EXPEPSYCH REVIEWER
situations
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
Science – Latin word “Scientia” (meaning
knowledge
- Has 2 connotations:
 Content – facts
 Process – activity
Methodology - scientific techniques
- Commonsense Psychology – non-
scientific data gathering that shapes
expectations and beliefs and direct
our behavior towards others.
Non-scientific sources of data –
superstitions, hearsays, trustworthy and
credible people
- Confirmation bias – tends to
overlook instances that might
disconfirm our beliefs. (e.g. Friday
the 13th)
Non-scientific inference
- Commonsense psychologists
believed in Trait Theories
(perceiving others in terms of things
that could be predictable through
their behavior).
- E.g. stereotyping, gambler’s fallacy,
overconfidence bias, Rosenthal
effect - ↑ expectations, ↑
performance.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN
SCIENCE
The Scientific Mentality
 Psychologists – goal of
prediction rest on a simple
but important assumption.
 Research Psychologists –
specifiable reasons for the
way people behave
(Determinism)
Gathering Empirical Data – Systematic and
orderly way but is not guaranteed to conclude
correct conclusion.
Seeking General Principles – apply to all
 Theory – explanations that
may not suffice info to state a
general law.
Self-correction
- accept the uncertainty of their own
conclusions
- “Weight of evidence” approach.
Publicizing results – scientific papers
published each year in scientific journals is
growing.
Replication – repetition of procedure to get the
same results again.
OBJECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
SCIENCE
1. Describe
2. Predict
3. Explain
4. Control
TOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
 Observation – systematic
noting and recording of
events.
 Measurement – assignment
of numerical values to
objects or events or their
characteristics according to
conventional rules.
 Experimentation – process
undertaken to test a
hypothesis.
SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION IN
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
1. Identifying Antecedent Conditions –
antecedent conditions – circumstances
that come before the event or behavior
that we want to explain.
2. Comparing Treatment Conditions –
create specific sets of antecedent
conditions called treatments.
3. The Psychology Experiment – controlled
procedure (2 different treatment
conditions are applied to subjects)
 4. Establishing Cause and Effect – Protecting the Welfare of Animal Subjects
greatest value of the psychology
experiment. Animal Welfare – humane care and treatment
5. Necessary vs. Sufficient Conditions of animals.

FROM PSEUDOSCIENCE TO Animal Welfare Act of 1996 – General

PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE standards for animal care.

Wilhelm Wundt – Father of Modern Institutional Animal Care and Use

Experimental Psychology
G. Stanley Hall – opened 1st psych lab in USA
Mental Philosophy – included the study of
consciousness and mental processes
William of Occam – cautioned us to stick to a
basic premise.
Committee (IACUC) – evaluate animal
research before it can be conducted.
The Animal Rights Movement
Animal Rights – idea that all sensate species
are of equal value and equal rights.
Fraud in Science

Robert A. Baron – Father of Individual Fraud – researchers publishing false data

Differences
CHAPTER 2 – RESEARCH ETHICS
Risk/Benefit Analysis – if any risks to the
individual are outweighed by potential benefits.
Informed Consent – subject agrees to
participate
Assent – agreement of minors
The Evolution of Ethics in Research
Data Falsification – breach of ethical principles
Replication – replicating published findings
Plagiarism – representing one’s idea as your
own
CHAPTER 3 – NON-EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
Phenomenology – description of one’s
individual experience.

Code of 1947 – code of ethical standards William James – used the phenomenological
approach (his own experience) – precludes
Belmont Report – respect for persons, experimental manipulation
beneficence, and justice.
Case Studies – descriptive record of a single
The American Psychological Associations individual.
Guidelines
PURPOSES:
- Psychologists conducting research
are responsible for maintaining  Source of inferences,
ethical standards. hypotheses and theories.
- Minimal risk – subject is at little to no  Source of developing therapy
risk of being in danger. techniques.
 Allow the study of rare
Deception and Full Disclosure phenomena.
Confederate – an accomplice  Provide exceptions to
accepted ideas.
Debriefing – explaining the true nature and  Have persuasive and
purpose of the study. motivational value.
Anonymity and Confidentiality – protecting Deviant Case Analysis - extension of
the privacy of research participants. evaluative case studies
NOTE: Case studies frequently rely on
retrospective data.
Retrospective Data – data collected in the
present that are based on recollections of past
events.
Field Studies – non-experimental approached
used in the field or in real-life settings.
Naturalistic Observation Studies – technique
of observing behaviors as they occur
spontaneously.
Reactivity – subjects tend to alter behavior or
responses when they are aware of an
observer’s presence.
Unobtrusive measures – behaviors observed
without subject’s knowledge.
Participant-Observer Studies – researcher
actually becomes a part of the group being
studied.
Archival Study – existing records are
reexamined for a new purpose.
Qualitative Research – relies on words rather
than numbers
Paradigm – set of attitudes, beliefs, values,
methods and procedures that are generally
accepted.
Empirical Phenomenology (Contemporary
Phenomenology) – might rely on the
researcher’s experiences or on experiential
data provided by other sources.
CHAPTER 4 – SURVEYS AND INTERVIEWS
Survey research – Obtaining info by simply
asking
Constructing surveys – steps need to be
followed for valid info to be gathered.
Closed questions (Structured questions) –
must be answered by one of a limited number
of alternatives.
Open-ended questions – solicit info about
opinions and feelings
Content Analysis – responses are assigned to
categories that are created from the data
according to objective rules and guidelines.
Double-barreled questions – asks about two
(or more) ideas in one question
Measuring Responses
Level of Measurement
1. Nominal – “yes or no”, “male of female”
2. Ordinal – rank
3. Interval – no true zero point
4. Ratio – has true zero point
Selecting levels of measurement
Continuous Dimension – traits, attitudes and
preferences.
Response Styles – tendencies to respond to
questions in specific ways, regardless of
content.
Willingness to Answer – comes to play
whenever questions require knowledge about
facts or issues.
Position Answer – “when in doubt, letter C.”
Manifest content – plain meaning of words
that actually appear on the page.
Yea-sayers (Response Acquiescence) – apt
to agree with a question regardless of its
manifest content
Nay-sayers (Response Deviation) – tend to
disagree
Collecting Survey Data
- Self-Administered Questionnaires
- Mail Surveys
- Computer and Internet Surveys
- Telephone Surveys
- Interviews
- Focus Groups
Evaluating Surveys and Survey Data
Reliability – extent which the survey is
consistent and repeatable.
Validity – extent to which a survey actually
measures intended topic.
Sampling – deciding on who the subjects will
be
Population – consists of all people
Sample of subjects – groups that is a subset
of the population
Representativeness – how closely the sample
mirrors the larger population
Probability Sampling – selecting subjects in a
way that the odds of their being in the study are
calculated.
Random Selection – any member of the
population has an equal opportunity to be
selected.
Simple Random Sampling – a portion of the
whole population is selected in an unbiased
way.
Systematic Random Sampling – all members
of a population are known and can be listed in
an unbiased way.
Stratified Random Sampling – obtained by
randomly sampling from people in each
subgroup
Cluster Sampling – participants are randomly
selected but whole groups of people are
selected rather than individuals.
Nonprobability Sampling – subjects are not
chosen at random (quota, convenience,
purposive, snowball)
Quota – samples are selected through
predetermined quotas
Convenience – using any groups who happen
to be available.
Purposive – nonrandom samples are selected
because the individuals reflect a specific
purpose of the study
Snowball – researcher locates one or few
people who fit the sample criterion
CHAPTER 5 – CORRELATIONAL AND
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Correlational Designs – can be used with both
lab and field data.
Correlational Study – designed to determine
the correlation.
Variable – any observable behavior that can
have different values.
Simple Correlation – relationships between
pairs of scores from each subject
Pearson r – used when interval or ratio scale
data are collected.
Scatterplots – visual representation of the
scores belonging to each subject in the study.
Regression line – lines of best fit.
Positive correlation – direct relationship
Negative correlation – inverse relationship
Outliers – extreme scores
NOTE: Correlation does not imply causation
Bidirectional causation – behaviors affect
each other
Third variable problem – third agent that
causes two behaviors to appear related
Coefficient of determination – estimates the
amount of variability in scores on one variable
that can be explained by the other variable
Linear Regression Analysis – researcher can
estimate a score on one of the measured
behaviors from a score on the other
Multiple Correlation and Multiple Regression
Multiple Correlation – test the relationship of
several predictor variables
Partial Correlation – allows statistical influence
of one measured variable to be held constant
while computing the correlation between the
other two
Multiple Regression Analysis – used to
predict the score on one behavior from scores
on the others
Causal Modeling
Path Analysis – used when subjects are
measured on several related behaviors
Cross-Lagged Panel Design – uses
relationships measured over time to suggest
the causal path
Factor Analysis – determines subsets of
correlated variables within a larger set of
variables
Quasi-Experimental Designs – used to
explore the effects of different treatments on
preexisting groups of subjects
Ex Post Facto (“after the fact”) Studies –
study in which the researcher systematically
examines the effects of subject characteristics
(subject variables) but without actually
manipulating them
Nonequivalent Groups Design – researcher
compares the effects of different treatment
conditions on preexisting groups of participants
Longitudinal Design – used in studying
human (and animal) growth and development
Cross-Sectional Studies – subjects are
already at different stages and are compared at
a single point in time
Pretest/Posttest Design – people’s level of
behavior before and after the event are
compared
Practice effects – pretest sensitization
Non-equivalent control group – group that
took both pretest and posttest but not exposed
to the treatment
CHAPTER 6 – FORMULATING THE
HYPOTHESIS
Experimental Hypothesis – tentative
explanation of an event or behavior
Synthetic Statements – can be either true or
false
Analytic Statement – always true (e.g. “I am
pregnant or I am not pregnant)
Contradictory Statements – statements with
elements that oppose each other (e.g. “I have a
brother and I do not have a brother”)
Testable Statements – means for manipulating
antecedent conditions and measuring the
resulting behavior must exist
Falsifiable Statements – disprovable by the
research findings
Parsimonious Statements – simplest
explanation is preferred
Fruitful Statements – leads to new studies
Inductive Modeling – the process of reasoning
from specific cases to more general principles
Deductive Modeling – process of reasoning
from general principles to make predictions
about specific instances
Building on Prior Research
Serendipity and Windfall Hypothesis
Serendipity – knack of finding things that are
not being sought (Ivan Pavlov)
Intuition – knowing without reasoning
Causal Attributions – forming hypotheses
about the kinds of antecedent conditions that
affect people’s behavior that comes naturally
Searching the Research Literature
Meta-analysis – statistical reviewing procedure
that uses data from many similar studies to
summarize research findings
CHAPTER 7 – BASICS OF
EXPERIMENTATION
Independent Variable – dimension that the
experimenter intentionally manipulates
Dependent Variable – the outcome that we are
trying to explain; behavior we expect to change
Schachter – if people are anxious, then they
will want to affiliate or be with others
Hess – “large pupils make people more
attractive”, photographs of two women are rated
Identifying Variables
Word Orientation – people learn words faster
when words are written horizontally than when
they are written vertically
Operational Definitions – specifies the precise
meaning of a variable within an experiment
Defining the Independent Variable
Experimental Operational Definitions –
explain precise meaning of the independent
variables
Defining the Dependent Variable
Measured Operational Definitions – describe
exactly what procedures we follow to assess
the impact of different treatment conditions
Defining Constructs Operationally
Hypothetical Constructs – concepts that are
unseen processes postulated to explain
behavior
Defining Non-construct Variables
“Something that cannot be seen must be
defined by observable dimensions”
Defining Scales of Measurement
Evaluating Operational Definitions
Reliability – consistency and dependability
Interrater Reliability – different observers take
measurements of the same responses
Test-Retest Reliability – test is taken once
then they take it again
Inter-item Reliability – different parts of a
questionnaire is designed to assess the same
variable attain consistent results
Internal Consistency – multiple-item
questionnaire is used to measure a single
construct variable
Split-half Reliability – splitting test into two
halves at random and computing reliability
between scores obtained on two halves
Validity – actually studying the variables we
intend to study
Manipulation check – providing evidence for
the validity of an experimental procedure
Face Validity – does not provide real evidence
Content Validity – depends on whether we are
taking a fair sample of the variable we intend to
measure
Predictive Validity – “Do our procedures yield
info that enables us to predict future behavior or
performance?”
Concurrent Validity – compares scores on the
measuring instrument with an outside criterion
Construct Validity – deals with the transition
from theory to research application
Internal Validity – degree which a researcher
is able to state a causal relationship between
antecedent conditions and subsequent
observed behavior
Extraneous Variable and Confounding
Extraneous Variable (EV) – factors that are
not the focus of the experiment but can
influence the findings
Confounding – value of EV changes
systematically across different conditions of an
experiment
Classic Threats to Interval Validity
History – history of the experiment
Maturation – internal changes (physical or
psychological) changes in subjects that might
have affected scores on the dependent
measures
Testing – DV produced by a previous
administration
Instrumentation – measuring instrument itself
changes during the experiment
Statistical Regression (regression toward
the mean) – occur whenever subjects are
assigned to conditions on the basis of extreme
scores on a test
Selection – when researcher does not assign
subjects randomly to different conditions of an
experiment
Subject Mortality – more subjects dropped out
of one experimental condition than another
Selection Interactions – “family of threats”
Planning the Method Section
Method Section – place to describe what you
did in your experiments (who, what, when and
how)
- Divided into subsections:
Participants, Materials and
Procedure
CHAPTER 8 – CONTROLLING
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
Physical Variables – aspects of the testing
conditions that need to be controlled
Elimination and Constancy
Elimination – taking out EV to not affect the
experiment
Constancy of Conditions – we keep all
aspects of the treatment conditions as nearly
similar as possible
Balancing – distributing the effects of an EV
across different treatment conditions
Social Variables – qualities of the relationships
between subjects and experimenter that can
influence results
Demand Characteristics – aspects of the
experimental situation that demand that people
behave in a particular way
Controlling Demand Characteristics
Single-Blind Experiments – subjects do not
know which treatment they are getting
Placebo effect – pill is given, person is apt to
say that pill is helpful
Cover Stories – subjects respond as normally
as possible
Experimenter Bias – experimenter does
something that creates confounding in the
experiment
Rosenthal Effect (Pygmalion Effect) –
outcome of experimenters treating subjects
differently depending on what they expect from
them
Controlling Experimenter Bias
Double-blind Experiment – subjects do not
know which treatment they are receiving and
experimenter does not know either
Personality Variables
Experimenters – their behavior can be an
important extraneous variable in an experiment
Volunteer Subjects – tend to hold more liberal
social and political attitudes and tend to be less
authoritarian than non-volunteers
Context Variables – come about from the
procedures created by the environment, or
context of the research setting
CHAPTER 9 – BASIC BETWEEN-SUBJECTS
DESIGN
Selecting and Recruiting Subjects
1. Practical Limits
2. How Many Subjects?
Effect Size – statistical estimate of the size or
magnitude of the treatment effect
Power charts – used to estimate the minimum
number of subjects needed for each treatment
group
One Independent Variable
Two-group designs – experimenter may
choose to form separate groups of subjects
Two-independent-groups design – subjects
are placed in each of two treatment conditions
through random assignment
Random Assignment – every subject has an
equal chance of being placed in any of the
treatment conditions
Experimental Group-Control Group Design –
must have at least two different treatment
conditions
 Experimental Condition –
applies a particular value of
IV to the subjects and
measure the DV
  Control Condition – used to
determine the DV without an
experimental manipulation of
IV
 Control Group – subjects in
a control condition
Two-Experimental-Groups Design – used to
look at behavioral differences that occur when
subjects are exposed to two different values or
levels of the IV
Forming Two Independent Groups –
cockroach experiment
When To Use Two-Independent-Groups
Design – randomization is successful;
treatment groups are about the same on all the
extraneous subject variables
Two-Matched-Groups Design – there are also
two groups of subjects but the researcher
assigns them to groups by matching or
equating them on a characteristic that will
probably affect DV
Matching Before and After an Experiment –
subjects must be measured on the EV that will
be used for matching
Precision Matching – members of the
matched pairs have identical scores
Range Matching – members of a pair fall
within a previously specified range of scores
Rank-Ordered Matching – subjects are simply
rank ordered by their scores
Multiple-Groups Design – there are more than
two groups of subjects and each group is run
through a different treatment condition
Multiple-Independent-Groups Design –
subjects are assigned to the different treatment
conditions at random
Block Randomization – used to obtain equal
number of subjects in all treatment conditions
Pilot Study – mini-experiments in which
treatments are tested on a few subjects to see
whether the levels seem to be appropriate or
not
CHAPTER 10 – BETWEEN-SUBJECTS
FACTORIAL DESIGN
More than one Independent Variable
Factorial designs – designs in which we study
two or more IVs at the same time
Factors – the IV; could have two or more
values or levels
Two-factor Experiment – has only two factors;
simplest factorial design
Looking for Main Effects
Main Effect – action of a single IV in an
experiment
Looking for Interactions
Interaction – present if the effect of one IV
changes across levels of another IV
Higher-Order Interactions – involve more than
two variables at a time
Laying out a Factorial Design
Design Matrix – translating ideas about an
experiment into a simple diagram
Describing the Design
Shorthand Notation – tells us several things
about the experiment it describes (e.g. number
of factors that are involved)
Factor Labeling Methods – names of each
factor are placed in parentheses following the
numerical notations
Understanding Effects from Factorial
Designs
Crossover Interaction – effects of each factor
completely reverse at each level of the other
factor
Choosing a Between-Subjects Design
 From “What is my
hypothesis?” to “Can I
measure this variable?” or
“How many treatment
conditions do I have?”