Meteor shower

Four-hour time lapse exposure of the sky

Leonids from space

A meteor shower is a celestial event in

which a number of meteors are observed
to radiate, or originate, from one point in
the night sky. These meteors are caused
by streams of cosmic debris called
meteoroids entering Earth's atmosphere at
extremely high speeds on parallel
trajectories. Most meteors are smaller
than a grain of sand, so almost all of them
disintegrate and never hit the Earth's
surface. Very intense or unusual meteor
showers are known as meteor outbursts
and meteor storms, which produce at least
1,000 meteors an hour, most notably from
the Leonids.[1] The Meteor Data Centre
lists over 900 suspected meteor showers
of which about 100 are well established.[2]
Several organizations point to viewing
opportunities on the Internet.[3]

Historical developments
Diagram from 1872

The first great meteor storm in the modern

era was the Leonids of November 1833.
One estimate is a peak rate of over one
hundred thousand meteors an hour,[4] but
another, done as the storm abated,
estimated in excess of two hundred
thousand meteors during the 9 hours of
storm,[5] over the entire region of North
America east of the Rocky Mountains.
American Denison Olmsted (1791–1859)
explained the event most accurately. After
spending the last weeks of 1833 collecting
information, he presented his findings in
January 1834 to the American Journal of
Science and Arts, published in January–
April 1834,[6] and January 1836.[7] He
noted the shower was of short duration
and was not seen in Europe, and that the
meteors radiated from a point in the
constellation of Leo and he speculated the
meteors had originated from a cloud of
particles in space.[8] Work continued, yet
coming to understand the annual nature of
showers though the occurrences of
storms perplexed researchers.[9]

The actual nature of meteors was still

debated during the 19th century. Meteors
were conceived as an atmospheric
phenomenon by many scientists
(Alexander von Humboldt, Adolphe
Qoetelet, Julius Schmidt) until the Italian
astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli
ascertained the relation between meteors
and comets in his work "Notes upon the
astronomical theory of the falling stars"
(1867). In the 1890s, Irish astronomer
George Johnstone Stoney (1826–1911)
and British astronomer Arthur Matthew
Weld Downing (1850–1917), were the first
to attempt to calculate the position of the
dust at Earth's orbit. They studied the dust
ejected in 1866 by comet 55P/Tempel-
Tuttle in advance of the anticipated Leonid
shower return of 1898 and 1899. Meteor
storms were anticipated, but the final
calculations showed that most of the dust
would be far inside of Earth's orbit. The
same results were independently arrived at
by Adolf Berberich of the Königliches
Astronomisches Rechen Institut (Royal
Astronomical Computation Institute) in
Berlin, Germany. Although the absence of
meteor storms that season confirmed the
calculations, the advance of much better
computing tools was needed to arrive at
reliable predictions.

In 1981 Donald K. Yeomans of the Jet

Propulsion Laboratory reviewed the history
of meteor showers for the Leonids and the
history of the dynamic orbit of Comet
Tempel-Tuttle.[10] A graph[11] from it was
adapted and re-published in Sky and
Telescope.[12] It showed relative positions
of the Earth and Tempel-Tuttle and marks
where Earth encountered dense dust. This
showed that the meteoroids are mostly
behind and outside the path of the comet,
but paths of the Earth through the cloud of
particles resulting in powerful storms were
very near paths of nearly no activity.

In 1985, E. D. Kondrat'eva and E. A.

Reznikov of Kazan State University first
correctly identified the years when dust
was released which was responsible for
several past Leonid meteor storms. In
1995, Peter Jenniskens predicted the 1995
Alpha Monocerotids outburst from dust
trails.[13] In anticipation of the 1999 Leonid
storm, Robert H. McNaught,[14] David
Asher,[15] and Finland's Esko Lyytinen were
the first to apply this method in the
West.[16][17] In 2006 Jenniskens published
predictions for future dust trail encounters
covering the next 50 years.[18] Jérémie
Vaubaillon continues to update predictions
based on observations each year for the
Institut de Mécanique Céleste et de Calcul
des Éphémérides (IMCCE).[19]

Radiant point

Meteor shower on chart

Because meteor shower particles are all

traveling in parallel paths, and at the same
velocity, they will all appear to an observer
below to radiate away from a single point
in the sky. This radiant point is caused by
the effect of perspective, similar to parallel
railroad tracks converging at a single
vanishing point on the horizon when
viewed from the middle of the tracks.
Meteor showers are almost always named
after the constellation from which the
meteors appear to originate. This "fixed
point" slowly moves across the sky during
the night due to the Earth turning on its
axis, the same reason the stars appear to
slowly march across the sky. The radiant
also moves slightly from night to night
against the background stars (radiant
drift) due to the Earth moving in its orbit
around the Sun. See IMO Meteor Shower
Calendar 2017 (International Meteor
Organization) for maps of drifting "fixed
points."

When the moving radiant is at the highest

point it will reach in the observer's sky that
night, the Sun will be just clearing the
eastern horizon. For this reason, the best
viewing time for a meteor shower is
generally slightly before dawn — a
compromise between the maximum
number of meteors available for viewing,
and the lightening sky which makes them
harder to see.
Naming
Meteor showers are named after the
nearest constellation or bright star with a
Greek or Roman letter assigned that is
close to the radiant position at the peak of
the shower, whereby the grammatical
declension of the Latin possessive form is
replaced by "id" or "ids". Hence, meteors
radiating from near the star Delta Aquarii
(declension "-i") are called the Delta
Aquariids. The International Astronomical
Union's Task Group on Meteor Shower
Nomenclature and the IAU's Meteor Data
Center keep track of meteor shower
nomenclature and which showers are
established.

Origin of meteoroid streams

Comet Encke's meteoroid trail is the diagonal red

glow
Meteoroid trail between fragments of Comet 73P

A meteor shower is the result of an

interaction between a planet, such as
Earth, and streams of debris from a
comet. Comets can produce debris by
water vapor drag, as demonstrated by
Fred Whipple in 1951,[20] and by breakup.
Whipple envisioned comets as "dirty
snowballs," made up of rock embedded in
ice, orbiting the Sun. The "ice" may be
water, methane, ammonia, or other
volatiles, alone or in combination. The
"rock" may vary in size from that of a dust
mote to that of a small boulder. Dust mote
sized solids are orders of magnitude more
common than those the size of sand
grains, which, in turn, are similarly more
common than those the size of pebbles,
and so on. When the ice warms and
sublimates, the vapor can drag along dust,
sand, and pebbles.

Each time a comet swings by the Sun in its

orbit, some of its ice vaporizes and a
certain amount of meteoroids will be shed.
The meteoroids spread out along the
entire orbit of the comet to form a
meteoroid stream, also known as a "dust
trail" (as opposed to a comet's "gas tail"
caused by the very small particles that are
quickly blown away by solar radiation
pressure).

Recently, Peter Jenniskens[18] has argued

that most of our short-period meteor
showers are not from the normal water
vapor drag of active comets, but the
product of infrequent disintegrations, when
large chunks break off a mostly dormant
comet. Examples are the Quadrantids and
Geminids, which originated from a breakup
of asteroid-looking objects, 2003 EH1 and
3200 Phaethon, respectively, about 500
and 1000 years ago. The fragments tend
to fall apart quickly into dust, sand, and
pebbles, and spread out along the orbit of
the comet to form a dense meteoroid
stream, which subsequently evolves into
Earth's path.

Dynamical evolution of
meteoroid streams
Shortly after Whipple predicted that dust
particles travelled at low speeds relative to
the comet, Milos Plavec was the first to
offer the idea of a dust trail, when he
calculated how meteoroids, once freed
from the comet, would drift mostly in front
of or behind the comet after completing
one orbit. The effect is simple celestial
mechanics – the material drifts only a little
laterally away from the comet while
drifting ahead or behind the comet
because some particles make a wider
orbit than others.[18] These dust trails are
sometimes observed in comet images
taken at mid infrared wavelengths (heat
radiation), where dust particles from the
previous return to the Sun are spread along
the orbit of the comet (see figures).

The gravitational pull of the planets

determines where the dust trail would
pass by Earth orbit, much like a gardener
directing a hose to water a distant plant.
Most years, those trails would miss the
Earth altogether, but in some years the
Earth is showered by meteors. This effect
was first demonstrated from observations
of the 1995 alpha Monocerotids,[21][22] and
from earlier not widely known
identifications of past earth storms.

Over longer periods of time, the dust trails

can evolve in complicated ways. For
example, the orbits of some repeating
comets, and meteoroids leaving them, are
in resonant orbits with Jupiter or one of the
other large planets – so many revolutions
of one will equal another number of
revolutions of the other. This creates a
shower component called a filament.

A second effect is a close encounter with

a planet. When the meteoroids pass by
Earth, some are accelerated (making wider
orbits around the Sun), others are
decelerated (making shorter orbits),
resulting in gaps in the dust trail in the next
return (like opening a curtain, with grains
piling up at the beginning and end of the
gap). Also, Jupiter's perturbation can
change sections of the dust trail
dramatically, especially for short period
comets, when the grains approach the big
planet at their furthest point along the orbit
around the Sun, moving most slowly. As a
result, the trail has a clumping, a braiding
or a tangling of crescents, of each
individual release of material.

The third effect is that of radiation

pressure which will push less massive
particles into orbits further from the sun –
while more massive objects (responsible
for bolides or fireballs) will tend to be
affected less by radiation pressure. This
makes some dust trail encounters rich in
bright meteors, others rich in faint
meteors. Over time, these effects disperse
the meteoroids and create a broader
stream. The meteors we see from these
streams are part of annual showers,
because Earth encounters those streams
every year at much the same rate.

When the meteoroids collide with other

meteoroids in the zodiacal cloud, they lose
their stream association and become part
of the "sporadic meteors" background.
Long since dispersed from any stream or
trail, they form isolated meteors, not a part
of any shower. These random meteors will
not appear to come from the radiant of the
main shower.

Famous meteor showers

Perseids and Leonids
The most visible meteor shower in most
years are the Perseids, which peak on 12
August of each year at over one meteor
per minute. NASA has a tool to calculate
how many meteors per hour are visible
from one's observing location.

The Leonid meteor shower peaks around

17 November of each year. Approximately
every 33 years, the Leonid shower
produces a meteor storm, peaking at rates
of thousands of meteors per hour. Leonid
storms gave birth to the term meteor
shower when it was first realised that,
during the November 1833 storm, the
meteors radiated from near the star
Gamma Leonis. The last Leonid storms
were in 1999, 2001 (two), and 2002 (two).
Before that, there were storms in 1767,
1799, 1833, 1866, 1867, and 1966. When
the Leonid shower is not storming, it is
less active than the Perseids.

Other meteor showers

Established meteor showers

Official names are given in the International

Astronomical Union's list of meteor
showers.[23]
 Shower Time Parent object

The same as t he parent object of minor planet

2003 EH1,[24] and Comet C/1490 Y1.[25][26] Comet
Quadrant ids early January
C/1385 U1 has also been st udied as a possible
source.[27]

Lyrids lat e April Comet That cher

Pi Puppids (periodic) lat e April Comet 26P/Grigg-Skjellerup

Et a Aquariids early May Comet 1P/Halley

Comet 96P/Machholz, Marsden and Kracht comet

Ariet ids mid-June
groups complex[1][28]

Bet a Taurids lat e June Comet 2P/Encke

June Boot ids

lat e June Comet 7P/Pons-Winnecke
(periodic)

Sout hern Delt a Comet 96P/Machholz, Marsden and Kracht comet

lat e July
Aquariids groups complex[1][28]

Alpha Capricornids lat e July Comet 169P/NEAT [29]

Perseids mid-August Comet 109P/Swift -Tut t le

Kappa Cygnids mid-August Minor planet 2008 ED69[30]

Aurigids (periodic) early Sept ember Comet C/1911 N1 (Kiess)[31]

Draconids (periodic) early Oct ober Comet 21P/Giacobini-Zinner

Orionids lat e Oct ober Comet 1P/Halley

Sout hern Taurids early November Comet 2P/Encke

Nort hern Taurids mid-November Minor planet 2004 TG10 and ot hers[1][32]

Andromedids (periodic) mid-November Comet 3D/Biela[33]

Alpha Monocerot ids

mid-November unknown[34]
(periodic)

Leonids mid-November Comet 55P/Tempel-Tut t le

Phoenicids (periodic) early December Comet 289P/Blanpain[35]

Geminids mid-December Minor planet 3200 Phaet hon[36]

Ursids lat e December Comet 8P/Tut t le [37]

Extraterrestrial meteor
showers

Mars meteor by MER Spirit rover

Any other Solar System body with a

reasonably transparent atmosphere can
also have meteor showers. As the Moon is
in the neighborhood of Earth it can
experience the same showers, but will
have its own phenomena due to its lack of
an atmosphere per se, such as vastly
increasing its sodium tail.[38] NASA now
maintains an ongoing database of
observed impacts on the moon[39]
maintained by the Marshall Space Flight
Center whether from a shower or not.

Many planets and moons have impact

craters dating back large spans of time.
But new craters, perhaps even related to
meteor showers are possible. Mars, and
thus its moons, is known to have meteor
showers.[40] These have not been
observed on other planets as yet but may
be presumed to exist. For Mars in
particular, although these are different
from the ones seen on Earth because the
different orbits of Mars and Earth relative
to the orbits of comets. The Martian
atmosphere has less than one percent of
the density of Earth's at ground level, at
their upper edges, where meteoroids strike,
the two are more similar. Because of the
similar air pressure at altitudes for
meteors, the effects are much the same.
Only the relatively slower motion of the
meteoroids due to increased distance
from the sun should marginally decrease
meteor brightness. This is somewhat
balanced in that the slower descent means
that Martian meteors have more time in
which to ablate.[41]
On March 7, 2004, the panoramic camera
on Mars Exploration Rover Spirit recorded
a streak which is now believed to have
been caused by a meteor from a Martian
meteor shower associated with comet
114P/Wiseman-Skiff. A strong display
from this shower was expected on
December 20, 2007. Other showers
speculated about are a "Lambda Geminid"
shower associated with the Eta Aquariids
of Earth (i.e., both associated with Comet
1P/Halley), a "Beta Canis Major" shower
associated with Comet 13P/Olbers, and
"Draconids" from 5335 Damocles.[42]
Isolated massive impacts have been
observed at Jupiter: The 1994 Comet
Shoemaker–Levy 9 which formed a brief
trail as well, and successive events since
then (see List of Jupiter events.) Meteors
or meteor showers have been discussed
for most of the objects in the Solar System
with an atmosphere: Mercury,[43] Venus,[44]
Saturn's moon Titan,[45] Neptune's moon
Triton,[46] and Pluto.[47]

See also
American Meteor Society (AMS)
Earth-grazing fireball
International Meteor Organization (IMO)
 List of meteor showers
Meteor procession
North American Meteor Network
Radiant – point in the sky from which
meteors appear to originate
Zenith hourly rate

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47. IR Flashes induced by meteoroid
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External links

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Meteor Showers , by Sky and Telescope

Meteor Streams
Six Not-So-Famous Summer Meteor
Showers Joe Rao (SPACE.com)
The American Meteor Society
 The International Meteor Organisation
How to photograph a meteor shower
(Skymania)
Meteor Shower Portal shows the
direction of active showers each night
on a celestial sphere.

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