angular momentum per unit mass of a satellite in
wo-body orbit is
» The “specific angular momentum” or angular
h = r × v = constant momentum per unit mass of a (2.1
vector
satellite in a two-body orbit is
Position and velocity vectors (r and v) will change as a satellite moves along its orbit bu
he angular momentum h remains v = constant
h = ra×constant vector.
vector. Figure 2.5 shows an arc of
» Position and velocity vectors (r and v) will change as a satellite moves along
its orbit but the angular momentum h remains a constant vector.
vr = r∙
Angular momentum h =r × v
v
γ
(out of the page)
vθ = rθ
∙ Satellite
Local
r
θ horizon
Reference direction
Orbital
path
M. F. Haydar Figure 2.5 Angular

(FlyCon, IST) momentum
Spacecraft and
Dynamics and flight-path angle, October
Control γ. 9, 2019 13 / 80
Conservation of Energy
» Taking the dot product of the velocity vector ṙ with both sides of the
two-body equation of motion:
µ
ṙ.r̈ = ṙ. − 3 r (16)
r
µ µ
=⇒ v v̇ = − 3 rṙ = − 2 ṙ (17)
r r

» Taking the dot product of the velocity vector ṙ with both sides of the
two-body equation of motion:
µ
ṙ.r̈ = ṙ. − 3 r (16)
r
µ µ
=⇒ v v̇ = − 3 rṙ = − 2 ṙ (17)
r r
Where we have used:
r.ṙ = rvr = rṙ, (18)

v.v̇ = v v̇. (19)

µ
v v̇ = − ṙ
r2
» Each side of the equation can be written as a time derivative:
2
d v
= v v̇, and dtd µ µ

dt 2 r = − r 2 ṙ.

µ
v v̇ = − ṙ
r2
2
d v

dt 2 r = − r 2 ṙ.
» So we can get:
v2

d d µ
= , (20)
dt 2 dt r
or
d v2

µ
− = 0. (21)
dt 2 r

µ
v v̇ = − ṙ
r2
2
d v

dt 2 r = − r 2 ṙ.
» So we can get:
v2

d d µ
= , (20)
dt 2 dt r
or
d v2

µ
− = 0. (21)
dt 2 r
» Integrating:
v2 µ
ξ= − = constant. (22)
2 r

µ
v v̇ = − ṙ
r2
2
d v

dt 2 r = − r 2 ṙ.
» So we can get:
v2

d d µ
= , (20)
dt 2 dt r
or
d v2

µ
− = 0. (21)
dt 2 r
» Integrating:
v2 µ
2 r
The satellite’s total (specific) energy ξ remains constant along its orbital path.
It can be observed from

v2 µ
2 r
v2
» 2 is the specific kinetic energy.


v2 µ
2 r
v2
» − µr is the specific potential energy (similar to mgh).


v2 µ
2 r
v2
» A satellite’s minimum potential energy (occurring when r is equal to the
radius of the attracting body) is negative and its maximum potential energy
approaches zero as r → ∞.


v2 µ
2 r
v2
» A satellite’s minimum potential energy (occurring when r is equal to the
radius of the attracting body) is negative and its maximum potential energy
approaches zero as r → ∞.
Why does the potential energy of a satellite has negative sign?

Because in order to achieve zero potential energy, we must elevate the satellite
(provide external energy) to the point where gravity becomes zero.

Outline
1. Two-Body Problem
3. Conic Sections
» We have seen that:
angular momentum h is a constant vector.
» both magnitude and direction are fixed.
total energy ξ is constant.
» We now derive the orbital position (solution),
and see how it relates to conic sections.

Trajectory Equation
» Consider:
µ
r̈ = − r,
r3
taking the cross-product with h:
µ
r̈ × h = (h × r) (24)
r3

Trajectory Equation
» Consider:
µ
r̈ = − r,
r3
µ
r̈ × h = (h × r) (24)
r3
» The LHS can be written as:
0
d
(ṙ × h) = r̈ × h + ṙ × ḣ

(25)
dt

Trajectory Equation
» Consider:
µ
r̈ = − r,
r3
µ
r̈ × h = (h × r) (24)
r3
0
d
(ṙ × h) = r̈ × h + ṙ × ḣ

(25)
dt
» The RHS can be expanded using h = r × v:
µ µ
(h × r) = 3 (r × v) × r (26)
r3 r

Trajectory Equation
» Consider:
µ
r̈ = − r,
r3
µ
r̈ × h = (h × r) (24)
r3
0
d
(ṙ × h) = r̈ × h + ṙ × ḣ

(25)
dt
» The RHS can be expanded using h = r × v:
µ µ
(h × r) = 3 (r × v) × r (26)
r3 r
» Using vector triple product:
µ µ
3
(r × v) × r = 3 [v(r.r) − r(r.v)]
r r
µ
= 3 [r2 v − rṙr] (27)
r
µ µṙ
= v− 2r
r r
Trajectory Equation
» The RHS can be expressed as a derivative:

d µ µ µṙ
=⇒ r = ṙ − 2 r.
dt r r r

Trajectory Equation

d µ µ µṙ
=⇒ r = ṙ − 2 r.
dt r r r
» Therefore, the original cross-product, (24), may be expressed in terms of
these two time derivatives:
d d µ
(ṙ × h) = ( r) (28)
dt dt r

Trajectory Equation

d µ µ µṙ
=⇒ r = ṙ − 2 r.
dt r r r
» Therefore, the original cross-product, (24), may be expressed in terms of
these two time derivatives:
d d µ
(ṙ × h) = ( r) (28)
dt dt r
» Integrating:
µ
ṙ × h = r+C (29)
r
where C is a constant vector.

Trajectory Equation
» Now, let us take the dot product with r:

µ
r.(ṙ × h) = r.r + r.C (30)
r

Trajectory Equation

µ
r.(ṙ × h) = r.r + r.C (30)
r
» For a scalar triple product, we have r.(ṙ × h) = (r × ṙ)h, or h.h = h2 , hence:
h2 = µr + rCcosθ (31)

Trajectory Equation

µ
r.(ṙ × h) = r.r + r.C (30)
r
» For a scalar triple product, we have r.(ṙ × h) = (r × ṙ)h, or h.h = h2 , hence:
h2 = µr + rCcosθ (31)
» Finally:
h2 C
= r(1 + cosθ), (32)
µ µ
and
h2 /µ
r= . (33)
1+ C
µ cosθ

Trajectory Equation
» The equation:
h2 /µ
r= (34)
1+ C
µ cosθ
is the equation of a conic section (in polar coordinates) with the origin at a
focus.

Trajectory Equation
» The equation:
h2 /µ
r= (34)
1+ C
µ cosθ
focus.
» Comparing with the standard form:
p
r= , (35)
1 + ecosθ

Trajectory Equation
» The equation:
h2 /µ
r= (34)
1+ C
µ cosθ
focus.
p
r= , (35)
1 + ecosθ
h2 /µ: the parameter p (or semilatus rectum), and

Trajectory Equation
» The equation:
h2 /µ
r= (34)
1+ C
µ cosθ
focus.
p
r= , (35)
1 + ecosθ

C/µ: the eccentricity e.

Trajectory Equation
» The equation:
h2 /µ
r= (34)
1+ C
µ cosθ
focus.
p
r= , (35)
1 + ecosθ

» (34) or (35) is known as the trajectory equation and it relates position r to
polar angle θ.

Trajectory Equation
» The equation:
h2 /µ
r= (34)
1+ C
µ cosθ
focus.
p
r= , (35)
1 + ecosθ

» (34) or (35) is known as the trajectory equation and it relates position r to
polar angle θ.
» This proves Kepler’s first law.

ics have two foci (labeled F1 and F2) where the gravitational body is located at the primary
focus F1 and F2 is the secondary or “vacant focus.” The foci lie on the major axis (the
Conic Sections
» A conic section is the curve that results from the intersection of a right
circular cone and a plane.
Circle Hyperbola
Parabola
Ellipse
» There are three

(a) possible conic sections:
(b) (c)
1. Ellipse: a closed curve that results from a cutting plane that intersects only
Figure 2.6 Conic sections: (a) ellipse and circle; (b) parabola; and (c) hyperbola.
one cone. The circle is a special case of an ellipse where the cutting plane is
parallel to the base of the cone.
2. Parabola: an open curve that is produced when the cutting plane is parallel to
the edge of the cone
3. Hyperbola: an open curve that is produced when the cutting plane intersects
both cones; hence it consists of two branches.
h2 1
a¼ Eqn ð2:103Þ
m e2 $ 1
Conic Sections pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
D ¼ a e2 $ 1 Eqn ð2:107Þ
» All conics have two foci (F1 and F2v);
2
$the
m
¼ gravitational
m
Eqn ð2:111Þ body is located at the
2 r 2a
primary focus F1 and F2 is the secondary or “vacant focus.”
1.1 1.3
e = 1.0 1.5
2.5
0.9 0.85 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.3 0 P

F
» The dimension
FIGURE 2.27
a is called the semi-major axis. For an ellipse a is half of the
Orbits of various eccentricities, having a common focus F and periapsis P.
length of the major axis and b is half the length of the minor axis.
» The distance between the tow foci is taken to as 2c, and eccentricity is
defined as: e = ac .
Conic Sections
» The parameter p is the perpendicular distance from the gravitational body to

the conic section.

Conic Sections

the conic section.
» Parameter p is a positive, finite distance for all three conics sections:
b2
p= .
a

Conic Sections

the conic section.
» Parameter p is a positive, finite distance for all three conics sections:
b2
p= .
a
» For orbits/trajectories, p is related to the angular momentum:
h2
p= .
µ

Two-Body Orbital Mechanics 1
Conic Sections
Minor axis
Satellite
a r
b θ p
Major axis
Periapsis
F2 c F1
2c
2a
(a)
» The radial distance from a focus to the minor-axis crossing is equal to a,
using b2 + c2 = a2 , c = ae: Satellite
p
b/a = 1 − e2
= ∞ − e2 ) (for ellipse
=⇒ p =aa(1 r and hyperbola)
c =∞
M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, IST) θ
Spacecraft Dynamics and Control p October 9, 2019 25 / 80
2a
Conic Sections: Parabola
)
Satellite
a =∞ r
c =∞
θ p
Periapsis
F1

(b)
Conic Sections: Hyperbola
–2a
p –c b
Periapsis –a
F1 F2
–2c
(c)
» The distnaces a and c are taken (by convention) negative for the hyperbola.
2.7 Geometrical characteristics of conic sections: (a) ellipse; (b) parabola; and (c) hype
(b)
Conic Sections: Hyperbola
–2a
p –c b
Periapsis –a
F1 F2
–2c
(c)
» The distnaces a and c are taken (by convention) negative for the hyperbola.
2.7 Geometrical
e > 1characteristics
because −2c is of conicthan
greater sections:
−2a. (a) ellipse; (b) parabola; and (c) hype
Conic Sections
» At periapsis we have the true anomaly θ = 0° and the trajectory equation

yields:
p
rp = (36)
1+e
= a(1 − e) (37)

Conic Sections
» At periapsis we have the true anomaly θ = 0° and the trajectory equation

yields:
p
rp = (36)
1+e
= a(1 − e) (37)
» At apoapsis we have θ = 180◦ :

p
ra = (38)
1−e
= a(1 + e) (39)

Eccentricity Vector
» While deriving trajectory equation we defined the polar angle θ as the angle
between constant vector C and position vector r.

Eccentricity Vector
» Hence, vector C points in the periapsis direction.

Eccentricity Vector
» From trajectory equation we get e = C/µ. Therefore eccentricity vector
e = C/µ also points in the direction of periapsis.

Eccentricity Vector
» Solving (30) for constant vector C:
µ
C = ṙ × h − r
r
µ
C = v × (r × v) − r
r

Eccentricity Vector
µ
C = ṙ × h − r
r
µ
C = v × (r × v) − r
r
µ
C = [r(v.v) − v(v.r)] − r (40)
r

Eccentricity Vector
µ
C = ṙ × h − r
r
µ
C = v × (r × v) − r
r
µ
C = [r(v.v) − v(v.r)] − r (40)
r
» Using v.v = v 2 and dividing the equation by µ:
1 h 2 µ i
e= v − r − (r.v)v (41)
µ r

Eccentricity Vector
1 h 2 µ i
e= v − r − (r.v)v (42)
µ r
» The magnitude of the eccentricity vector is the eccentricity of the orbit, or

e =k e k.

Eccentricity Vector
1 h 2 µ i
e= v − r − (r.v)v (42)
µ r

e =k e k.
» The eccentricity vector e and the angular momentum vector h define the
orbit’s orientation in three-dimensional space.

Eccentricity Vector
1 h 2 µ i
e= v − r − (r.v)v (42)
µ r

e =k e k.
» Both e and h are computed from the satellite’s position and velocity vectors
r and v.

Eccentricity Vector
1 h 2 µ i
e= v − r − (r.v)v (42)
µ r

e =k e k.
» Both e and h are computed from the satellite’s position and velocity vectors
r and v.
» Although vectors r and v change as the body moves in the orbit, e and h
remain fixed in space.

Energy and Semimajor Axis
» We have already shown that total energy ξ consists of kinetic energy T and
potential energy V and that this sum (T + V ) remains constant along the
orbital path.

orbital path.
» It is useful to develop an expression that relates total energy to a geometric
property of the conic section:
vp2 µ
ξ= − (43)
2 rp

orbital path.
vp2 µ
ξ= − (43)
2 rp
» At the periapsis:
h = rp vp (44)
note that flight path angle γ is zero at periapsis and apoapsis because the
radial velocity component r is zero as the satellite passes through its
minimum (or maximum) radial position.

orbital path.
vp2 µ
ξ= − (43)
2 rp
» At the periapsis:
h = rp vp (44)
note that flight path angle γ is zero at periapsis and apoapsis because the
radial velocity component r is zero as the satellite passes through its
minimum (or maximum) radial position.
» Using p = h2 /µ and p = a(1 − e2 ):
h2 µp µa(1 − e2 )
=⇒ vp2 = = = (45)
rp2 rp2 rp2

» Using vp to calculate total energy ξ:
h2 µp µa(1 − e2 )
vp2 = 2
= 2 =
rp rp rp2
vp2 µ µa(1 − e2 ) µ µa(1 − e2 ) − 2µrp

=⇒ ξ = − = − =
2 rp 2rp2 rp 2rp2

h2 µp µa(1 − e2 )
vp2 = 2
= 2 =
rp rp rp2
vp2 µ µa(1 − e2 ) µ µa(1 − e2 ) − 2µrp

=⇒ ξ = − = − =
2 rp 2rp2 rp 2rp2
» Substituting rp = a(1 − e)
µa(1 − e2 ) − 2µa(1 − e)
ξ=
2a2 (1 − e2 )

h2 µp µa(1 − e2 )
vp2 = 2
= 2 =
rp rp rp2
vp2 µ µa(1 − e2 ) µ µa(1 − e2 ) − 2µrp

=⇒ ξ = − = − =
2 rp 2rp2 rp 2rp2
µa(1 − e2 ) − 2µa(1 − e)
ξ=
2a2 (1 − e2 )
» Finally we can get:

µ
ξ=− (46)
2a

h2 µp µa(1 − e2 )
vp2 = 2
= 2 =
rp rp rp2
vp2 µ µa(1 − e2 ) µ µa(1 − e2 ) − 2µrp

=⇒ ξ = − = − =
2 rp 2rp2 rp 2rp2
µa(1 − e2 ) − 2µa(1 − e)
ξ=
2a2 (1 − e2 )
» Finally we can get:

µ
ξ=− (46)
2a
The total energy ξ is solely a function of the semimajor axis a.

e Flight Dynamics
Table
» Some very2.1 Orbital characteristics.
important conclusions may be drawn:
Orbit Semimajor axis Eccentricity Energy
Circle a>0 e=0 ξ<0

Ellipse a>0 0≤e<1 ξ<0
Parabola a= ∞ e=1 ξ=0
Hyperbola a<0 e>1 ξ>0
1. because a > 0 for an elliptical orbit, its total energy is negative;

ation (2.62) can be reduced to the very simple relationship
2. because a = ∞ for a parabolic orbit, its total energy is zero;
3. because a < 0 for a hyperbolic orbit,
μ
ξ =its
− total energy is positive.
2a
quation (2.63) shows that total energy is solely a function of the semimajo
me very
M. F.important
Haydar (FlyCon, conclusions
IST) mayDynamics
Spacecraft be drawn
and Controlfrom Eq. (2.63):
October (1) because
9, 2019 33 / 80
eccentricity of exactly one, and zero energy. In this textbook we will tend to refer to cir-
cles and ellipses as orbits (closed paths) and parabolas and hyperbolas as trajectories. As a
Example final summary of this section, we should note that the expressions for the conservation of
momentum [Eqs. (2.18) and (2.22)], conservation of energy [Eqs. (2.29) and (2.63)], and
the trajectory equation (2.45) are valid for all conic sections.
Example 2.1 A tracking station determines v

A tracking that
station determinessatellite
an Earth-orbiting that an is at an altitude
Earth-orbiting satellite
of 2,124 km withis atananinertial
altitude of 2,
velocity of124
7.58
km with ankm/sinertial velocity of
and flight-path angle
7.58of km/s and 2.8;
20 (Figure γ = 20ο
flight-path not to scale).
angle Determine (a) total specific energy,
of 20°.
(b) angular momentum, (c) eccentricity, and
Determine Satellite
also the type of orbit (conic section) (Exam- r
1. total specific
ple 2.1). energy,
2,124 km
2. angular
a) momentum,
Total energy can be computed using
Eq. (2.29) Horizon
3. eccentricity, and also the type of orbit (conic
section). v2 μ
ξ=
−
2 r
with the given inertial velocity v = Figure 2.8 Earth-orbiting satellite
7.58 km/s and radius r = 2,124 km + RE (Example 2.1).

Example
» Total energy can be computed using equation
v2 µ
ξ= −
2 r
with given inertial velocity v = 7.58 km/s and radius r = 2124km + RE . We
use RE = 6378 km and µE = 3.986(105 )km3 /s2 .

Example
v2 µ
ξ= −
2 r
» r = 2124km + RE = 8502km

Example
v2 µ
ξ= −
2 r
» r = 2124km + RE = 8502km
» So
(7.58)2 3.98(105 )
ξ= − = −18.154km2 /s2
2 8502

Example
v2 µ
ξ= −
2 r
» r = 2124km + RE = 8502km
» So
(7.58)2 3.98(105 )
ξ= − = −18.154km2 /s2
2 8502
» Because energy is negative we know that the satellite is following a closed
orbit.

Example
» Angular momentum:
h = rvcosγ = (8502)(7.58)cos(20o ) = 60, 558.64km2 /s

Example
h = rvcosγ = (8502)(7.58)cos(20o ) = 60, 558.64km2 /s
» Eccentricity:
p = a(1 − e2 )
p
=⇒ e = 1 − p/a
but we need p and a.

Example
h = rvcosγ = (8502)(7.58)cos(20o ) = 60, 558.64km2 /s
» Eccentricity:
p = a(1 − e2 )
p
=⇒ e = 1 − p/a
» To find the semimajor axis:
µ
ξ=−
2a
and
µ
a=− = 10977.76km.
2ξ

Example
h = rvcosγ = (8502)(7.58)cos(20o ) = 60, 558.64km2 /s
» Eccentricity:
p = a(1 − e2 )
p
=⇒ e = 1 − p/a
µ
ξ=−
2a
and
µ
a=− = 10977.76km.
2ξ
» The parameter p:
p = h2 /µ = 9200.57km

Example
h = rvcosγ = (8502)(7.58)cos(20o ) = 60, 558.64km2 /s
» Eccentricity:
p = a(1 − e2 )
p
=⇒ e = 1 − p/a
µ
ξ=−
2a
and
µ
a=− = 10977.76km.
2ξ
» The parameter p:
p = h2 /µ = 9200.57km
» Finally it is an ellipse because:
p
e= 1 − p/a = 0.4024.

Questions
» Why orbits are conic sections?

Questions

» What defines the size and shape of the orbit?

Questions

» How to change orbit size and shape?

Questions

» How to change orbit size and shape?
» How to design the size and shape of an orbit?

Outline
1. Two-Body Problem
3. Conic Sections
Elliptical Orbit
Local
v Satellite horizon
γ
r
θ
Apogee Perigee
ra rp
Earth
Figure 2.9 Elliptical orbit about the Earth.

» It can be observed:
ra + rp ra − rp
a= , e=
2 ra + rp

v. Flight-path angle γ is always between –90 and +90 and it is zero when the satellite is
Elliptical Orbit
at perigee or apogee. When a satellite is traveling from periapsis to apoapsis (as shown in
Figure 2.9), its true anomaly is between zero and 180 and its flight-path angle is positive.
» We measure flight-path angle from the local horizon (perpendicular to the
radius vector r) to the velocity vector v.
Local
v Satellite horizon
γ
r
θ
Apogee Perigee
ra rp
Earth

Elliptical Orbit
Local
v Satellite horizon
γ
r
θ
Apogee Perigee
ra rp
Earth
» Flight-path angle γ is always between

Figure 2.9 Elliptical –90° and the
orbit about Earth.and it is 0° at perigee or
+90°
apogee.

Elliptical Orbit
Local
v Satellite horizon
γ
r
θ
Apogee Perigee
ra rp
Earth

+90°
apogee.
» When a satellite is traveling from periapsis to apoapsis, its true anomaly is
between 0° and 180° and its flight-path angle is positive.

Elliptical Orbit
Local
v Satellite horizon
γ
r
θ
Apogee Perigee
ra rp
Earth

+90°
apogee.
» When a satellite is traveling from periapsis to apoapsis, its true anomaly is
between 0° and 180° and its flight-path angle is positive.
» Conversely, flight-path angle is negative when a satellite approaches periapsis
(i.e., 180° < θ < 360° ).
om the center of the gravitational body and not altitudes above the surface of
l body.
Elliptical Orbit
ht-Path Angle and Velocity Components
lso shows the satellite’s flight-path angle, γ. Recall that we measure flight-path
the local horizon (perpendicular to the radius vector r) to the velocity vector
th angle γ is always between –90 and +90 and it is zero when the satellite is » We can calculate γ (with proper sign) from:
or apogee. When a satellite is traveling from periapsis to apoapsis (as shown in
its true anomaly is between zero and 180 and its flight-path angle is positive.
vr
tan γ = .
vθ
Local
v Satellite horizon
γ
r
θ
Apogee Perigee
ra rp
Earth

l body.
Elliptical Orbit
vr
tan γ = .
vθ
Local
v Satellite horizon
γ » The radial velocity is:

r
θ
dr dθ pe sin θ dθ
vr = ṙ = =
Apogee Perigee
dθ dt (1 + e cos θ)2 dt
ra rp
Earth

l body.
Elliptical Orbit
vr
tan γ = .
vθ
Local
v Satellite horizon
γ » The radial velocity is:

r
θ
dr dθ pe sin θ dθ
vr = ṙ = =
Apogee Perigee
dθ dt (1 + e cos θ)2 dt
ra rp
Earth
where
dθ h h(1 + e cos θ)2
= 2 =
Figure 2.9 Elliptical orbit about the Earth. dt r p2

he orbit is nearly circular. The reader must remember that rp and ra are radial
l body.
Elliptical Orbit
» We get
th angle γ is always between –90 and +90 and it is zero when the satellite is
µ
vr = esinθ,
h
and
Local
v Satellite horizon
h h(1 + ecosθ)
γ vθ = rθ̇ = = ,
r r p
θ µ(1 + ecosθ)
vθ = .
Apogee
ra rp
Perigee h
Earth

he orbit is nearly circular. The reader must remember that rp and ra are radial
l body.
Elliptical Orbit
» We get
th angle γ is always between –90 and +90 and it is zero when the satellite is
µ
vr = esinθ,
h
and
Local
v Satellite horizon
h h(1 + ecosθ)
γ vθ = rθ̇ = = ,
r r p
θ µ(1 + ecosθ)
vθ = .
Apogee
ra rp
Perigee h
Earth
» So:
e sin θ
tan γ =
1 + e cos θ
gives the flight-path angle γ in the correct
range −90° < γ < 90°.

Elliptical Orbit
» The angular momentum:

h = rp vp = ra va
is constant for the orbit. So,

Elliptical Orbit

h = rp vp = ra va
at apoapsis: distance is maximum and velocity is minimum;

Elliptical Orbit

h = rp vp = ra va
at apoapsis: distance is maximum and velocity is minimum;
at periapsis: distance is minimum and velocity is maximum.

26 Elliptical Orbit
Space Flight Dynamics
Table 2.2 True anomaly and flight-path angle values on an elliptical orbit.
Orbital position True anomaly Flight-path angle Dot product
Periapsis θ=0 γ=0 r v=0

Approaching apoapsis 0ο < θ < 180ο γ>0 r v>0
Apoapsis θ = 180ο γ=0 r v=0
ο ο
Approaching periapsis 180 < θ < 360 γ<0 r v<0
the transverse
» True velocity
anomaly is a vkey
θ (i.e., the velocity
element component
because perpendicular
it determines whethertothe
r). γHence,
is the
angular momentum
positive at periapsis and apoapsis is
or negative.
h = rp vp = ra va (2.73)
where vp and va are the velocities at periapsis and apoapsis, respectively. Because h is
constant and periapsis rp is the minimum radius, the satellite’s maximum velocity is
at periapsis. Conversely, the satellite’s slowest velocity occurs when it is at apoapsis or
the farthest position in its orbit.
Table 2.2 summarizes the values (or range of values) for true anomaly and flight-path
angle for positions
M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, within
IST) an elliptical orbit.
Spacecraft True
Dynamics andanomaly
Control θ is a key element
October because
9, 2019 it43is/ 80
26 Elliptical Orbit

ο ο
the transverse
» True velocity
anomaly is a vkey
element component
r). γHence,
is the
angular momentum
or negative.
» If r · v is positive, it means that
h =radial
rp vp = velocity
ra va is positive (distance is (2.73)
increasing in going towards apoaspsis).
angle for positions
Spacecraft True
Dynamics andanomaly
October because
9, 2019 it43is/ 80
26 Elliptical Orbit

ο ο
the transverse
» True velocity
anomaly is a vkey
element component
r). γHence,
is the
angular momentum
or negative.
» If r · v is positive, it means that
h =radial
rp vp = velocity
ra va is positive (distance is (2.73)
increasing in going towards apoaspsis).
» If r · v is negative, it means that radial velocity is negative (distance is
decreasing in going towards periaspsis).
angle for positions
Spacecraft True
Dynamics andanomaly
October because
9, 2019 it43is/ 80
Elliptical Orbit: Summary of the Orbital Relationships
» Semimajor axis a determines total energy (for all conic sections).


» Parameter p determines the angular momentum magnitude h (for all conic
sections).


sections).
» The three geometric characteristics (a, e, and p) are not independent.
Knowledge of two characteristics can be used to determine the missing
element. From a, e, and p we can determine total energy, angular
momentum, and periapsis radius (for all conic sections).


sections).
» Given any two of the three geometric characteristics (a, e, and p) and true
anomaly θ, we can determine radius r using the trajectory equation. Velocity
magnitude v can be determined from the total energy. Flight-path angle γ
can be determined from angular momentum (for all conic sections).


sections).
» Given any two of the three geometric characteristics (a, e, and p) and true
anomaly θ, we can determine radius r using the trajectory equation. Velocity
magnitude v can be determined from the total energy. Flight-path angle γ
can be determined from angular momentum (for all conic sections).
» Position and velocity vectors (r, v) determine every orbital constant and the
satellite’s position in the orbit. Note that we calculate true anomaly using the
trajectory equation where the proper quadrant for θ is determined by
checking the sign of the r · v (for all conic sections).

Elliptical Orbit: Example (2.2)
An Earth-orbiting satellite has semimajor axis a = 7, 758 km and parameter
p = 7, 634 km.
Determine:
1. orbital energy,
2. angular momentum, and
3. whether or not the satellite will pass through the Earth’s appreciable
atmosphere (i.e., altitude less than 122 km).

p = 7, 634 km.
Determine:
1. orbital energy,
» We find the total energy using µ = 3.986(105 )km3 /s2
µ
ξ=− = –25.6896km2 /s2 .
2a
The energy is negative because the satellite is following an elliptical orbit

p = 7, 634 km.
Determine:
1. orbital energy,
» We find the total energy using µ = 3.986(105 )km3 /s2
µ
ξ=− = –25.6896km2 /s2 .
2a
The energy is negative because the satellite is following an elliptical orbit
» Now, the angular momentum:
√
h= µp = 55162.6km2 /s

» Perigee radius: r
p
e= 1 − = 0.1264
a
p
rp = = 6777.2km
1+e

» Perigee radius: r
p
e= 1 − = 0.1264
a
p
rp = = 6777.2km
1+e
» Perigee altitude rp − RE = 6777.2 − 6378 = 399.2km which is greater than
122 km. Therefore, this satellite will not pass through the Earth’s appreciable
atmosphere.

Elliptical Orbit: Quiz
» Formula sheet is allowed.

1 handwrittent A4 sheet.
no text/figure etc, only formulae.

1
dA = r rdθ (2.74)
Elliptical Orbit: Period 2
» Recall Kepler’s second law.
dA
dθ
. Satellite
θ=
h
r2 r
Figure 2.12 Differential area dA swept out by the radius vector.

1
dA = r rdθ (2.74)
dA
dθ
. Satellite
θ=
h
r2 r
» We have not Figure

yet considered the period
2.12 Differential of anout
area dA swept ellipse,
by theor the vector.
radius time required for
one orbital revolution.

1
dA = r rdθ (2.74)
dA
dθ
. Satellite
θ=
h
r2 r

» The figure hows the differential area dA that is “swept” by the radius vector
as the satellite moves counter-clockwise in its orbit.

1
dA = r rdθ (2.74)
dA
dθ
. Satellite
θ=
h
r2 r

» The figure hows the differential area dA that is “swept” by the radius vector
as the satellite moves counter-clockwise in its orbit.
» The differential area swept by r through differential angle dθ is:
1
dA = r (rdθ)
2
Elliptical Orbit: Period
» Considering:
1
dA = r (rdθ)
2
and dividing both sides by differential time dt:
dA 1 dθ
= r2
dt 2 dt

» Considering:
1
dA =
r (rdθ)
2
dA 1 dθ
= r2
dt 2 dt
» We know from the angular momentum equation that the angular rate is
θ̇ = rh2 and therefore:
dA 1
= h
dt 2

» Considering:
1
dA =
r (rdθ)
2
dA 1 dθ
= r2
dt 2 dt
dA 1
= h
dt 2
» Because h is a constant, the time rate of area dA/dt swept by the radius
vector is constant.

» Considering:
1
dA =
r (rdθ)
2
dA 1 dθ
= r2
dt 2 dt
dA 1
= h
dt 2
vector is constant.
» Hence, Kepler’s second law is proved: “equal areas are swept out by the
radius vector in equal times.”
1
dA = hdt
2

» Considering:
1
dA = r (rdθ)
2
dA 1 dθ
= r2
dt 2 dt
dA 1
= h
dt 2
vector is constant.
» Hence, Kepler’s second law is proved: “equal areas are swept out by the
radius vector in equal times.”
1
dA = hdt
2
» Or,
2
dt = dA
h
» Integrating both sides of:
2
dt =dA (47)
h
over one orbital revolution yields (πab is the area of an ellipse):
2
Tperiod = (πab) .
h

2
dt =dA (47)
h
2
Tperiod = (πab) .
h
√ √
» Using ab = a2 1 − e2 and h = µp:
2π p
Tperiod = √ a2 1 − e2 .
µp

2
dt =dA (47)
h
2
Tperiod = (πab) .
h
√ √
» Using ab = a2 1 − e2 and h = µp:
2π p
Tperiod = √ a2 1 − e2 .
µp
» Since p2 = a(1 − e2 ), we get:

2π
Tperiod = √ a3/2
µ

» The period of an elliptical orbit:

2π
Tperiod = √ a3/2 .
µ


2π
µ
» Period of an elliptical orbit only depends on the semi-major axis a.


2π
µ
» Period of an elliptical orbit only depends on the semi-major axis a.

» Squaring both sides we prove Kepler’s third law: “the square of the period is
proportional to the cube of the mean distance”.

Circular Orbit
» A circular orbit is a special case of an ellipse where eccentricity is zero.

Circular Orbit

» All of the orbital relationships hold for circular orbits but with the condition
that radius is constant and equal to the semimajor axis and parameter (i.e.,
r = a = p).

Circular Orbit

r = a = p).
» Because periapsis is undefined for a circular orbit, we must measure the
satellite’s angular position relative to a fixed axis in the orbital plane.

Circular Orbit

r = a = p).
» We can determine a simple expression for circular velocity from the energy
equations a = r:
v2 µ µ µ
ξ= c − =− =− (48)
2 r 2a 2r

Circular Orbit

r = a = p).
» We can determine a simple expression for circular velocity from the energy
equations a = r:
v2 µ µ µ
ξ= c − =− =− (48)
2 r 2a 2r
» Solving for vc : r
µ
vc = (49)
r
it is the constant velocity of a satellite in a circular orbit with radius r.

Circular Orbit
» We can also derive the circular velocity from the balance between the
centrifugal force and gravitational force:
vc2 µ
m = mg = m 2
r r

Circular Orbit
vc2 µ
m = mg = m 2
r r
» Canceling the satellite mass m in the above equation and solving for circular
velocity, we obtain: r
µ 2πr
vc = =
r Tperiod
which verifies the result.

Circular Orbit
vc2 µ
m = mg = m 2
r r
µ 2πr
vc = =
r Tperiod
» We can determine the period of a circular orbit by equating the constant
circular velocity to the distance traveled over one orbit (the circumference,
2πr) divided by the period.

Circular Orbit
vc2 µ
m = mg = m 2
r r
µ 2πr
vc = =
r Tperiod
» We can determine the period of a circular orbit by equating the constant
circular velocity to the distance traveled over one orbit (the circumference,
2πr) divided by the period.
» Solving the period yields:
2π
Tperiod = √ r3/2
µ

Geocentric Orbits
» A low-Earth orbit (LEO) is a circular orbit with an altitude up to roughly
1, 000 km.

Geocentric Orbits
1, 000 km.
» The lower bound on LEO altitude is determined by interaction with the upper
atmosphere (and the subsequent aerodynamic drag) and the intended lifetime
of the satellite.

Geocentric Orbits
1, 000 km.
of the satellite.
» The Apollo lunar missions began by injecting the upper stage of the Saturn V
rocket into a 190 km altitude circular parking orbit. After the ground
controllers verified that the spacecraft systems were operating as intended
the upper stage was reignited to send the astronauts on a translunar orbit to
the moon.

Geocentric Orbits
1, 000 km.
of the satellite.
the moon.
» Even at an altitude of 190 km, a satellite experiences enough aerodynamic
drag such that it would lose energy over several days and eventually enter the
dense atmosphere and be destroyed by aerodynamic heating.

Geocentric Orbits
1, 000 km.
of the satellite.
the moon.
» Therefore, a parking orbit is a temporary, intermediate orbit and not a final
destination.

Geocentric Orbits
1, 000 km.
of the satellite.
the moon.
» Therefore, a parking orbit is a temporary, intermediate orbit and not a final
destination.
» Interplanetary spacecraft (such as the Mars Science Laboratory) are inserted
into parking orbits before an upper rocket stage is fired to send the
spacecraft on a trajectory to its planetary target.
Geocentric Orbits
» Orbiting science platforms, such as the International Space Station (ISS) and
the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), occupy LEOs.

Geocentric Orbits
» For example, the ISS and HST are in nearly circular LEOs with altitudes of
about 410 and 540 km, respectively.

Geocentric Orbits
» The US Space Shuttle achieved circular LEO with altitudes ranging from
roughly 300 to 500 km and was used to construct and service the ISS.

Geocentric Orbits
» For a typical Shuttle orbit with an altitude of 320 km (i.e., r = 6, 698 km),
the circular velocity is vc = 7.714 km/s and its orbital period is about 91 min.

Geocentric Orbits
» A medium-Earth orbit (MEO) has an altitude ranging from roughly 1, 000 to
35, 000 km.

Geocentric Orbits
35, 000 km.
» Navigation and communication satellites are often placed in MEO.

Geocentric Orbits
35, 000 km.
» Navigation and communication satellites are often placed in MEO.
» One example is the Global Positioning System (GPS), which consists of a
constellation of satellites in circular orbits at an altitude of 20, 180 km
(r = 26, 558 km). Hence, a GPS satellite has a circular orbital velocity of
3.874 km/s and a period of 12 h.

Geocentric Orbits
» A geostationary-equatorial orbit (GEO) is a circular orbit with angular
velocity that matches the Earth’s rotation rate about its axis.

Geocentric Orbits
» Because the Earth completes one revolution in one sidereal day (23 h, 56
min, and 4 s) the circular radius required for GEO is
√
TGEO µ 2/3

rGEO = (50)
2π
where the GEO period is TGEO = 86, 164s (or 23.934h).

Geocentric Orbits
√
TGEO µ 2/3

rGEO = (50)
2π

» GEO radius must berGEO = 42, 164km (or an altitude of 35, 786km above
the Earth). The orbital plane of a GEO satellite is coincident with the Earth’s
equatorial plane so that it remains motionless (or stationary) to a
ground-based observer and appears to “hover” overhead a particular
geographic point on the equator.

Geocentric Orbits
√
TGEO µ 2/3

rGEO = (50)
2π

» Communication and weather satellites are placed in GEO because they are
always visible from a ground-based station and can always monitor the same
geographic region.

Geocentric Orbits
√
TGEO µ 2/3

rGEO = (50)
2π

» Communication and weather satellites are placed in GEO because they are
always visible from a ground-based station and can always monitor the same
geographic region.
» We can calculate that the circular orbital velocity for GEO is 3.075km/s.
Geocentric Orbits
» A sidereal day (23.934 h) is the time required for the Earth to complete one
revolution relative to an inertial frame.

Geocentric Orbits
» Hence, the inertial spin rate of the Earth is one revolution per sidereal day or
ωE = 7.292(10−5 )rad/s.

Geocentric Orbits
ωE = 7.292(10−5 )rad/s.
» Therefore, a GEO satellite’s rotation rate must be θ̇ = vGEO
rGEO = ωE in order
to match the Earth’s rotation.

Geocentric Orbits
ωE = 7.292(10−5 )rad/s.
» Therefore, a GEO satellite’s rotation rate must be θ̇ = vrGEO
GEO
= ωE in order
» A solar day is the time required for the sun to reappear directly over the same
meridian (line of longitude). In other words, a solar day (24 h) is the period
between 12 o’clock noon on one day and 12 o’clock noon on the next day.

Geocentric Orbits
ωE = 7.292(10−5 )rad/s.
GEO
= ωE in order
» Because we measure the 24 h solar day relative to the sun (and the Earth is
moving in its orbit about the sun), the Earth actually completes more than
one revolution in 24 h when the sun reappears directly overhead at noon.

Geocentric Orbits
ωE = 7.292(10−5 )rad/s.
GEO
= ωE in order
» Because we measure the 24 h solar day relative to the sun (and the Earth is
moving in its orbit about the sun), the Earth actually completes more than
one revolution in 24 h when the sun reappears directly overhead at noon.
» How do we get seasons?

Geocentric Orbits
» The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) system is a

collection of GEO satellites used by the National Weather Service for weather
monitoring and forecasting.

Geocentric Orbits

» The GOES system was established with the launch of GOES-1 in 1975.

Geocentric Orbits

» The GOES system was established with the launch of GOES-1 in 1975.
» At the time of writing, GOES-13 (or GOES-East) is positioned at a longitude
of 75o W (New York City is at 74o W ) and GOES-15 (GOES-West) is located
at 135o W (Honolulu, Hawaii is at 157.5o W ). Of course, the GOES satellites
“hover” over the equator at their respective longitudes. At GEO altitude each
GOES satellite can view about 42% of the Earth’s surface where the total
viewing area is centered on its fixed longitude.

e = 0 7411
i = 63 4
Ω = 50
Geocentric Orbits ω = − 90
θ0 = 180
Figure 3.5 shows a Molniya orbit with these orbital elements. The orbital elements a and
e tell us that the Molniya orbit is a “long and skinny” ellipse (we can compute the perigee
» Russia uses the so-called Molniya orbit for its communication satellites.
and apogee radii using Eqs. (2.51) and (2.53) to find rp = 6,878 km and ra = 46,252 km). The
Satellite at
epoch t0
Ω
I Ascending node,
Perigee , e n
Figure 3.5 Molniya orbit.

e = 0 7411
i = 63 4
Ω = 50
θ0 = 180
Satellite at
epoch t0
Ω
I Ascending node,
Perigee , e n
» A Molniya orbit is highly elliptical with apogee and perigee altitudes of about
39,874 and 500 km, respectively.

e = 0 7411
i = 63 4
Ω = 50
θ0 = 180
Satellite at
epoch t0
Ω
I Ascending node,
Perigee , e n
» Eccentricity of a Molniya orbit is 0.741 and the period is 12 h.

e = 0 7411
i = 63 4
Ω = 50
θ0 = 180
Satellite at
epoch t0
Ω
I Ascending node,
Perigee , e n
» Molniya orbits are oriented so that apogee is located at a very high
geographic latitude.

e = 0 7411
i = 63 4
Ω = 50
θ0 = 180
Satellite at
epoch t0
Ω
I Ascending node,
Perigee , e n
» Molniya orbits are oriented so that apogee is located at a very high
geographic latitude.
» Because satellites in Molniya orbits spend most of their time near apogee,
they are well suited to view northern latitudes such as Russia.

The orbital period of the ellipse is
Geocentric Orbits: Example
2π
Tperiod = a3/2 = 552,214 s = 6 39 days
Problem: The Lunar Atmosphereμand Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE)
spacecraftthe
Therefore, was launched
total into
coasting a highly
time is oneelliptical orbit by a Minotaur V booster in
period, or
September 2013. After completing the fifth-stage burn of the Minotaur V at an
altitude of 200 km, the LADEE tcoastspacecraft
= Tperiod =entered an elliptical orbit with perigee
6 39 days
and apogee altitudes of 200 km and 278,000 km, respectively. The LADEE
spacecraft completed one revolution in this elliptical orbit before firing an onboard
rocket at perigee to increase its orbital energy.
Apogee altitude Perigee altitude

278,000 km 200 km
Earth
Figure 2.14 Elliptical orbit for the LADEE spacecraft (Example 2.6).
Determine the eccentricity of the elliptical orbit and the coasting time between the
Minotaur booster burnout and the thrusting maneuver at perigee.

» First, we determine the perigee and apogee radii from the altitude
information:
rp = RE + 200km = 6, 578km
ra = RE + 278, 000km = 284, 378km

information:
rp = RE + 200km = 6, 578km
ra = RE + 278, 000km = 284, 378km
» The eccentricity is:
ra − rp
e= = 0.9548.
ra + rp

information:
rp = RE + 200km = 6, 578km
ra = RE + 278, 000km = 284, 378km
ra − rp
e= = 0.9548.
ra + rp
» Hence, the “coasting orbit” for the LADEE spacecraft is highly elliptical.

information:
rp = RE + 200km = 6, 578km
ra = RE + 278, 000km = 284, 378km
ra − rp
e= = 0.9548.
ra + rp
» We can compute the orbital period using semi-major axis. The semimajor
axis is half of the sum of perigee and apogee radii:
rp + ra
a= = 145, 478km
2

information:
rp = RE + 200km = 6, 578km
ra = RE + 278, 000km = 284, 378km
ra − rp
e= = 0.9548.
ra + rp
rp + ra
a= = 145, 478km
2
» The orbital period of the ellipse is:
2π
Tperiod = √ a3/2 = 552, 214s = 6.39 days
µ

information:
rp = RE + 200km = 6, 578km
ra = RE + 278, 000km = 284, 378km
ra − rp
e= = 0.9548.
ra + rp
rp + ra
a= = 145, 478km
2
» The orbital period of the ellipse is:
2π
Tperiod = √ a3/2 = 552, 214s = 6.39 days
µ
» Therefore, the total coasting time is one period, or:
tcoast = Tperiod = 6.39 days
Outline
1. Two-Body Problem
3. Conic Sections
0
Parabolic Trajectory Parabola: ξ =
v∞2
µ
− =0 2 86
2 r∞
» A parabola is an “open-ended” trajectory where the semimajor axis is infinite
and eccentricity e is exactly unity.
v
γ
Satellite
r θ
Perigee
rp
ra = ∞ Earth
Figure 2.15 Parabolic trajectory about the Earth.

0
v∞2
µ
− =0 2 86
2 r∞
v
γ
Satellite
r θ
Perigee
rp
ra = ∞ Earth
» The total energy ξ ofFigure

a parabolic trajectory
2.15 Parabolic trajectoryisabout
zerothebecause
Earth. a = ∞.

0
v∞2
µ
− =0 2 86
2 r∞
v
γ
Satellite
r θ
Perigee
rp
ra = ∞ Earth

zerothebecause
Earth. a = ∞.
» A parabola is the transitional conic section between an ellipse (a > 0, e < 1,
and ξ < 0) and hyperbola (a < 0, e > 1, and ξ > 0).

0
v∞2
µ
− =0 2 86
2 r∞
v
γ
Satellite
r θ
Perigee
rp
ra = ∞ Earth

zerothebecause
Earth. a = ∞.
» A parabola is the transitional conic section between an ellipse (a > 0, e < 1,
and ξ < 0) and hyperbola (a < 0, e > 1, and ξ > 0).
» A parabolic trajectory is a one-way path to infinity.
Parabolic Trajectory
» Let us substitute e = 1 into the trajectory equation for a parabola:

p
r=
1 + cosθ


p
r=
1 + cosθ
» It shows that radius r becomes infinite as true anomaly θ approaches ±180
(also rp = p2 ).


p
r=
1 + cosθ
(also rp = p2 ).
» Next, let us determine the velocity on a parabola “at infinity” where
r → ∞(or, θ → 180):
0
2
v∞ µ
ξ= − =0
7
2 r∞


p
r=
1 + cosθ
(also rp = p2 ).
r → ∞(or, θ → 180):
0
2
v∞ µ
ξ= − =0
7
2 r∞
» Because total energy ξ is zero on a parabolic trajectory, the satellite’s velocity
“at infinity”v∞ is also zero!


p
r=
1 + cosθ
(also rp = p2 ).
r → ∞(or, θ → 180):
0
2
v∞ µ
ξ= − =0
7
2 r∞
» Because total energy ξ is zero on a parabolic trajectory, the satellite’s velocity
“at infinity”v∞ is also zero!
While this result seems very odd at first we must remember that in a
“two-body universe” the central body is the only gravitational body that
influences the satellite’s motion.

» If a satellite is on a parabolic trajectory (with ξ = 0) it has just enough
energy to “escape” the gravitational pull of the planet and reach a great
distance (i.e., radius r∞ ) where the potential energy is zero.

» Because total energy is zero at every point on the parabola, kinetic energy
(and therefore velocity) is zero “at infinity.”

» Of course, for real space missions, our solar system has N gravitational
bodies (the sun, moon, and other planets) which continuously influence a
satellite’s motion.

» The theoratical escape velocity:
v2 µ
ξ= − =0
2
r r
2µ
=⇒ vesc =
r

v2 µ
ξ= − =0
2
r r
2µ
=⇒ vesc =
r
» The escape velocity depends on the radius r.

v2 µ
ξ= − =0
2
r r
2µ
=⇒ vesc =
r
» The escape velocity depends on the radius r.
the escape velocity on earth is much larger than the required escape velocity
for an object in LEO.

Parabolic Trajectory: Example
A satellite is in parabolic trajectory about the Earth with a perigee altitude of 500
km.
1. Compute the satellite’s velocity at true anomalies
θ = –60°, 0°, 90°, 150°, and 179° .
2. Plot the satellite’s velocity vs. true anomaly for −179° ≤ θ ≤ 179° .

km.
θ = –60°, 0°, 90°, 150°, and 179° .
Solution: It is easy to compute the velocity from the energy equation for a
parabola (ξ = 0) given the radius r:
r
v2 µ 2µ
ξ= − = 0 =⇒ v =
2 r r

km.
θ = –60°, 0°, 90°, 150°, and 179° .
r
v2 µ 2µ
ξ= − = 0 =⇒ v =
2 r r
» We can obtain the radial position from the trajectory equation with e = 1:
p
r=
1 + cosθ

km.
θ = –60°, 0°, 90°, 150°, and 179° .
r
v2 µ 2µ
ξ= − = 0 =⇒ v =
2 r r
» We can obtain the radial position from the trajectory equation with e = 1:
p
r=
1 + cosθ
» Parabola Because perigee radius is rp = p

2 for a parabola, we can determine
the parameter p
p = 2rp = 2(RE + 500km) = 13, 756km
where RE = 6,378 km.
the radial distance from the Earth is over 90 million km and the parabolic veloci
is small asTrajectory:
Parabolic expected. For comparison,
Example the average sun–Earth distance is almost 15
million km.
» Using p and different values of θ we can compute position and velocities. For
b) We can follow the same process as part (a) and compute the radial distances of th
example:
parabola corresponding to − 179 ≤ θ ≤ 179 and then the parabolic velocities usin
13, 756km
the energy equation. Figure
r = 2.16 shows parabolic km vs. true anomaly and th
velocity
= 9170.7
1 + cos(−60°)
five values from Table 2.3 are shown with circular markers. Clearly, maximu
and
velocity occurs at perigee (thisris no surprise) and velocity is symmetric abou
2µ
the major axis. v= = 9.3236km/s
r
» We can follow the same process and compute the radial distances of the
parabola corresponding to −179°
Table 2.3 Radius and velocity
≤ θ ≤on179° and then
a parabolic the parabolic
trajectory
(Example
velocities using 2.7). equation.
the energy
Radius, r Velocity, v
True anomaly, θ (km) (km/s)
–60 9,171 9.3236

0 6,878 10.7660
90 13,756 7.6127
150 102,676 2.7864
179 90,318,861 0.0939
Two-Body Orbital Mechanics 41
12
10
Velocity on a parabola, km/s
0
-180 -150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
True anomaly, θ , deg
Figure 2.16 Parabolic velocity vs. true anomaly (Example 2.7).

Outline
1. Two-Body Problem
3. Conic Sections
1
Hyperbolic Trajectory δ = 2sin −1
e
Departure
+ asymptote
v∞
» A hyperbola is an open curve with negative δ

semimajor axis, positive total energy, and
eccentricity greater than unity. θ ∞+
Satellite
» Examples of hyperbolic trajectories include:
r
spacecraft escaping the Earth’s gravity at the θ
onset of an interplanetary mission,
a flyby encounter with a target planet.
» The hyperbola has two branches but only one
branch represents the physical trajectory.
−
v∞
Arrival
asymptote
Figure 2.17 Hyperbolic trajectory.

Hyperbolic Trajectory
» The arrival and departure paths of the hyperbola are along two straight-line
asymptotes and the asymptotic velocity of the satellite at either end is
computed from the energy equation:
0
2
v∞ µ
ξ= – >0
7
2 r
p ∞
=⇒ v∞ = 2ξ

0
2
v∞ µ
ξ= – >0
7
2 r
p ∞
=⇒ v∞ = 2ξ
» This residual speed “at infinity” is called the hyperbolic excess speed.

0
2
v∞ µ
ξ= – >0
7
2 r
p ∞
=⇒ v∞ = 2ξ
» The asymptotic velocity vectors are labeled v∞
−
for the arrival asymptote and
v∞ for the departure asymptote.
+

0
2
v∞ µ
ξ= – >0
7
2 r
p ∞
=⇒ v∞ = 2ξ
» The asymptotic velocity vectors are labeled v∞
−
for the arrival asymptote and
v∞ for the departure asymptote.
+
» Because energy is constant on the hyperbola, the √

magnitudes of these two
asymptotic velocities are equal (i.e., v∞
− +
= v∞ = 2ξ).

» The angle between the asymptotes is called the turning angle δ. When a
spacecraft encounters a gravitational body on a hyperbolic trajectory, the
arrival hyperbolic velocity vectorv∞
−
is turned by angle δ to produce the
departure hyperbolic velocity v∞ .
+

Hyperbolic Trajectory a =∞ r
c =∞
» The angle between the asymptotes θ turning
is called the p angle δ. When a
spacecraft encounters a gravitational body on a hyperbolic trajectory, the
Periapsis
arrival hyperbolic velocity vectorv∞
−
is turnedF1 by angle δ to produce the
departure hyperbolic velocity v∞ +
.
» The turning angle is solely a function of eccentricity:

1
δ = 2sin−1 (51)
e
(b)
because the geometry of the hyperbola gives sin (δ/2) = a/c = 1/e.
–2a
p –c b
Periapsis –a
F1 F2
–2c
» The true anomaly of the departure asymptote is labeled θ∞ +

and it is
determined by evaluating the trajectory equation at an infinite radial distance:
p
r∞ = + =∞
1 + e cos θ∞


and it is
p
r∞ = + =∞
1 + e cos θ∞
» Therefore, the denominator must be zero and we obtain

1
+
θ∞ = cos−1 −
e


and it is
p
r∞ = + =∞
1 + e cos θ∞
» Therefore, the denominator must be zero and we obtain

1
+
θ∞ = cos−1 −
e
» While parabolic trajectories are of little interest to space mission designers,

hyperbolic trajectories are essential for missions to interplanetary targets
beyond Earth’s gravitational influence.

» Recall that a fundamental assumption of the two-body problem (and the
subsequent conic-section solution) is that the gravitational force of one
celestial body is influencing the satellite’s motion.

» Sending a robotic probe to Mars (for example) requires a hyperbolic departure
trajectory from Earth so that the probe has excess speed “at infinity.”

» Of course, after the satellite has “escaped” Earth’s gravitational pull in a two-
body sense and reached “infinity” (relative to Earth) it is primarily influenced
by the sun’s gravity.

» At this stage, we may analyze the satellite’s motion as a two-body problem
with the sun as the sole gravitational body.

» Eventually (if the trajectory is correctly planned), the satellite reaches the
vicinity of the target planet (e.g., Mars) and we can analyze the arrival
trajectory as another two-body problem.

» Because the probe is arriving “from infinity” with finite velocity (v∞
−
), the
satellite will approach the target planet on a hyperbolic trajectory.

» Because the probe is arriving “from infinity” with finite velocity (v∞
−
), the
satellite will approach the target planet on a hyperbolic trajectory.
» This process of analyzing the entire interplanetary mission as a sequence of
two-body problems is called the patched-conic method.
Hyperbolic Trajectory: Example 2.9
The Mars Exploration Rover-A (MER-A) spacecraft was launched on June 10,
2003 by a Delta II booster rocket. At burnout conditions for the final rocket
stage, the MER-A spacecraft was at an altitude of 225 km above the Earth’s
surface with a velocity of 11.4 km/s and a flight-path angle of 5 . Determine:
a) The departure hyperbolic excess speed v∞ +
.

.
» We can compute hyperbolic excess speed from the energy of the hyperbolic
trajectory. Using the rocket burnout conditions (denoted by subscript “bo”)
Radius at burnout:
rbo = RE + 225km = 6, 603km

.
Radius at burnout:
rbo = RE + 225km = 6, 603km
Velocity at burnout
vbo = 114km/s

.
Radius at burnout:
rbo = RE + 225km = 6, 603km
Velocity at burnout
vbo = 114km/s
Total energy on the hyperbola is
2
vbo µ
ξ= − = 4.6135km2 /s2
2 rbo

.
Radius at burnout:
rbo = RE + 225km = 6, 603km
Velocity at burnout
vbo = 114km/s
Total energy on the hyperbola is
2
vbo µ
ξ= − = 4.6135km2 /s2
2 rbo
The hyperbolic excess speed is
+
p
v∞ = 2ξ = 3.0376km/s

b) The true anomaly of the departure asymptote θ∞

+
.


+
.
» Computing asymptotic true anomaly requires the eccentricity of the

hyperbolic trajectory.


+
.

» We can compute the angular momentum of the hyperbola from the burnout
conditions:
h = rbo vbo cosγbo = 74.98776km2 /s
where γbo = 5o is the flight-path angle at burnout.


+
.

» We can compute the angular momentum of the hyperbola from the burnout
conditions:
h = rbo vbo cosγbo = 74.98776km2 /s
where γbo = 5o is the flight-path angle at burnout.
» Parameter p can be determined from angular momentum
h2
p= = 14, 107.29km
µ

» Recall that parameter is positive for all conic sections. We can calculate the
semimajor axis of the hyperbolic trajectory from its energy
µ µ
ξ=− →a=− = –43, 199.31km
2a 2ξ

µ µ
ξ=− →a=− = –43, 199.31km
2a 2ξ
» We see that a < 0 for a hyperbola because energy is positive.

µ µ
ξ=− →a=− = –43, 199.31km
2a 2ξ

» Finally, we determine eccentricity:
r
p
p = a 1 − e2 → e =

1 − = 1.1518
a

µ µ
ξ=− →a=− = –43, 199.31km
2a 2ξ

» Finally, we determine eccentricity:
r
p
p = a 1 − e2 → e =

1 − = 1.1518
a
» We find that the true anomaly of the departure asymptote is

+ −1 1
θ∞ = cos − = 150.25o
e

In early 2007, the New Horizons spacecraft approached Jupiter on a hyperbolic

trajectory with an asymptotic arrival velocity of v∞
−
= 18.427km/s. The space
probe followed a “hyperbolic flyby trajectory” with a closest-approach distance of
32.25 RJ from the center of Jupiter where RJ = 71,492 km is Jupiter’s equatorial
radius. Calculate the spacecraft’s velocity at periapsis and the turning angle δ
from the hyperbolic flyby of Jupiter.
» We can use the energy equation to determine the velocity at periapsis (or
“perijove” for a trajectory about Jupiter):
2
v∞ vp2 µJ
ξ= = − = 169.7772km2 /s2
2 2 rp

» Note that the hyperbolic excess speed (v∞ ) solely determines the total
energy of a hyperbolic trajectory. The perijove radius isrp = 32.25
RJ = 2.3056(106 )km. Using the energy equation, we determine the flyby
velocity at perijove
s
µJ
vp = 2 ξ + = 21.2001km/s
rp

» Note that the hyperbolic excess speed (v∞ ) solely determines the total
energy of a hyperbolic trajectory. The perijove radius isrp = 32.25
RJ = 2.3056(106 )km. Using the energy equation, we determine the flyby
velocity at perijove
s
µJ
vp = 2 ξ + = 21.2001km/s
rp
» Note that because Jupiter is the gravitational body we must use its
gravitational parameter µJ = 1.266865(108 )km3 /s2 . We need to determine
the eccentricity of the hyperbolic trajectory in order to compute the turning
angle. First, we compute the semimajor axis from the energy equation
µJ µJ
ξ=− →a=− = –373, 096.4km
2a 2ξ

» We can manipulate an expression for periapsis radius, and solve it for

eccentricity:
rp
rp = a (1 − e) → e = 1 − = 7.179
a

» We can manipulate an expression for periapsis radius, and solve it for

eccentricity:
rp
rp = a (1 − e) → e = 1 − = 7.179
a
» The turning angle is calculated

1
δ = 2sin−1 = 16.0126o
e

Figure 2.18 shows the Jupiter flyby (not to scale) as a “flat” hyperbolic trajectory with very
little curvature and a small turning angle. It is rather intuitive that a very large periapsis
Departure
asymptote
+
v∞
δ
rp = 32.25RJ
Jupiter
−
v∞
Arrival
asymptote
Figure 2.18 The New Horizons hyperbolic flyby of Jupiter (Example 2.10).
» Does this flyby trajectory increase the velocity or decrease the velocity of the
spacecraft?
Textbook and References
Textbook: Spaceflight Dynamics by Craig A. Kluever (2018)

References:
1. Space Vehicle Dynamics & Control by Bong Wie (2008)
2. Spaceflight Dynamics by William E. Wiesel (2010)
3. How Spacecraft Fly: Spaceflight Without Formulae by Graham
Swinerd (2008)

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Spacecraft Dynamics and Control

Muhammad Farooq Haydar

Flight Dynamics and Control Center

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M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, IST) Spacecraft Dynamics and Control October 9, 2019 3 / 80

M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, IST) Spacecraft Dynamics and Control October 9, 2019 3 / 80

Figure 2.1 Newton’s law of universal gravitation.

Figure 2.2 Gravitational forces for a three-body system.

» Note that Fij =Figure −Fji2.2 Gravitational

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which is reduced to (2) when N = 3.

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which is reduced to (2) when N = 3.

M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, IST) Spacecraft Dynamics and Control October 9, 2019 6 / 80

which is reduced to (2) when N = 3.

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Figure 2.3 Two-body system.

Figure 2.3 Two-body system.

» Adding the equations for earth and satellite:

Mr̈1 + mr̈2 = 0 (7)

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» Adding the equations for earth and satellite:

Mr̈1 + mr̈2 = 0 (7)

M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, IST) Spacecraft Dynamics and Control October 9, 2019 9 / 80

» Adding the equations for earth and satellite:

Mr̈1 + mr̈2 = 0 (7)

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r̈ = r̈2 − r̈1 (9)

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r̈ = r̈2 − r̈1 (9)

M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, IST) Spacecraft Dynamics and Control October 9, 2019 10 / 80

r̈ = r̈2 − r̈1 (9)

M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, IST) Spacecraft Dynamics and Control October 9, 2019 10 / 80

r̈ = r̈2 − r̈1 (9)

M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, IST) Spacecraft Dynamics and Control October 9, 2019 10 / 80

r̈ = r̈2 − r̈1 (9)

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M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, IST) Spacecraft Dynamics and Control October 9, 2019 11 / 80

M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, IST) Spacecraft Dynamics and Control October 9, 2019 11 / 80

M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, IST) Spacecraft Dynamics and Control October 9, 2019 11 / 80

M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, IST) Spacecraft Dynamics and Control October 9, 2019 11 / 80

M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, IST) Spacecraft Dynamics and Control October 9, 2019 11 / 80

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M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, IST) Spacecraft Dynamics and Control October 9, 2019 12 / 80

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M. F. Haydar (FlyCon, IST) Spacecraft Dynamics and Control October 9, 2019 12 / 80

M. F. Haydar Figure 2.5 Angular

M. F. Haydar Figure 2.5 Angular

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Where we have used:

r.ṙ = rvr = rṙ, (18)

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It can be observed from