Unit – II

Metal Joining Processes

(WELDING)
 Introduction to Welding
– Welding is a materials joining process which
produces coalescence of materials by heating them
to suitable temperatures with or without the
application of pressure or by the application of
pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler
material.

– Welding is used for making permanent joints.

– It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies,

aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine frames,
structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general
repair work and ship building.
 Types of Welding

Fusion Welding Pressure Welding

Homogeneous Heterogeneous Friction Welding

Gas Welding Brazing Soldering

Electroslag MIG

High Energy Beam TIG

Electric Arc Shielded Metal Arc – “Stick”

Two Categories of Welding Processes

• Fusion welding - coalescence is accomplished by

melting the two parts to be joined, in some cases adding
filler metal to the joint
– Examples: arc welding, resistance spot welding,
oxyfuel gas welding

• Solid state welding - heat and/or pressure are used to

achieve coalescence, but no melting of base metals
occurs and no filler metal is added
– Examples: forge welding, diffusion welding, friction
welding
 Classification of welding processes:

(i). Arc welding (iv)Thermit Welding

• Carbon arc
• Metal arc (v) Solid State Welding
• Metal inert gas Friction
• Tungsten inert gas Ultrasonic
• Plasma arc Diffusion
• Submerged arc Explosive
• Electro-slag
(ii). Gas Welding (vi) Newer Welding
• Oxy-acetylene Electron-beam
• Air-acetylene Laser
• Oxy-hydrogen
(iii). Resistance Welding (vii) Related Process
• Oxy-acetylene cutting
Butt
Arc cutting
• Spot Hard facing
• Seam Brazing
• Projection Soldering
• Percussion
Arc Welding
 Arc Welding (AW)
A fusion welding process in which coalescence
of the metals is achieved by the heat from an
electric arc between an electrode and the work
• Electric energy from the arc produces
temperatures ~ 10,000 F (5500 C), hot enough
to melt any metal
• Most AW processes add filler metal to increase
volume and strength of weld joint
 What is an Electric Arc?
An electric arc is a discharge of electric current
across a gap in a circuit

• It is sustained by an ionized column of gas

(plasma) through which the current flows.

• To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought

into contact with work and then quickly
separated from it by a short distance
 Arc Welding

• A pool of molten metal is formed near

electrode tip, and as electrode is moved
along joint, molten weld pool solidifies in
its wake.
 Arc welding
• Equipments:
• A welding generator (D.C.) or Transformer (A.C.)
• Two cables- one for work and one for electrode
• Electrode holder
• Electrode
• Protective shield
• Gloves
• Wire brush
• Chipping hammer
• Goggles
Arc Welding Equipments
 Weld Metal Protection
(Arc Shielding)

• At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically reactive to

oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in air
– Mechanical properties of joint can be degraded by these
reactions
– To protect operation, arc must be shielded from surrounding air
in AW processes

Must protect weld puddle (arc pool) from the

atmosphere
• Methods
– Weld Fluxes
– Inert Gases
– Vacuum
 Flux
A substance that prevents formation of oxides and
other contaminants in welding, or dissolves them
and facilitates removal
• Provides protective atmosphere for welding
• Stabilizes arc
• Reduces spattering
 Weld Fluxes
• Typical fluxes
– SiO2, TiO2, FeO, MgO, Al2O3
– Produces a gaseous shield to prevent
contamination
– Act as scavengers to reduce oxides
– Add alloying elements to the weld
– Influence shape of weld bead during
solidification
 Inert Gases
• Argon, helium, nitrogen, and carbon
dioxide
• Form a protective envelope around the
weld area
• Used in
– MIG
– TIG
– Shield Metal Arc
 Vacuum
• Produce high-quality welds
• Used in electron beam welding
• Nuclear/special metal applications
– Zr, Hf, Ti
• Reduces impurities by a factor of 20
versus other methods
• Expensive and time-consuming
 Arc welding
Advantages Limitations
– Most efficient way to join • Manually applied, therefore
metals high labor cost.
– Lowest-cost joining method • Need high energy causing
– Affords lighter weight danger
through better utilization of • Not convenient for
materials disassembly.
– Joins all commercial metals • Defects are hard to detect at
– Provides design flexibility joints.
 Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding

Alternating Current (from Transformer)

More efficiency
Power consumption less
Cost of equipment is less
Higher voltage – hence not safe
Not suitable for welding non ferrous metals
Not preferred for welding thin sections
Any terminal can be connected to the work or electrode
Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding

Direct Current (from Generator)

Less efficiency
Power consumption more
Cost of equipment is more
Low voltage – safer operation
suitable for both ferrous non ferrous metals
preferred for welding thin sections
Positive terminal connected to the work
Negative terminal connected to the electrode
Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)
 Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)
Group of fusion welding operations that burn various fuels
mixed with oxygen

• OFW employs several types of gases, which is the

primary distinction among the members of this group

• Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches to cut

and separate metal plates and other parts

• Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene welding

 GAS WELDING

• Sound weld is obtained by selecting proper size of flame, filler

material and method of moving torch

• The temperature generated during the process is 3300 0c

• When the metal is fused, oxygen from the atmosphere and the torch
combines with molten metal and forms oxides, results defective
weld

• Fluxes are added to the welded metal to remove oxides

• Common fluxes used are made of sodium, potassium. Lithium and

borax.

• Flux can be applied as paste, powder,liquid.solid coating or gas.

Oxyacetylene Welding
 Acetylene (C2H2)
• Most popular fuel among OFW group because it is
capable of higher temperatures than any other
– Up to 3480C (6300F)
• Two stage reaction of acetylene and oxygen:
– First stage reaction (inner cone of flame)
C2H2 + O2  2CO + H2 + heat
– Second stage reaction (outer envelope)
2CO + H2 + 1.5O2  2CO2 + H2O + heat
 GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT...
1. Gas Cylinders
Pressure
Oxygen – 125 kg/cm2 – Black in color
Acetylene – 16 kg/cm2 – Maroon in color
2. Regulators
Working pressure of oxygen 1 kg/cm2
Working pressure of acetylene 0.15 kg/cm2
Working pressure varies depends upon the thickness of the
work pieces welded.
3. Pressure Gauges
4. Hoses
5. Welding torch or Blow Pipe
6. Check valve
7. Non return valve
Oxy-Acetylene welding
 TYPES OF FLAMES…
• When acetylene is burned in air, it produces a yellow sooty flame,
which is not enough for welding applications

• Oxygen is turned on, flame immediately changes into a long white

inner area (Feather) surrounded by a transparent blue envelope is
called Carburizing flame (30000c) This flames are used for
hardening the surfaces..

• Addition of little more oxygen give a bright whitish cone surrounded

by the transparent blue envelope is called Neutral flame (It has a
balance of fuel gas and oxygen) (32000c)
• Used for welding steels, aluminium, copper and cast iron

• If more oxygen is added, the cone becomes darker and more

pointed, while the envelope becomes shorter and more fierce is
called Oxidizing flame
• Has the highest temperature about 34000c
• Used for welding brass and brazing operation
 Types of flames

• Reducing flame is used to melt low-melting-

point metals and alloys because it does not
oxidize or corrode the metals.
• Neutral flame is the hottest one possible and
is the proper adjustment for welding.
• Oxidizing flame that can cause corrosion in
the metal. It is only used for cutting flames or
burning pieces of metal from a piece of stock.
 Oxyacetylene Flames Used in Welding

Figure 27.1 Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting
operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing, flame. The gas
mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene.
 Alternative Gases for OFW
• Methylacetylene‑Propadiene (MAPP)
• Hydrogen
• Propylene
• Propane
• Natural Gas
 GAS WELDING
• Advantages of an oxy-acetylene weld
– inexpensive
– requires very little specialized equipment.
• Disadvantages
– any traces of carbon left in the weld will weaken it.
 GAS CUTTING

• Ferrous metal is heated in to red hot condition and a jet of pure oxygen is
projected onto the surface, which rapidly oxidizes.

• Oxides having lower melting point than the metal, melt and are blown away by
the force of the jet, to make a cut

• Fast and efficient method of cutting steel to a high degree of accuracy

• Torch is different from welding

• Cutting torch has preheat orifice and one central orifice for oxygen jet.

• PIERCING and GOUGING are two important operations.

• Piercing, used to cut a hole at the centre of the plate or away from the edge of
the plate

• Gouging, to cut a groove into the steel surface.

 GAS CUTTING…

Automatic Gas Cutting Manual Gas Cutting

Types of Electric Arc Welding Processes
Arc welding process : Consumable electrode

• SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding)

• SAW (Submerged Arc Welding)
• GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding)
• FCAW (Flux Core Arc Welding)
• Electro Gas Welding
• Electro Slag Welding
 Functions of Coated Electrodes ( flux coated )
1. Protects the weld from oxidizing with atmosphere by producing a
shield of gas around the arc and weld pool
2. Provide the slag which floats at the top of molten metal so as to
protect the weld from rapid cooling and to protect weld from
atmosphere. The slag is then brushed off after weld gets cooled.
Terms used in welding :
Weld Pool :- Nature of deposition of the filler material in fusion zone
is know as weld pool
Slag :- molten or fused flux is called as slag
Flux :- mixture of Borax and sodium carbonate is coated to electrode
for shielding purpose.
Electric arc between the electrode and work piece closes the
electric circuit. The arc temperature may reach 10000°F (5500°C),
which is sufficient for fusion the work piece edges and joining them.
SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding)
 Shielded metal arc welding process
(SMAW) or stick
welding
Fig : Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc
welding process ( also known as stick welding,
because the electrode is in the shape of a stick).

Fig : Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc

welding process. About 50% of all large-scale
industrial welding operations use this process.
 Submerged arc welding:

• Weld arc is shielded by a granular flux ,consisting of silica, lime,

manganese oxide, calcium fluoride and other compounds.

• Flux is fed into the weld zone by gravity flow through nozzle

• Thick layer of flux completely covers molten metal and prevents the
weld spatter and sparks and suppresses the intense ultraviolet
radiation and fumes.

• Flux acts as a thermal insulator ,promoting deep penetration of heat

into the work piece

• Consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire (1.5-10mm) fed

automatically through a tube (welding gun).

• Power is supplied by 3-phase or 2-phase power lines

Submerged arc welding: (SAW)

Fig : Schematic illustration of the submerged-arc welding process and

equipment. The unfused flux is recovered and reused .
 Submerged Arc Welding
Advantages

• High deposition rates

• No arc flash or glare
• Minimal smoke and fumes
• Flux and wire added separately - extra dimension of
control
• Easily automated
• Joints can be prepared with narrow grooves
• Can be used to weld carbon steels, low alloy steels,
stainless steels, chromium-molybdenum steels,
nickel base alloys
 Submerged Arc Welding
Limitations

• Flux obstructs view of joint during welding

• Flux is subject to contaminationporosity
• Normally not suitable for thin material
• Restricted to the flat position for grooves -
flat and horizontal for fillets
• Slag removal required
• Flux handling equipment
 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) or GMAW
• Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is a process which uses
heat generated by an arc struck between wire electrode and
the workpiece.
• Uses a consumable electrode (filler wire made of the base
metal). Inert gas is typically Argon.
DRIVE WHEELS
CONSUMABLE
ELECTRODE

POWER
SOURCE

SHIELDING GAS ARC COLUMN

BASE METAL WELD POOL

GMAW Fundamentals
Gas Metal Arc Welding
or
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding
 Introduction
 GMAW is defined as arc welding using a continuously
fed consumable electrode and a shielding gas.
 GMAW is also known as MIG (Metal Inert Gas).
 Produces high-quality welds
 Yields high productivity
 Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG, GMAW)

•Metal Inert Gas Welding (Gas Metal Arc Welding) is the

arc welding process, in which the weld is shielded by an external gas (argon,
helium, CO2, argon + oxygene or other gas mixtures).

•Consumable electrode wire, having chemical composition simiilar to that of the

parent material, is continuously fed from a spool to the arc zone.

•The arc heats and melts both the work pieces edges and the electrode wire.

•The fused electrode material is supplied to the surfaces of the work pieces, fills
the weld pool and forms joint.

•Due to automatic feeding of the filling wire (electrode) the process is referred
to as a semi-automatic. The operator controls only the torch positioning and
speed.
 GMAW ( MIG ) :- Main Components
- Welding torch
- electric power source
- shielding gas source
- wire spool with electrode wire feed unit.

Equipment required for the GMAW

 The GMAW ( MIG ) process
The heat is produced by an electric arc between the continuously
fed metal electrode and the base metal. Both the base metal and
the filler are melt. The weld area is protected by inert shield gases.

Weldable metals:
-steel carbon
- steel low-allow
- steel stainless
- aluminum
- copper and its allows
- nickel and its allows
- magnesium
- reactive metal
(titanium,
zirconium, tantalum)
Characteristics of the weld joint by GMAW
 Advantages
 Large gaps filled or bridged easily
 Welding can be done in all positions
 No slag removal required
 High welding speeds
 High weld quality
 Less distortion of work piece
 Manual GMAW Equipment
 Three major elements are :
1.) Welding torch and accessories
2.) Welding control & Wire feed motor
3.) Power Source

 GMAW equipment can be used either manually or

automatically
 Welding Torch & Accessories
 The welding torch guides the wire and shielding gas to
the weld zone.
 Brings welding power to the wire also
 Major components/parts of the torch are the contact tip,
shielding gas nozzle, gas diffuser, and the wire conduit
 GAS DIFFUSER

NOZZLE

TRIGGER
CONTACT TIP

INSTALLED

COMPONENTS
 Welding Control & Wire
Feed Motor
 Welding control & Wire feed motor are combined into
one unit
 Main function is to pull the wire from the spool and feed it
to the arc
 Controls wire feed speed and regulates the starting and
stopping of wire feed
 Wire feed speed controls Amperage
WIRE FEEDER
 Power Source
 Almost all GMAW is done with reverse polarity also
known as DCEP
 Positive (+) lead is connected to the torch
 Negative (-) lead is connected to the work piece
 Provides a relatively consistent voltage to the arc
 Arc Voltage is the voltage between the end of the wire
and the work piece
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
TERMINAL TERMINAL
 Shielding Gases

 Purpose of shielding gas is the protect the weld area

from the contaminants in the atmosphere
 Gas can be Inert, Reactive, or Mixtures of both
 Gas flow rate is between 25-35 CFH
 Argon, Helium, and Carbon Dioxide are the main three
gases used in GMAW
FLOW METER CFH PRESSURE
ADJUSTMENT
KNOB

CYLCINDER
PRESSURE
GAUGE
 Flux–cored Arc – Welding
(FCAW)

• Flux cored arc welding is similar to a gas metal arc

welding

• Electrode is tubular in shape and is filled with flux

• Cored electrodes produce more stable arc improve weld

contour and produce better mechanical properties

• Flux is more flexible than others

 Flux-Cored Arc Welding

Fig : Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc-welding process. This operation is similar to gas
metal-arc welding.
 Electro gas Welding :
• EGW is welding the edges of sections vertically in one pass with
the pieces placed edge to edge (Butt Welding type).
• Machine welding.
• Weld metal is deposited into weld cavity between the two pieces
to be joined.
• Mechanical drives moves shoes upwards.
• Circumferential welds such as on pipes are posssible.
• Single and multiple electrodes are fed through a conduit and a
continuous arc is maintained using flux-cored electrodes at up to
750 A
• Shielding is provided using inert gases.
Process capabilities :
• Weld thickness ranges from 12mm to 75mm
• Metals welded are steels, titanium, aluminum alloys
• Applications are construction of bridges, pressure vessels, thick
walled and large diameter pipes, storage tanks and ships.
Electrogas Welding

Fig : Schematic
illustration of the
electrogas welding
process
Electro Slag Welding
 Electroslag Welding (ESW)

Electroslag Welding is the welding process in which the heat is

generated by an electric current passing between the consumable
electrode (filler metal) and the work piece through a molten slag,
which covers the weld surface.

Prior to welding the gap between the two work pieces is filled with a
welding flux. Electroslag Welding is initiated by an arc between the
electrode and the work piece (or starting plate). Heat, generated by
the arc, melts the fluxing powder and forms molten slag. The slag,
having low electric conductivity, is maintained in liquid state due to
heat produced by the electric current.

The slag reaches a temperature of about 3500°F (1930°C). This

temperature is sufficient for melting the consumable electrode and
work piece edges. Metal droplets fall to the weld pool and join the
work pieces.

Electroslag Welding is used mainly for steels.

The travel speed of weld is 12-36 mm/min.
Advantages of Electroslag Welding:

High deposition rate - up to 45 lbs/h (20 kg/h);

Low slag consumption (about 5% of the deposited metal weight);
Low distortion;
Unlimited thickness of work piece.

Disadvantages of Electroslag welding:

Coarse grain structure of the weld;

Low toughness of the weld;
Only vertical position is possible.
Non-consumable Electrode
Arc Welding Types

• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

• Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW)
• Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
• Electron Beam Welding (EBM)
• Laser Beam Welding (LBM)
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• Also known as, Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding
– In Europe, called "WIG welding”.

– Uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and an

inert gas for arc shielding .

• Melting point of tungsten = 3410C (6170F)

• Used with or without a filler metal
– When filler metal used, it is added to weld pool
from separate rod or wire.

• Applications: aluminum, magnesium, and stainless

steel mostly.
• The method especially suitable for thin metals (below
6 mm).
 Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW)

Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) is the
welding process, in which heat is generated by an electric arc struck between a
tungsten non-consumable electrode and the work piece.

The weld pool is shielded by an inert gas (argon, helium, nitrogen) protecting the
molten metal from atmospheric contamination.

The heat produced by the arc (Arc Temp of 10,000 K) melts the work piece edges
and joins them. Filler rod may be used, if required.

Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding produces a high quality weld of most of metals.

Flux is not used in the process.

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Advantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW):

•Weld composition is close to that of the parent metal;
•High quality weld structure
•Slag removal is not required (no slag);
•Thermal distortions of work pieces are minimal due to
concentration of heat in small zone.
•Flux is not used; therefore, finished welds do not require cleaning
of corrosive residue.

Disadvantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG,

GTAW):
• Low welding rate;
•Relatively expensive;
•Requres high level of operators skill

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tNYmo2_DI6c
 Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW)
• Atomic hydrogen welding (AHW) is an arc welding process that uses an
arc between two metal tungsten electrodes in a shielding atmosphere of
hydrogen.

• Hydrogen gas flows by the tungsten electrodes in the holder, keeping them
cooler and lengthening the life of the electrode.

• Near the arc, the hydrogen breaks down into its atomic form, simultaneously
absorbing a large amount of heat from the arc.

H2 = 2H – 421.2 kJ/mol.

• When the hydrogen strikes a relatively cold surface (i.e., the outside weld
arc), it recombines into its diatomic form and rapidly releases the stored
heat.
2H = H2 + 421.2 kJ/mol.

• AC power source is used so that both the electrodes burn off at the same
rate.
 Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW)

•Mainly used for welding very thin sheets (2 to 10 mm thick) or small

diameter wires of welding noble metals and refractory materials.

•It is because of its much lower thermal efficiency as compared to direct arc
processes.

•Since arc is struck between two electrodes , non conducting materials such
as ceramics may be welded.
 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

The term “plasma” refers to a gas which is sufficiently ionised (by raising it to a high
temperature) to conduct current freely.

Plasma Arc Welding is a welding process utilizing heat generated by a constricted

arc (plasma jet ) struck between a tungsten non-consumable electrode and either the
work piece (transferred arc process) or water cooled constricting nozzle (non-
transferred arc process).

The gas is forced past an electric arc through a constricted openining at the end of
water cooled nozzle. Due to this gas gets heated and becomes ionised which is a
plasma.

As the arc is constricted proportion of ionised gas increases and plasma jet is
created. This results in a more concentrated heat source at a higher temperature that
greatly increases the heat transfer efficiency, allowing for faster travel speeds.

This plasma jet will take a narrow, columnar shape that make it ideal for welding.
This process uses two inert gases , one forms the plasma and second shield the arc
weld metal. Filler rod may or may not be supplied.
Plasma Arc Welding
 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) - Types

Transferred Plasma arc process - Arc is struck between tungsten non-

consumable electrode.

produces plasma jet of high energy density and may be used for high
speed welding and cutting of Ceramics, steels, Aluminum alloys, Copper
alloys, Titanium alloys, Nickel alloys.

Non-transferred arc process - Arc is struck between non consumable

electrode and water cooled constricted nozzle. Since the work piece in
non-transferred plasma arc welding is not a part of elctric circuit, the
plasma arc torch may move from one work piece to other.

produces plasma of relatively low energy density. It is used for welding of

various metals and also known as thermal spraying.
Advantages of Plasma Arc Welding (PAW):

Ensures greater arc stability

•Requires less operator skill due to good tolerance of arc to
misalignments;
•High welding rate;
•High penetrating capability (keyhole effect);

Disadvantages of Plasma Arc Welding (PAW):

•Expensive equipment;
High distortions and wide welds as a result of high heat input.
 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

Fusion welding process in which heat for welding is provided by a

highly‑focused, high‑intensity stream of electrons striking work
surface.

Kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into heat as the electrons

strike the workpiece.

• Electron beam gun (Tungsten or tantalum cathode) coperates at:

– High voltage (e.g., 10 to 150 kV typical) to accelerate electrons
– Beam currents are low (measured in milliamps)
– the electron gun melts the parent metal, and the molten metal flows
to fill the gap
– heat affected zone is very narrow.
– welds can be several inches deep, and leaves a very clean weld.
– Welding must be done in a vacuum.
Electron Beam Welding

Components
1. An Electron beam gun
2. A Vacuum chamber
3. A means of moving work
4. Microscope
 Three Vacuum Levels in EBW

1. High-vacuum welding – welding in same vacuum

chamber as beam generation to produce highest
quality weld
2. Medium-vacuum welding – welding in separate
chamber but partial vacuum reduces pump-down time.
3. Non-vacuum welding – welding done at or near
atmospheric pressure, with work positioned close to
electron beam generator - requires vacuum divider to
separate work from beam generator.
 EBW Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
• High‑quality welds, deep and narrow profiles
• Limited heat affected zone, low thermal distortion
• No flux or shielding gases needed
Disadvantages:
• High equipment cost
• Precise joint preparation & alignment required
• Vacuum chamber required
• Safety concern: EBW generates x‑rays
 Laser Beam Welding (LBW)

Fusion welding process in which coalescence is achieved

by energy of a highly concentrated, coherent light beam
focused (10 micron) on joint.
• LBW normally performed with shielding gases to prevent
oxidation.
• Filler metal not usually added
• High power density in small area
– So LBW often used for small parts.
– 2 types
• Solid state laser – Ruby laser
• Gas laser .
Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
Laser
CO2 gas: fixed position
Nd-YAG crystal: fiber-optic
delivery
 Laser Beam Welding
• The beam provides a concentrated heat source, allowing
for narrow, deep welds and high welding rates.
• Depth to width ratio of 4 to 10

• The process is frequently used in high volume

applications, such as in the automotive industry.
• Solid state laser – ruby laser.
• Gas laser - use high-voltage, low-current power sources
 Comparison: LBW vs. EBW
• No vacuum chamber required for LBW.
• No x‑rays emitted in LBW
• Laser beams can be focused and directed by optical
lenses and mirrors.
• LBW not capable of the deep welds and high
depth‑to‑width ratios of EBW
– Maximum LBW depth = ~ 19 mm (3/4 in), whereas
EBW depths = 50 mm (2 in).
Solid-State Welding Processes
SOLID STATE WELDING
Ultrasonic Welding
Friction Welding
Resistance Welding
 Ultrasonic Welding

• A solid state welding process in which coalescence is

produced at the faying surfaces by the application of
high frequency vibratory energy while the work pieces
are held together under moderately low static pressure.

• It is commonly used for plastics, and especially for joining dissimilar

materials.
Ultrasonic Welding Variables

1. Ultrasonic power
2. Clamping force
3. Welding time
4. Frequency
5. Linear Vibration Amplitude
Ultrasonic Welding
 Ultrasonic Welding Power Generation

• Electrical power of 60 Hz is
supplied to the frequency
converter.
• The frequency converter converts Frequency
Electrical
the required 60 Hz signal to the converter
energy
welding frequency (from 10 to 75
kHz).

Transducer
• Frequency is transformed to
vibration energy through the
transducer.
• Energy required for this operation
increases with the thickness and Vibratory
hardness of the materials being transducer
joined.
 Ultrasonic Welding Process
• Components of ultrasonic Clamping
welding system include: force

– Transducer Converts the electrical Mass

signal into a mechanical vibration

– Sonotrode Applies the mechanical

vibration to the parts to be welded
wedge Transducer
– Anvil the parts are placed and allowing the
high frequency vibration to be directed to the
interfaces
Sonotrode
tip

Vibration
Weldment

Anvil
Force

Linear ultrasonic vibrations are generated in the transducer and transferred to a sonotrode.
The anvil holds the components in a fixed position and supports the clamping force.
 Ultrasonic Welding Mechanism
Clamping
force
• A static clamping force is applied Mass
perpendicular to the interface
between the work pieces.
• The contacting sonotrode wedge Transducer
oscillates parallel to the interface.
Sonotrode
tip
• Combined effect of static and
oscillating force produces
10-75 KHz workpiece
deformation which promotes
welding. Anvil
Force
 Advantages of Ultrasonic Welding

• No heat is applied and no melting occurs.

• Permits welding of thin to thick sections.

• Welding can be made through some surface coatings.

• Pressures used are lower, welding times are shorter,

and the thickness of deformed regions are thinner than
for cold welding.
 Limitations of Ultrasonic Welding

• The thickness of the component adjacent to the

sonotrode tip must not exceed relatively thin gages
because of power limitations of the equipment.

• Process is limited to lap joints.

• Butt welds can not be made because there is no means

of supporting the workpieces and applying clamping
force.
 Applications of Ultrasonic Welding

• Assembling of electronic components such as diodes

and semiconductors with substrates.

• Electrical connections to current carrying devices

including motors, field coils, and capacitors.

• Encapsulation and packaging.

• Plastic parts - dashboard assemblies for automobiles

Resistance Welding
 Resistance Welding

• Resistance welding processes are a fast

and reliable means of joining thin sheets of
metal together. 
Why it is named so?
• Heat required for producing joint using this
process is generated by resistance to the
flow of current through area where joint is
to be formed.
 Types of Resistance Welding

• Spot welding
• Seam welding
• Projection welding
• Flash welding
• Upset butt welding
• Percussion welding
 Features of Resistance Welding

• It uses pressure to
consolidate partially
melted metal to form weld
nugget.
• It differs from other in
terms of
– Flux (non flux)
– Filler metal
• Most of resistance welding
operation are automated.
Spot welding
 Resistance Welding
• Resistance welding processes are a fast and
reliable means of joining thin sheets of metal
together. 

• The weld is created by first applying pressure on

the two parts to be joined.  Once the correct
amount of pressure is applied, current is passed
between the two (or more) overlapped sheets. 

• Resistive heating results in melting and the

formation of a “weld nugget” or a “weld seam”.
 Resistance Welding

electrode

electrode

The contact resistance between the two pieces of sheet metal to be joined is much higher than the bulk
resistance of the copper electrodes or of the sheet metal itself. Therefore, the highest resistive heating
occurs between the two pieces of sheet metal. As current continues to flow, melting occurs and a weld
nugget is formed between the two sheets. On termination of the welding current, the weld cools rapidly
under the influence of the chilled electrodes. This causes the nugget to resolidify, joining the two sheets of
metal.
 “Spot Welding”
• Resistance spot welding is the most common of the
resistance welding processes. It is used extensively in
the automotive, appliance, furniture, and aircraft
industries to join sheet materials.

• In this process, water-cooled, copper electrodes are

used to clamp the sheets to be welded into place.

• The force applied to the electrodes insures intimate

contact between all the parts in the weld configuration.
A current is then passed across the electrodes through
the sheets.
 Resistance Spot Welding (RSW): “Spot Welding”
• No filler rod: electrical current is passed through metal under pressure
• Low skill level required
• Easy to automate
• Low heat input and no weld bead: distortion and grain growth are minimized

Kalpakjian
 Examples of Spot Welding

Figure 31.9 (a) and (b) Spot-welded cookware and muffler. (c) An automated spot-
welding machine with a programmable robot; the welding tip can move in three
principal directions. Sheets as large as 2.2 m  0.55 m (88 in.  22 in.) can be
accommodated in this machine. Source: Courtesy of Taylor–Winfield Corporation.
 Spot Welding Example
Figure 28.8 Robots equipped with spot-welding guns and operated by computer controls, in a
mass-production line for automotive bodies. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
 Seam Welding
In seam welding overlapping sheets are gripped between two roller
disc electrodes and current is passed to obtain either continuous
seam or intermittent seam.

Figure 31.11 (a) Seam-welding process in which rotating rolls act as electrodes; (b)
overlapping spots in a seam weld; (c) roll spot welds; (d) mash-seam welding.
 Resistance Seam Welding
It is used for making petrol tanks for automobiles, seam welded tubes,
drums and other components of domestic applications.
Limitation
Equipment is costly and process is limited to less than 3 mm thick plates.

Figure 28.9 (a) Seam-

welding process in
which rotating rolls act
as electrodes. (b)
Overlapping spots in a
seam weld. (c) Roll
spot welds. (d)
Resistance-welded
gasoline tank.
 Resistance Projection Welding
Projection welding is a variation of spot welding. Projections are designed in
one part. These act as current concentrators for the welding process. When the
two parts are mated together, these projections are the high points that first
make contact. As the power is cycled, the projections simultaneously carry the
current and are welded.

Figure 28.11 (a) Schematic

illustration of resistance projection
welding. (b) A welded bracket. (c)
and (d) Projection welding of nuts or
threaded bosses and studs. Source:
American Welding Society. (e)
Resistance-projection-welded grills.
 Flash Welding

The pieces of metal to be welded are set apart at a predetermined distance

based on material thickness, material composition, and desired properties of the
finished weld.

Current is applied to the metal, and the gap between the two pieces creates
resistance and produces the arc required to melt the metal.

Once the pieces of metal reach the proper temperature, they are pressed
together, effectively forging them together
 Stud Welding

Stud welding is a form of spot welding where a bolt or threaded rod, hook, or
specially formed nut is welded onto another metal part.

Figure 28.13 The sequence of operations in stud welding, which is used for welding bars, threaded
rods, and various fasteners onto metal plates.
 Percussion welding

• Percussion welding (PEW) is a type of resistance

welding that blends dissimilar metals together.
• Percussion welding creates a high temperature arc that
is formed from a short quick electrical discharge.

• In this welding process where a united body is made over the entire
area of butt positioned work surfaces by heating is obtained from an
arc produced by a rapid discharge of electrical energy and the
pressure is applied same time of electrical discharge.

• Percussion welding used in telephone industry for connecting

leaded components to the terminals.
 Resistance Welding Advantages

• High speed, < 0.1 seconds in automotive spot welds

• Excellent for sheet metal applications, < ¼-inch
• No filler metal
Process Disadvantages and Limitations

• Higher equipment costs

than arc welding
• Power line demands
• Nondestructive testing
• Low tensile and fatigue
strength
• Not portable
• Electrode wear
• Lap joint requires
additional metal
Friction Welding
 Definition of Friction Welding

• Friction welding is a solid

state joining process that
produces coalescence by
the heat developed
between two surfaces by
mechanically induced
surface motion. (Friction)
Categories of Friction Welding

• Continuous drive
• Inertia
 Continuous Drive Friction Welding
• One of the workpieces is
attached to a rotating
motor drive, the other is Workpieces
Motor Non-rotating vise
fixed in an axial motion
system.
• One workpiece is rotated
Spindle
at constant speed by the Chuck
Hydraulic cylinder

motor. Brake

• An axial or radial force is

applied.
 Continuous Drive Friction Welding

• The work pieces are

brought together under Workpieces
Motor Non-rotating vise
pressure for a
predeter-mined time, or
until a preset upset is
reached. Spindle Hydraulic cylinder
Chuck
• Then the drive is Brake
disengaged and a
break is applied to the
rotating work piece.
 Friction Welding Variables
(Continuous Drive)

• Rotational speed
• Heating pressure
• Forging pressure
• Heating time
• Braking time
• Forging time
 Inertia Drive
Inertia Welding Process Description
• One of the work pieces is
connected to a flywheel; the
other is clamped in a non-rotating
axial drive
• The flywheel is accelerated to the Motor Flywheel Non-rotating chuck
welding angular velocity. Workpieces
• The drive is disengaged and the
work pieces are brought together.
• Frictional heat is produced at the
Spindle Chuck Hydraulic cylinder
interface. An axial force is applied
to complete welding.
 Inertia Drive
Inertia Welding Variables

• Moment of inertia of the flywheel.

• Initial flywheel speed.
• Axial pressure.
• Forging pressure.
 Similarities between Continuous
Drive and Inertia Drive

• In both methods, welding heat is developed by

frictional heat and plastic deformation.
• Both methods use axial force for upsetting
purpose.
• In both methods the axial pressure may be
changed (usually raised) at the end of rotation.
 Differences between Continuous Drive
and Inertia Drive

Continuous drive Inertia drive

• One of the workpieces • One of the workpieces is
directly connected to a connected to the flywheel.
rotating motor drive. • Rotational speed decreases
• Rotational speed remains continuously to zero during
constant until the brake is the process.
applied. • Kinetic energy of the flywheel
• Rotational energy of the dissipates through friction and
workpiece dissipates through plastic deformation producing
friction and plastic heat.
deformation, producing
welding heat.
 Friction Stir Welding

• Parts to be joined are clamped

firmly.
• A rotating hardened steel tool is
driven into the joint and
Butt welds
traversed along the joint line
between the parts.
• The rotating tool produces
friction with the parts,
generating enough heat and
deformation to weld the parts
together.
Overlap welds
 Friction Stir Welding

Clamping
force clamping
Step -1 Step -3
force

Step -4
Step -2
 Friction Welding Applications

• Frequently competes with flash or upset welding when

one of the work pieces to be joined has axial symmetry.
• Used in automotive industry to manufacture gears,
engine valves, and shock absorbers.
• Used to join jet engine compressor parts.
Welding Defects
 Types of Welding Defects
• Dimensional
• Undercut
• Inclusions
• Cracks
• Incomplete Fusion
• Lack of Penetration
UNDERCUT
POROSITY
 Slag Inclusion Defects
Slag Inclusion defect are
mainly associated with flux
welding processes.
This is caused by:-
• Poor cleaning of weld beads
during multi runs.
• Incorrect electrode size for
joint.
• Scale & Rust not removed
from Base metal.
INCOMPLETE FUSION
Crack
OVERLAP
UNDERFILL
SPATTER
Concave and convex weld profiles
EXCESSIVE CONVEXITY
EXCESSIVE CONCAVITY
EXCESSIVE WELD
REINFORCEMENT
INCOMPLETE PENETRATION
&
EXCESSIVE PENETRATION
 Videos
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=66-RK0DPXfU

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KTe8FBNAREA

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=51Zs8iaydt0

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kGEhr57f5N0

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uEvBf3zkjTg