Hydrological Sciences Journal

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Integration of remote sensing and electrical

sounding data for hydrogeological exploration—a
case study of Bakhar watershed, India /
Intégration de données de télédétection et
de sondages électriques pour l'exploration
hydrogéologique—étude de cas du bassin versant
de Bakhar, Inde

M. GIRISH KUMAR , RAMESHWAR BALI & A. K. AGARWAL

To cite this article: M. GIRISH KUMAR , RAMESHWAR BALI & A. K. AGARWAL (2009)
Integration of remote sensing and electrical sounding data for hydrogeological exploration—a
case study of Bakhar watershed, India / Intégration de données de télédétection et de sondages
électriques pour l'exploration hydrogéologique—étude de cas du bassin versant de Bakhar, Inde,
Hydrological Sciences Journal, 54:5, 949-960, DOI: 10.1623/hysj.54.5.949

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1623/hysj.54.5.949

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 Hydrological Sciences–Journal–des Sciences Hydrologiques, 54(5) October 2009 949

Integration of remote sensing and electrical sounding data for

hydrogeological exploration—a case study of Bakhar
watershed, India

M. GIRISH KUMAR1, RAMESHWAR BALI1 & A. K. AGARWAL2

1 Centre of Advanced Study in Geology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226007, India
rameshbali@rediffmail.com
2 Remote Sensing Application Centre, Uttar Pradesh, Jankipuram, Lucknow 226021, India

Abstract A geographical information system (GIS) was used for the integration of hydrological data
acquired using remote sensing and geoelectrical techniques to understand the groundwater condition of
Bakhar watershed, Mirazpur District, UP, India. Indian remote sensing IRS-1D, LISS–III data were used to
prepare a geomorphological and lineament map of the Bakhar watershed. Vertical electrical sounding (VES)
was carried out in different geomorphic units, and ranges of electrical resistivity values were assigned to the
different formations by calibrating electrical resistivity with borehole data. Based on these, a subsurface
resistivity map and an aquifer thickness map were prepared. Several layers were superimposed using GIS
techniques. Each theme was assigned a weight, depending on its influence on groundwater recharge. Each
class or unit in the map was assigned a knowledge-based rank from one to four, depending on its
significance in storage and transmittance of groundwater, and these were then multiplied by the layer
weighting to produce a score. Based on these scores, the watershed was categorized into different ground-
water potential zones. The results indicate that the eastern and northern parts of the study area have very
good groundwater potential to meet the demands of water for irrigation and domestic purposes, whereas the
southern region has poor groundwater potential zones. Such integrated analysis has not been attempted so far
in this region for hydrogeological investigation.
Key words remote sensing; GIS; vertical electrical sounding (VES); weighted aggregation method; groundwater
potential zones; Bakhar watershed

Intégration de données de télédétection et de sondages électriques pour l’exploration

hydrogéologique—étude de cas du bassin versant de Bakhar, Inde
Résumé Un système d’information géographique (SIG) a été utilisé pour intégrer des données hydro-
logiques acquises par des techniques de télédétection et géo-électriques afin de comprendre les conditions
hydrogéologiques du bassin versant de Bakhar, District de Mirazpur, U.P. Inde. Les données de télédétection
indiennes IRS-1D et LISS–III ont été utilisées pour préparer une carte géomorphologique et structurelle du
bassin de Bakhar. Des sondages électriques verticaux ont été réalisés dans différentes unités géo-
morphologiques et les gammes des valeurs de résistivité électrique ont été associées aux différentes
formations, après calage de la résistivité électrique par des données de forage. Sur ces bases, une carte de la
résistivité de subsurface et une carte de l’épaisseur de l’aquifère ont été dressées. Plusieurs couches ont été
superposées à l’aide de techniques géomatiques. Un poids a été assigné à chaque thème selon son influence
sur la recharge de nappe. A chaque classe ou unité de la carte a été attribué un rang à dire d’expert allant de
un à quatre, selon sa significativité dans le stockage et dans la transmittance de l’eau souterraine, avant
multiplication par la pondération des couches pour obtenir un score. A partir des scores, le bassin a été
découpé en différentes zones aquifères potentielles. Les résultats montrent que les régions à l’Est et au Nord
de la zone d’étude ont un très bon potentiel aquifère pour satisfaire les demandes en eau pour l’irrigation et
l’alimentation domestique, contrairement à la région du Sud. Une telle analyse intégrée n’avait jamais été
conduite dans cette région à des fins d’exploration hydrogéologique.
Mots clefs télédétection; SIG; sondage électrique vertical; méthode d’agrégation pondérée; zones aquifères potentielles;
bassin versant de Bakhar

INTRODUCTION
Water is the most precious and commonly used natural resource and is essential for the survival of
life. In arid and semi-arid regions, groundwater plays a significant role in maintaining the
sustainability of water resources (Chand et al., 2004). The hydrogeological conditions are basically
controlled by the natural lithological variants, geomorphology, structural set-up and climatic
conditions of the area. Remote sensing has become an indispensable tool for groundwater
targeting, because the topographic expression and terrain characteristics have a direct relation to
the geological characteristics of rocks and their structural set-up. Geomorphology also exercises

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950 M. Girish Kumar et al.

significant control over groundwater (Agarwal & Mishra, 1992; Sahu & Sahoo, 2006). One of the
greatest advantages of using remote sensing data for hydrogeological investigation and monitoring
is its ability to generate information in spatial and temporal domains, which is crucial for success-
ful analysis, prediction and validation (Saraf & Choudhary, 1998). Better interpretation of hydro-
geological data often requires that their spatial location be incorporated into the analysis. A
geographical information system (GIS) can be used for storing not only hydrological data but also
their spatial locations in a relational database (Shahid & Nath, 2002). It also provides the facility to
analyse the spatial data objectively using various logical conditions. As a result, nowadays, GIS is
widely used for spatial modelling of the hydrogeological prospect of a large area with more
reliability. Gustafsson (1993) used GIS to analyse lineament data derived from SPOT imagery for
groundwater potential mapping. Integration of remote sensing data in the GIS environment is very
useful in delineating various groundwater potential zones in a meaningful way (Chi & Lee 1994;
Reddy et al., 1996; Agarwal et al., 2004). The geophysical methods can provide a better estimate
of the depth and thickness of the aquifer system. Thus, integrating the depth information at various
points, one may estimate the horizontal extent of the water-bearing formations. By combining the
surface hydrogeological features with subsurface information obtained from the geophysical
surveys, one may define a more reliable groundwater potential model (Edet & Okereke, 1997;
Subba Rao & Reddy, 1999; Shahid & Nath, 2002). During the present investigation of Bakhar
watershed, India, the geological, geomorphological and lineament maps were prepared using
remote sensing and field data, while the geophysical map was prepared using vertical electrical
sounding (VES). To carry out the spatial modelling of the hydrological conditions, the thematic
layers were integrated in a GIS environment.

THE STUDY AREA

The present studies were carried out in Bakhar watershed, India, located between 24°45c–24°56cN
and 82°29c–82°56cE and falling in the Survey of India (SOI) topographical sheets 63 L/9 and
63 L/13 (Fig. 1). The catchment area is around 560 km2; average annual rainfall within the
watershed is 754.52 mm, and the maximum average annual temperature 32.1°C (CGWB, 2003).
The area is characterized by the existence of almost gentle undulating topography. The highest
elevation of 310 m a.m.s.l. is in the eastern part of the watershed, whilst the minimum elevation of
210 m a.m.s.l. is near the water body, towards the western end. The topography of the study area
in general is gently undulating dissected plateau. Quaternary sediments are deposited over the
sandstones. In the hard and compact sandstone region, the drainage pattern is dendiritic, and in the
Quaternary sediments region the drainage patterns are subdendritic to sub-parallel.

METHODOLOGY
Geophysical data greatly help in locating the groundwater potential in any hydrogeological set-up.
The property and thickness of various litho-units obtained from geophysical survey at different
locations, if integrated, can yield a groundwater potential model of higher reliability and precision
(Shahid & Nath, 2002). The present geophysical data sets are interpreted using a computer-based
inversion program method suggested by Zohdy (1989). This technique does not require a layer
model. On the contrary, each value of the VES measurement is considered as a layer. The program
includes two types of assessment method: forward and inverse solution methods. The inversion
software that was used for the present analysis (Interpex 1D V3 standard resistivity package for
forward and inverse solution method) takes the first parameter estimation and uses a least squares
approach to attempt to minimise the difference between the input data and the theoretically-
derived curve. This method has been tested widely in India. Using it in different geological
situations, it was found to give good results, correlating well with borehole data. During the course
of the present investigation of hydrogeological conditions, data obtained from VES surveys are
interpreted for estimation of the subsurface parameters, viz. electrical resistivity and thickness of

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 Integration of remote sensing and electrical sounding data for hydrogeological exploration 951

Fig. 1 Location map of Bakhar watershed. Location of important villages is marked.

the aquifer. These parameters, which are different at each VES data point, are contoured using the
kriging method (de Marsily, 1986), and the corresponding thematic maps are prepared. The resist-
ivity and thickness of aquifer media are directly related to the hydraulic conductivity and trans-
missivity, respectively, of the aquifer (Shahid & Nath, 2002). A contour map of the depth to water
level has been prepared using the data recorded for 18 wells for two years 2004 and 2005. The
water level data were recorded for each year in two consecutive seasons, i.e. pre-monsoon (May)
and post-monsoon (October). The suitable weights were assigned to each thematic feature after
considering their control on the occurrence of groundwater. A knowledge-based weight was
assigned to each feature and analysed using the weighted aggregation method (ESRI, 1988). In this
method, the total weights of the integrated polygons were derived as the sum of the weights
assigned to the different layers according to their suitability. Finally, the groundwater zonation
map was generated by regrouping the polygons based on their score. By superimposing the village
locations map on the groundwater prospect map, the groundwater condition of the village was
derived. A flow chart of the methodology is given in Fig. 2.

GEOLOGICAL SET-UP
It is well established that the geological set-up of an area plays a vital role in the distribution and
occurrence of groundwater (Krishnamurthy & Srinivas, 1995). The geological set-up and strati-

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952 M. Girish Kumar et al.

SOI toposheets Geocoded FCC Digital data Field data Geophysical data

Lithological map
Drainage map DEM Landform map
Lineament map
Aquifer thickness map
THEMATIC MAP Aquifer resistivity map
PREPARATION Surface water bodies map

Digitization in ArcView 8

DATABASE
CREATION Editing

Topology creation

Transformation and
projection

Weight assignment for each map unit of thematic layers

Overlaying of thematic layers (union)

Decision Rule Composite

Rank GWP DATA INTEGRATION
4 Excellent Classified (1–4)
3 Good
2 Moderate
1 Poor

Village location

Village-wise groundwater prospect zones map

Fig. 2 Flow chart of the methodology adopted.

graphy of the Vindhyan Super group in the Son Valley, central India was proposed by Auden
(1933) and later revised by Prakash & Dalela (1982). The Bakhar watershed is predominantly
constituted of compact sandstones of the Kaimur group, and, in some places, especially in the
northern and eastern parts of the watershed; it is overlain by Quaternary alluvium (Fig. 3).

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL SET-UP
The geomorphology of an area is one of the most important features in evaluating the groundwater
potential and prospect. The geomorphology, as such, controls the subsurface movement of

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 Integration of remote sensing and electrical sounding data for hydrogeological exploration 953

Fig. 3 Geological map of the area showing different litho-units.

Fig. 4 Geomorphological map of the area showing different units.

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954 M. Girish Kumar et al.

Table 1 Nature, characteristic features and distribution of different geomorphic units.

Geomorphic Nature Remote sensing Distribution Remarks
unit observation
Dissected Highly fractured and Shows light reddish Southern part of the Low permeability
plateau weathered compact tone watershed
sandstone showing
formation of laterites
Pediment Present bordering dissected Show patches of light Around the Plateau Low permeability and
plateau region and drainage brownish tone with and boundary of infiltration rate
divide irregular shape and size. the watershed
Buried Formed due to coalescence Show dark blue to light Most of the eastern High porosity,
pediplain of buried pediments with blue tone and northern part permeability and
thick overburden of infiltration rate
weathered materials
Valley fill Both alluvial and colluvial Characteristic brownish Major drainages Structurally controlled.
materials present along the red spectral signatures and Bakhar River Good prospective zone
tributaries and the main in FCC for groundwater
Bakhar river development
Eroded Along the streams of low Bright red tone Tributaries and Good to moderate
pediplain lying areas drainages prospective zones for
groundwater
development

groundwater. Considering the importance, different geomophological features are mapped (Fig. 4).
Various geomorphic classes have been adopted following the guidelines laid down by the National
Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad (NRSA, 1995) and Space Application Centre (SAC, 1998).
The data were duly verified by field checks. The various features of major landforms are
summarised in Table 1.

LINEAMENT DISTRIBUTION
A lineament, that is a large-scale linear structural feature, may represent deep-seated faults, master
fractures and joints sets, drainage lines and boundary lines of different litho-units. Lineaments
provide the pathways for groundwater movement and are very important hydrogeologically
(Sankar, 2002). The lineament intersection areas are considered as good groundwater potential
zones. Lineaments have been identified on images through visual interpretation by comparing
spatial variation in tone, colour, texture, association, etc. (Fig. 5). Areas around the lineaments and
intersections of lineaments are considered to be favourable for accumulation for groundwater
zones. An area at a distance of 25 m on each side of the lineaments (50 m wide in all) was
considered as a buffer zone.

DEPTH TO WATER TABLE

Eighteen observation wells were used to monitor the depth to groundwater level in the study area
for the years 2004 and 2005. Each year, groundwater levels were monitored in May (pre-monsoon)
and October (post-monsoon). Maps of depth to groundwater level were generated using
ArcView 8 software for the pre-monsoon (pre-rainy season) and the post-monsoon (post-rainy
season) periods. The groundwater level between the pre- and post-monsoon periods in 2004
fluctuated in the range 1.0–10.25 m, and during 2005 it was between 0.8 and 10.55 m. For the year
2005, variation in water-table depth between pre- and post-monsoon periods was mapped (Fig. 6).
It is observed that there is a fluctuation of 2–5 m in the eastern part of the study area, and of 5–8 m
in the southern part. This is controlled by the hydrogeomorphological set-up of the area. In the
eastern part, the thick layer of weathered rock material within the buried pediplains facilitates
better infiltration of rainwater in comparison to the relatively hard sandstones of the dissected
plateau in the southern part.

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 Integration of remote sensing and electrical sounding data for hydrogeological exploration 955

Fig. 5 Lineament map of the area.

Fig. 6 Water table depth map of the area.

VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING (VES)

To delineate the detailed aquifer geometry, vertical electrical soundings (VES) were recorded at 51
sites using the Schlumberger configuration (Zhadanov & Keller, 1994), with a maximum electrode

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956 M. Girish Kumar et al.

Table 2 Correlation of lithology with resistivity values.

Layer Resistivity range Probable lithology Max. thickness Max. aquifer
(Ohm) (m) thickness (m)
1 Variable Top soil/kankar (alluvium) 2
2 < 30 Clay 11
3 30–150 Weathered/laterites 23 70
4 150–250 Fractured sandstone 48
5 250–600 Semi-fractured sandstone 70
6 >600 Compact sandstone -

spacing of about 600 m. This electrode spacing was sufficient to provide information about the
resistivity variation from near the surface up to a depth of 100 m and was capable of delineating
the shallow and deeper aquifer systems. The recordings were made at station intervals of about
3 km and less. The VES data were interpreted using inversion software (Interpex 1D V3), based on
layer parameter estimation and a least squares approach. The sounding curves indicate that the area
is made up of 4–6 layers, and this has been correlated with borehole lithologs collected from
different agencies such as the CGWB (Northern region), State Groundwater Department and Jal
Nigam (CGWB, 2003). The borehole data also reveal that the subsurface consists of Compact
sandstone formation of the Upper Vindhyan Super group overlain by Quaternary alluvium. The
Quaternary alluvium consists of an admixture of clay, sand, silt and kankar. The weathered,
fractured and semi-fractured sandstone acts as an aquifer in the area. The litho-units have been
inferred from the interpretation of the electrical sounding data. Resistivity ranges with inferred
lithology and their maximum thickness are given in Table 2.
It is seen that the top soil layer has a variable resistivity value, and the maximum thickness is
about 2 m. This corresponds to the surface soil layer. The variation in the resistivity of top soil
(maximum 2 m) is due to the local conditions. The resistivity of the clay is <30 ohm m with
maximum thickness of 11 m. The eastern part (Rajgarh, G-20; Judwariya, C-21; Lusa Railway
station, H-18; Ganeshpur, E- 22; Saranga, C-20) and northern part (Patewar, I-10; Ataura I-12) of
the study area have marginal alluvium deposited on the eroded basement of the sandstone. The
resistivity of the weathered/lateritic layer varies between 30 and 150 ohm m, with a maximum
thickness of 23 m at Semrobarho (G-22). This zone is considered as a water-bearing zone for the
shallow tube wells and dug wells for drinking purposes, with yields of 250–350 L/min. The
fractured and semi-fractured sandstone is identified by resistivity values of 150–250 ohm m and
250–600 ohm m, respectively. The maximum thickness for this zone is 70 m (Bandardewa, C-19;
Ganeshpur, E-22). This zone is considered as an aquifer zone for the deep tube wells with a yield
of > 500 L/min. The prominent fracture zones are restricted within a depth of 15–75 m below
ground level; however, at Gopalpur (G-9), the fracture zone is present at 17–47 m with yield of
950 L/min (CGWB, 2003). The hard/fresh rock layer shows very high resistivity values, usually
greater than 600 ohm m, and is devoid of groundwater.
On the basis of geophysical investigation and results obtained, it is inferred that the thickness
of the aquifer varies from place to place. The layer parameters derived from VES at different
points are used for the generation of geophysical thematic maps. Since kriging (de Marsily, 1986)
provides an unbiased spatial estimation of a regionalized variable, it is widely used for mapping. In
the present study, it was used for contouring the aquifer layer parameters. Semi-variograms were
used to estimate the spatial correlation between different points relating to aquifer resistivity and
its thickness. For better spatial correlation, the nearest eight points are clustered. The subsurface
lithology is exhibited by a fence diagram (Fig. 7).

GIS INTEGRATION
Integration or overlay of the thematic maps has been widely used for the purpose of generating the
groundwater potential map. The combination of maps with spatial distributions of specific attribute

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 Integration of remote sensing and electrical sounding data for hydrogeological exploration 957

Fig. 7 Fence diagram of area showing the subsurface lithology.

data generates an assigned numerical index or score for each attribute. The resulting combined
map represents a final score which acts as an index for the analysis. Overlay and index methods,
which are mainly based on the quantitative or semi-quantitative compilation and interpretation of
mapped data (Gogu & Dassargues, 2000), were used in this study.

Weight assignment
Each of the thematic maps (classes) was assigned a suitable weight. Various layers, prepared under
different classes, were assigned suitable ranks based on the merit and demerit with respect to
groundwater occurrence, e.g. under the Geomorphology class (Wt 20), Valley fills have been
assigned Rank 4. Thus a final score of 80 has been calculated by the multiplication of the rank and
weighting of the class (Table 3).

GIS overlaying
The thematic layers were integrated with one another through GIS, using the weighted aggregation
method. The following order of sequence was adopted to derive the final integrated map:
Thematic integrated layer Resuling layer
Lithology (R1) + Geomorphology (R2) S1
S1 + Aquifer resistance (R3) S2
S2 + Aquifer thickness (R4) S3
S3 + Lineament buffer (R5) S4
S4 u Surface water bodies layer (R6) S5
In the first step, lithology (R1) and geomorphology (R2) layers were integrated by choosing
the union option. In this integrated layer (S1), 68 polygons of the lithology layer and 215 polygons
of the landform layer resulted in 674 polygons. Adding these two layers derived the weight of each

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958 M. Girish Kumar et al.

Table 3 Rank, weight and scores for the various themes for delineating groundwater potential zones.
Class Rank Score Class Rank Score
Geomorphic (unit weight: 20) Lithology (unit weight: 20)
Valley fills 4 80 Compact sandstone 1 20
Eroded Pediplains – shallow 4 80 Compact sandstone (W) 2 40
Eroded Pediplains – medium 3 60 Laterite 2 40
Buried pediplain – deep 4 80 Alluvium 3 60
Buried pediplain – moderate & laterite 3 60 Aquifer resistance (unit weight: 20)
Buried pediplain – shallow & laterite 2 40 30–250 (ohm m) 3 60
Pediments 2 40 250–450 (ohm m) 2 40
Pediments (W) 3 60 450–600 (ohm m) 1 20
Dissected upper plateau – laterite 1 20 Aquifer thickness (unit weight: 20)
Dissected lower plateau – laterite 2 40 0–25 m 1 20
Dissected upper plateau 1 20 25–35 m 2 40
Dissected lower plateau 1 20 35–70 m 3 60
Lineaments (unit weight: 10) Water bodies (unit weight: 0)
Lineament (buffer 50 m) 1 10 Surface water bodies/rivers 0 0

polygon in the integrated layer (S1). The polygons in S1 have a maximum weight of 140 and a
minimum of 40. In the next step, the S1 layer containing 694 polygons was intersected with the
aquifer resistance (R3) layer, which had 10 polygons. In this step, the integrated layer S2, having
6781 polygons, was generated by adding lithology, geomorphology and aquifer resistance layers.
These polygons have a maximum weight of 200 and a minimum of 60. The S2 layer was inte-
grated with 12 polygons of the aquifer thickness (R4) to generate layer S3. In the integrated layer
(S3), 8031 polygons were generated having a maximum value of 260 and a minimum of 80. Layer
R5, involving polygons made around the lineaments (buffer zone), was integrated with layer S3 by
the union option. In this layer (S4), there are 15 407 polygons, having a maximum value of 270
and a minimum of 80. As the area occupied by water bodies (layer R6) cannot be classified into
different prospective zones, such areas were given zero weight. Layer R6 was integrated with S4
using the multiplication option. The polygons in the integrated layer (S5) retained the same values
as S4, except for the null value of surface water bodies.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The areas which are excellent for groundwater prospects were delineated by grouping the polygons
having weights greater than 190 in the final integrated layer. The polygons which come under the
“good” category were obtained by grouping polygons having weights between 150 and 190, and
those in the “moderate” category had weights between 120 and 150. All other polygons, with
weights less than 120 (excluding zero), were grouped in the “poor” category. Polygons having
zero weight were separated out and assigned as water bodies. The village-wise groundwater
prospect zone map (Fig. 8), shows that groundwater potential in the southwestern part of the study
area (covering about 184.8 km2) is poor. This zone, geomorphologically belonging to the dissected
plateau region, and made up of hard sandstone rock terrain, has low infiltration and high surface
runoff. In the middle part (covering 117 km2), the groundwater potential is moderate. The northern
part of the study area (covering about 106.8 km2) has good groundwater potential. The eastern side
and part of the northern side of the study area (about 151.2 km2) has excellent groundwater
potential. The generated groundwater potential map is validated using the yield data obtained from
tube wells located in the different groundwater potential zones. For example, Gopalpur well
(G-9), falling in the “excellent” zone, has a discharge of 950 L/min, while Pathera well (J-5), in the
“moderate” zone, has a discharge of 128 L/min.

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 Integration of remote sensing and electrical sounding data for hydrogeological exploration 959

Fig. 8 Village-level groundwater prospect map of the area.

CONCLUSION
Integration of geophysical and remote sensing data using GIS carried out for the hydrogeological
study of an area of 560 km2 in Mirzapur District, UP, India, has helped to locate potential water-
bearing zones. Alluvium is found to be the predominant geological unit over the whole area and is
the most favourable site for groundwater. Geophysical survey using VES indicates the presence of
a promising shallow groundwater resource in the area. The groundwater potential map reveals that
33% of the area is classified as “poor” and 21%, 19% and 27% of the area is classified as
“moderate”, “good” and “excellent”, respectively. The interpreted distribution of groundwater
potential zones is in general agreement with the discharge of the existing tube wells in the study
area. The weight assignments to individual categories of any theme further enhances the accuracy
of interpretation.

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Received 24 November 2007; accepted 4 March 2009

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