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 eISSN 2533-168X
Vol. 9 N. 3
May 2018

International Review of
Civil Engineering
(IRECE)

Contents

Slope Stability of Metamorphic Rocks Based on Rock Mass Classification 91

at Poboya Gold Mine, Central of Sulawesi Province
by Sriyati Ramadhani, Ahamd Rifa’i, Kabul Basah Suryolelono, Wahyu Wilopo

Model of Timber Crib Walls Using Counterweight 98

in Bone Bolango Regency Gorontalo Province Indonesia
by Indriati Martha Patuti, Ahmad Rifa’i, Kabul Basah Suryolelono, Suprapto Siswosukarto

Analysis of the Main Causes of Cost Overruns in Construction Industry 105

in Developing Countries and the UK
by W. Hamid, A. Waterman

Multipurpose Rule Curves for Multipurpose Reservoir 114

by Conditional Genetic Algorithm
by R. Hormwichian, J. Tongsiri, A. Kangrang

Effect of Lime and Cement on the Geotechnical 122

Properties of an Expansive Soil
by Sarah Djouimaa, Madani Sid, Mustapha Hidjeb

Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved

 International Review of Civil Engineering
(IRECE)

Editor-In-Chief:

Prof. K. M. Liew
Chair Professor of Civil Engineering
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering
City University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong SAR

Editorial Board:
Abrams Daniel P. (U.S.A.) University of Illinois
Ansal Attila (Turkey) Bogaziçi University
Banthia Nemkumar (Canada) University of British Columbia
Berke Philip (U.S.A.) University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Cai Steve C. S. (U.S.A.) Louisiana State University
Chan Siu-Lai (Hong Kong) The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Dey Subhasish (India) Indian Institute of Technology
Dhakal Rajesh P. (New Zealand) University of Canterbury
Folić Radomir (Yugoslavia) University of Novi Sad
Kappos Andreas (Greece) Aristotle Univ of Thessaloniki
Kovler Konstantin (Israel) Israel Institute of Technology
Liew Jat Yuen Richard (Singapore) National University of Singapore
Mang Herbert (Austria) Vienna University of Technology
Sapountzakis Evangelos J. (Greece) National Technical University of Athens
Tan Kiang Hwee (Singapore) National University of Singapore
Tenek Lazarus (Greece) Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
Triantafillou Thanasis (Greece) University of Patras
Ye J. (U.K. ) University of Leeds

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 International Review of Civil Engineering (I.RE.C.E.), Vol. 9, N. 3
ISSN 2036 - 9913 May 2018

Slope Stability of Metamorphic Rocks Based on Rock Mass

Classification at Poboya Gold Mine, Central of Sulawesi Province

Sriyati Ramadhani1, Ahamd Rifa’i2, Kabul Basah Suryolelono2, Wahyu Wilopo3

Abstract – Poboya Mountains is one of the gold mines located in Palu city. Miners conduct
quarrying and slope slicing to extract gold ores every day, resulting in changes on slope stability.
The research is to determine rock mass classification and slope stability of metamorphic rocks.
The research conducted at Poboya Gold Mine, it geographically located at central of Sulawesi
province. The classification of rock mass carried out through a field survey and a laboratory
testing, and then determined according to methods of RMR and SMR. The results showed that for
gneiss at location 1, it obtained values of 60-69 for RMR and SMR as well. Meanwhile, for schist
at location 2, the obtained values are 56-71 for RMR and 57-79 for SMR. Schist at location 3 has
values of 65-75 for RMR and 69-79 for SMR, and schist at location 4 have values of 56-70 for
RMR and 59-85 for SMR. Referring to the rock mass classification results, it can be concluded
that slopes location at Poboya with a good quality of rock mass is at schist of location 3.
Generally, slopes considered stable, hence there will be no landslides, and if landslide occurs, it
will merely occurs on small blocks. Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights
reserved.

Keywords: Rock Mass Classification, Slope Stability, RMR, SMR

Nomenclature quarrying and slope slicing to extract gold ores every

CD Completely Dry day. Optimized mining production achieved when mining
m Meter activities proceed efficiently. The extraction methods
mm Millimeter used in Poboya gold mine are open-pit mining and
MPa Mega Pascal underground mining methods. These systems of open-pit
MW Moderately Weathered and underground mining have a considerably high risk,
HW Highly Weathered one of the most frequent risks is landslide which may
No None interrupt mining activities.
RMR Rock Mass Rating Mining activities, such as slope slicing and pit mining
RQD Rock Quality Designation on slopes as presented in Fig. 1 will inflict extreme
SF Soft Filling changes on the forces at the slope, causing instability. As
SMR Slope Mass Rating a result of mining activities, many landslides occurred as
SR Slightly Rough on August 16, 2016, there were three gold miners buried
SM Smooth by landslides and followed on February 10, 2011, there
UCS Uniaxial Compressive Stress were 11 miners died due to the landslide. In addition to
F1 Depends on parallelism between slope face that, Poboya contains areas of discontinuity effecting on
strike and joint plane, or line intersection the distribution of strength and stress of rocks are not
between two joints distributed evenly, and as a result, the balance of rock
F2 Depends on the dip on the joint mass strength being disturbed and landslides occur. All
F3 Depends on connection between dip on slope the above circumstances, extremely affect slope stability.
and dip on joint According to [1], the instability of slope and failures
F4 Adjustment factor for quarrying methods. It occur due to many factors such as adverse slope
includes natural slopes or quarried slope geometries, geological discontinuities, weak or
steepness prior to quarrying, smooth blasting, weathered slope materials as well as severe weather
normal blasting, poor blasting, and mechanical conditions.
quarrying One of the factors contributing to slope stability is the
discontinuity in the rock mass. In the rock slope,
rainwater filled the crack of slope discontinuity area, and
I. Introduction accordingly, the rock got loose and fell freely [2]. To
assess the impact of discontinuity formed on slopes, the
Poboya Mountains is one of the gold mines located in investigation was conducted on geometric properties, dip,
Palu city, central of Sulawesi. The miners conduct

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91
 S. Ramadhani, A. Rifa’i, K. B. Suryolelono, W. Wilopo

dip direction, spacing, compressive stre

stress,
ss, and rock types
[3].
]. Referring to the aforementioned issues, it is
necessary to identify discontinuity areas on slopes that
affect rock mass strength.
affect
The objective of this research is to determine the rock
mass classification at Poboya gold mine based on the
measurement
measurements of Rock Mass Rating (RMR) and Slope
Mass Rating (SMR).
(SMR)
Fig
Fig. 1. Pits quarried by the miners
The research conducted in Poboya gold mine, which is
located geographically at Mantikulore sub sub-district,
district, Palu
city, central of Sulawesi province. The research area is
dominated by metamorphic rocks. These metamorphic
rocks found in Poboya gold mine consist of gneiss and
schist as seen in Fig
Fig. 2. Metamorphic rocks classified as
the oldest rocks composed of schist amphibolite, schist,
gneiss, and marble.
Schist mostly found on the west side, while gneiss and
marble are on the east [4]. There are three locati
locations
ons of
schist lithology at the research site which attract miners
respectively to take rocks containing gold. However,
there are many geological structures found in those
locations, therefore, it is necessary to conduct a research
on slope stability.
II. Geological Conditions of Poboya Area
The geological conditions of the island of Sulawesi
and the surrounding area can be divided into two major
parts, namely the western and eastern parts. The western
part includes the southern arm, the middle and extend
extendss
into northern arm of Sulawesi called arc volcanism West
Sulawesi. The eastern section consists of the southeastern
arm and the eastern arm of Sulawesi, formed by two
large groups of rocks that include; continental piece
piecess and
ocean fragments, these two distinct rock pieces originally
covered by the molecular sediments known as the
molasses of Sulawesi [5].
[5]
The main fault of Palu and its surrounding areas is the
Palu koro fault. This fault runs north-west
Palu-koro north west-south
west south
direction. Palu city is allegedly located between two
segments of Palu fault that resulted in the formation of
Palu valley. Other structures are Pasangkayu fault,
Palintuna fault, Sausu fault, Parigi fault, Pasangka
Pasangkayuyu
fault and valley formation [5] [5]. Poboya located in the
eastern zone of the main basin connected to Palu Koro
fault, which is a part of the Northern Neogene of
Sulawesi Island [6].
Sulawesi [6].
Structurally, Palu
Palu-Koro
Koro Fault has formed a host
structure and fluid condu conduits
its (pathways) for the
mineralization. Metamorphic rocks of Toboli Formation
is the dominant host rock of mineralization. The
mineralized Zone is associated with quartz-
quartz-carbonate
carbonate
vein and vein breccia within dominantly banded,
chalcedonic
chalcedonic, and bladed textures.
textures. The vein contains
multiple episode
episodess of quartz-
quartz-carbonate
carbonate phase [7].
].
The geological structure of the Poboya region in the
form of a fault, the geological structure (cesarean)
formation is the transportation route of minerals in the
hydrothermal environment.
environment. This is reinforced by the
formation of a fault structure on the eastern side that
extends from north to south
south, and the western side which
is suspected to be a settling process by hydrothermal
solution through fracture as a controller of the path of
mineralization process in the area. The area of Poboya
and its surroundings is dominated by quartz rocks as a
gold mineral car
carrier
rier contained in quartz veins. Quartz
rocks are the main type of rock that forms a fault
structure and become an important factor in the
formation of gold [8].
[8]

III. Rock Mass Classification

Rock mass classification is of critical importance in
support design and applications to mining, tunneling,
tunneling and
other underground excavations. Although a number of
techniques are available, there exists an uncertainty in
application to complex underground works [9]. [9]
The objectives of rock ma mass
ss classification [10],
0], [11
[11]]
are as follow
followss:
a. Identifies parameters affecting rock mass.
b. Shares the sp specific
ecific rock mass information in
into
to groups
having similar behaviors which is rock mass class
Fig.
Fig 2. Map of rese arch site
research
with various qualities.

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ll rights reserved International Rev
Review
iew of Civil Engineering, Vol. 99,, N. 3

92
 S. Ramadhani, A. Rifa’i, K. B. Suryolelono, W. Wilopo

c. Provides a basic understanding of characteristics of discontinuity condition and groundwater condition.

each rock mass class.
d. Links experiences of rock mass condition from one
location to experiences found in another location.
e. Provides a common basis for communication among
engineers.
Rock mass characteristics discussed in various
classifications consisting of:
a. The Strength of rock material.
b. Rock Quality Designation.
c. The Spacing of discontinuities.
d. The Orientation of discontinuities.
e. Geological structure and faults.
f. Seepage and water.
g. Stress [12].
Rock mass classifications are very essential to
determine rock mass characterization, especially for
slope endurance assessment. Slope Mass Rating
considered as the most comprehensive technique and
widely used for slope assessment. The SMR system is
considerably more sensitive to slope characteristics and
affordable to obtain the better rating values than what the
discrete SMT system does [13].
There are various rock mass classification systems in
the literature, which are up to now used widely for rock
engineering. Those systems are Rock Mass Rating
(RMR) developed by Bieniawski (1973 and 1979) [10],
[14] Q-systems developed by [15], then these both of
classification systems re-proposed by [16], [17] and Q-
systems by [18]. Slope Mass Rating (SMR) developed by
[19], [17], to assess slope stability for rock slopes.
IV.2. Slope Mass Rating (SMR)
Slope Mass Rating (SMR) is presented as a
geomechanical classification of the slope. The concept of
Bieniawski’s RMR usage specifically for slope stability
as proposed by [20], [17] to be modified.
SMR obtained from RMR through augmentation of
adjustment factor on the orientation of discontinuity,
slope steepness, and other adjustment factors depends on
quarrying method.
= −( × × )+ (1)
Values of F1, F2, and F3 are adjustment factors
attributed to joint orientation in relation to steep or slope
orientation and F4 is the correction factor for quarrying
method. The value of F1, F2, F3, and F4 is explained as
follows:
a. Value of F1 depends on the parallelism between slope
face strike and joint plane, or line intersection
between two joints.
b. Value of F2 depends on the dip on the joint.
c. Value of F3 depends on the connection between dip
on slope and dip on joint.
d. Value of F4 is an adjustment factor for quarrying
methods. It includes natural slopes or quarried slope
steepness prior to quarrying, smooth blasting, normal
blasting, poor blasting, and mechanical quarrying.

IV. Research Method V. Result and Discussion

The research was conducted using rock mass
classification methods of RMR by [16], [17] and of SMR
by [20], [17].
IV.1. Rock Mass Rating (RMR)
Rock mass classification system with rock mass rating
(RMR) employs 6 (six) basic parameters for
classification and evaluation of test results. Mass rock
classification is divided into 5 (five) classes [16], [17].
Those five parameters used to determine RMR values
which include uniaxial compressive stress (UCS), rock
quality designation (RQD), discontinuity spacing,
Classification of the rock mass is carried out based on
methods of field survey and laboratory testing, then
grouping conducted according to location and lithology
of discontinuity mapping. The grouping consists of
gneiss and schist lithology as in Fig. 2.
V.1. Rock Mass Rating
To determine RMR value, weighting is deployed on
five parameters which are uniaxial compressive stress
(UCS), rock quality designation (RQD), the spacing of
discontinuity, discontinuity condition, and underground
water condition.

TABLE I
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION AT GNEISS LITHOLOGY (LOCATION 1)
UCS RQD Spacing Discontinuity Conditions RMR SMR
Lithology Length Separation Ground Water F1 F2 F3 F4
MPa (%) (m) Roughness Infilling Weathering Total Class Total Class
(m) (mm)
Gneiss-1 31 96 0.3 0.2 0.5 SR NO HW CD 61 67 99
69 II 0 69 II
Rating 4 20 10 6 4 3 6 1 15 0.15 1 0
Gneiss-2 31 94 0.2 1 0.8 SR NO HW CD 97 81 113
65 II 0 65 II
Rating 4 20 8 4 4 3 6 1 15 0.15 1 -6
Gneiss-3 31 89 0.2 1.6 0 SR NO HW CD 112 89 121
63 II 0 63 II
Rating 4 17 8 4 5 3 6 1 15 0.15 1 -25
Gneiss-4 31 78 0.1 1 0.5 SM NO HW CD 12 89 121
60 II 0 60 II
Rating 4 17 8 4 4 1 6 1 15 0.15 1 -25

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93
 S. Ramadhani, A. Rifa’i, K. B. Suryolelono, W. Wilopo

TABLE II
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION AT SCHIST LITHOLOGY (LOCATION 2)
UCS RQD Spacing Discontinuity Conditions RMR SMR
Ground
Lithology Length F1 F2 F3 F4
MPa (%) (m) Separation(mm)Roughness Infilling Weathering Water Total Class Total Class
(m)
Schist-1 41 86 0.2 0.6 3 SR NO MW CD 64 51 -12
63 II 0 72 II
Rating 4 17 8 6 1 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -60
Schist-2 41 94 0.3 0.7 1.3 SR NO MW CD 143 51 -12
68 II 0 77 II
Rating 4 20 10 6 1 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -60
Schist-3 41 91 0.2 1.2 20 SR SF>5 MW CD 58 76 13
57 III 0 57 III
Rating 4 20 8 4 0 3 0 3 15 0.15 1 0
Schist-4 41 97 0.4 0.7 5.5 SR NO MW CD 123 64 1
67 II 0 69 II
Rating 4 20 10 6 0 3 6 3 15 0.4 1 -6
Schist-5 41 98 0.5 1.8 1 SR SF>5 MW CD 115 46 -17
60 III 0 69 II
Rating 4 20 10 4 1 3 0 3 15 0.15 1 -60
Schist-6 41 58 0.1 0.4 1 SR NO MW CD 89 81 18
59 III 0 60 III
Rating 4 13 8 6 1 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 0
Schist-7 41 86 0.2 0.6 0 SR SF>5 MW CD 133 39 -24
61 II 0 69 II
Rating 4 17 8 6 5 3 0 3 15 0.15 1 -60
Schist-8 41 91 0.2 0.1 0 SR NO MW CD 73 60 -3
70 II 0 78 II
Rating 4 20 8 6 5 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -50
Schist-9 41 74 0.1 0.5 1 SR NO MW CD 115 29 -34
59 III 0 63 II
Rating 4 13 8 6 1 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -60
Schist-10 41 89 0.2 1 2 SR NO MW CD 28 77 14
61 II 0 61 II
Rating 4 17 8 4 1 3 6 3 15 0.4 1 0
Schist-11 41 71 0.2 0.3 0.7 SR SF>5 MW CD 133 62 -1
56 III 0 64 II
Rating 4 13 8 6 4 3 0 3 15 0.15 1 -50
Schist-12 41 92 0.2 1.2 15 SR SF>5 MW CD 94 39 -24
57 III 0 65 II
Rating 4 20 8 4 0 3 0 3 15 0.15 1 -60
Schist-13 41 96 0.3 2.1 70 SR SF>5 MW CD 101 72 9
59 III 0 60 III
Rating 4 20 10 4 0 3 0 3 15 0.15 1 -6
Schist-14 41 99 0.9 1.2 5 SR NO MW CD 107 39 -24
71 II 0 79 II
Rating 4 20 15 4 1 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -60
Schist-15 41 95 0.3 0.5 30 SR SF>5 MW CD 116 68 5
61 II 0 62 II
Rating 4 20 10 6 0 3 0 3 15 0.15 1 -6
Schist-16 41 93 0.23 0.2 1 SR SF>5 MW CD 69 41 -22
62 II 0 70 II
Rating 4 20 10 6 1 3 0 3 15 0.15 1 -60

Results of RMR value weighting obtained that for
gneiss at location 1 as in Table I, for schist at location 2
shown in Table II, for schist at location 3 presented in
Table III and for schist at location 4 presented in Table
IV.
The results are as follows:
1. Gneiss:
For gneiss lithology at location 1, RMR value ranges
from 60-69, included in rock mass of class II and class III
with rock mass classification from good to fair. The
greatest RMR value is in gneiss-1, and this is influenced
by the large value of RQD and spacing among
discontinuity fields.
2. Schist:
For schist lithology at location 2, RMR value ranges
from 56-71, included in rock mass of class II and class III
with rock mass classification from good to fair. The
largest RMR value is in schist-14, and this is influenced
by the large value of RQD, spacing among discontinuity
fields and no discontinuity aperture filler.
For schist lithology at location 3, RMR value ranges
from 65-75, included in rock mass of class II with a good
rock mass classification. The largest RMR value is in
schist-9 based on a smaller separation value, hence, the
quality on schist-9 which is referred to a width aperture
has a better quality.
For schist lithology at location 4, RMR value ranges
from 56-70, included in rock mass class II and class III
with rock mass classification from good to fair.
The largest RMR value is in schist-7, and this is
influenced by smaller separation value, hence, the quality
of schist-7 according to a width aperture has a better
quality. The greatest RMR value for all locations found
in schist lithology at location 3, and this is affected by
the large value of compressive strength, RQD value is
dominantly large, average spacing of discontinuities is
great, no infilling and underground water condition of the
discontinuity field is dry.
Based on the above results, then the best rock mass
quality from four location is what found in schist
lithology at location 3, for it dominantly has the greatest
value of RMR.In addition to that, it was found in blocks
all locations having a poor rock mass quality which is a
small RMR value.
V.2. Slope Mass Rating (SMR)
SMR value is obtained based on the equation [20],
[17].
Results of SMR value calculation for gneiss lithology
at location 1 can be seen in Table I, for schist lithology at
location 2 described in Table II, for schist lithology at
location 3 shown in Table III, and for schist lithology at
location 4 can be found as well on Table IV.
Referring to the obtained results according to location
and lithology can be deliberated as following:

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 S. Ramadhani, A. Rifa’i, K. B. Suryolelono, W. Wilopo

TABLE III
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION AT SCHIST LITHOLOGY (LOCATION 3)
UCS RQD Spacing Discontinuity Conditions RMR SMR
Ground
Lithology Length F1 F2 F3 F4
MPa (%) (m) Separation(mm)Roughness Infilling Weathering Water Total Class Total Class
(m)
Schist-1 66 99 0.6 3 1 SR NO MW CD 86 69 129
67 II 0 71 II
Rating 7 20 10 2 1 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -25
Schist-2 66 97 0.4 1.1 10 SR NO MW CD 84 76 136
68 II 0 72 II
Rating 7 20 10 4 0 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -25
Schist-3 66 95 0.3 0.9 1.43 SR NO MW CD 70 85 145
71 II 0 75 II
Rating 7 20 10 6 1 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -25
Schist-4 66 99 0.6 1.1 3 SR NO MW CD 202 35 95
69 II 0 69 II
Rating 7 20 10 4 1 3 6 3 15 0.4 1 0
Schist-5 66 98 0.5 0.8 5 SR NO MW CD 99 78 138
71 II 0 75 II
Rating 7 20 10 6 1 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -25
Schist-6 66 97 0.4 1.1 10 SR NO MW CD 81 70 130
68 II 0 72 II
Rating 7 20 10 4 0 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -25
Schist-7 66 91 0.2 0.7 10 SR NO MW CD 100 60 120
68 II 0 69 II
Rating 7 20 8 6 0 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -6
Schist-8 66 99 0.6 1 1 SR NO MW CD 221 64 124
65 II 0 69 II
Rating 7 20 10 0 1 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -25
Schist-9 66 97 0.4 0.9 0 SR NO MW CD 70 74 134
75 II 0 79 II
Rating 7 20 10 6 5 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -25

TABLE IV
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION AT SCHIST LITHOLOGY (LOCATION 4)
UCS RQD Spacing Discontinuity Conditions RMR SMR
Ground
Lithology Length F1 F2 F3 F4
MPa (%) (m) Separation(mm)Roughness Infilling Weathering Water Total Class Total Class
(m)
Schist-1 81 94 0.2 1.6 4 SR NO MW CD 92 67 126
67 II 0 71 II
Rating 7 20 8 4 1 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -25
Schist-2 81 87 0.2 2 5 SR SF>5 MW CD 149 68 127
58 III 0 62 II
Rating 7 17 8 4 1 3 0 3 15 0.15 1 -25
Schist-3 81 85 0.1 0.6 0.5 SR NO MW CD 30 66 125
69 II 0 79 II
Rating 7 17 8 6 4 3 6 3 15 0.4 1 -25
Schist-4 81 96 0.3 1 5 SR NO MW CD 53 60 119
69 II 0 70 II
Rating 7 20 10 4 1 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -6
Schist-5 81 80 0.1 1.1 10 SR SF>5 MW CD 118 69 128
57 III 0 61 II
Rating 7 17 8 4 0 3 0 3 15 0.15 1 -25
Schist-6 81 99 0.6 1.5 5 SR NO MW CD 162 72 131
69 II 0 73 II
Rating 7 20 10 4 1 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -25
Schist-7 81 95 0.3 0.9 0 SR NO MW CD 29 81 140
70 II 0 85 II
Rating 7 20 10 6 5 3 6 3 15 0.4 1 -25
Schist-8 81 17 0.1 1 2.5 SR SF>5 MW CD 135 57 116
58 III 0 59 III
Rating 7 17 8 4 5 3 0 3 15 0.15 1 -6
Schist- 9 81 64 0.1 0.7 3 SR SF>5 MW CD 35 61 120
56 III 0 57 III
Rating 7 13 8 6 1 3 0 3 15 0.15 1 -6
Schist-10 81 98 0.5 1.2 3.5 SR NO MW CD 66 66 125
69 II 0 73 II
Rating 7 20 10 4 1 3 6 3 15 0.15 1 -25
Schist-11 81 94 0.3 1 2 SR SF>5 MW CD 168 36 95
63 II 0 63 II
Rating 7 20 10 4 1 3 0 3 15 0.15 1 0

1. Gneiss: block failure and planar along some joints or many

For gneiss lithology at location 1, SMR value
according to Romana equation with planar failure
assumption and using mechanical excavation ranged
from 60-69, included in SMR of class II and III with a
description of the rock mass is good and normal. In this
gneiss lithology, the stability considered ranging from
stable to partly stable with failure type of block failure
and planar along some joints or many wedge failure.
2. Schist:
For schist lithology at location 2, RMR value
according to Romana equation with planar failure
assumption and using mechanical excavation ranged
from 57-79. Included in SMR of class II and III with a
description of the rock mass is good and normal.
In this schist lithology, the stability considered
ranging from stable to partly stable with failure type of
wedge failure.
For schist lithology at location 3, RMR value
according to Romana equation with planar failure
assumption and using mechanical excavation ranged
from 69-79. Included in SMR of class II with a
description of the rock mass is good and normal. In this
schist lithology, the stability considered stable with
failure type of block failure.
For schist lithology at location 4, RMR value
according to Romana equation with toppling failure
assumption and using mechanical excavation ranged
from 59-85. Included in SMR of class I and III with a
description of the rock mass is very good and normal. In
this schist lithology, the stability ranging from
completely stable to partly stable with failure type of
none failure to planar along some joints or many wedge

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 S. Ramadhani, A. Rifa’i, K. B. Suryolelono, W. Wilopo
failure.
Referring to the above results, the greatest SMR value
for all locations found in schist lithology at location 3,
and this means that in general, slopes are stable and
probably, there will be no failure occur, and if it occurs,
it will be merely on small blocks. SMR could be used as
a preliminary assessment and as discontinuity orientation
data as well.
VI. Conclusion
Based on results of field survey and laboratory testing,
then data analysis conducted using rock mass
classification methods of Rock Mass Rating (RMR) and
Slope Mass Rating (SMR). Referring to data analysis
results, values of RMR and SMR of Poboya gold mine
revealed conclusions as follows:
1. The results of rating according to RMR value,
employed for gneiss lithology at location 1, schist
lithology at location 2 and schist at location 4 rock
mass quality of Poboya gold mine ranged from good
to fair with the inclusion of RMR class II and III. For
schist lithology at location 3, the quality of rock mass
considered good with the inclusion of RMR class II.
Accordingly, the RMR value can be concluded that
the rock mass quality of Poboya gold mine in general,
is good.
2. The result analysis of SMR value for gneiss lithology
at location 1 and schist lithology at location 2,
showed that rock mass quality which formed slopes
of Poboya gold mine ranged from good to normal
with the inclusion of SMR class II and III. For schist
lithology at location 4, the rock mass quality that
formed slopes of Poboya gold mine ranged from very
good to normal with the inclusion of SMR class I and
III. For schist lithology at location 3, the rock mass
quality that formed slopes of Poboya gold mine
dominated by good category with the inclusion of
SMR class II.
3. Based on rock mass classification using methods of
RMR and SMR, it can be concluded that location of
slopes on Poboya gold mine which has good rock
mass is schist lithology at location 3.
4. This means, in general, the slopes are in stable
condition and probably there will be no any single
failure occurrence, and if it occurs it will merely
occur on small blocks.
5. Data from the RMR and SMR values can then be
used in the analysis of hole excavation as well as the
stability of the slopes at the Poboya gold mine.
Acknowledgements
The authors highly appreciate to the Ministry of
Research and Technology and Higher Education for
funding this research in the form of postgraduate
scholarship. Many thanks are also given to research team
Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved
96
for their significant contribution during data collection in
the research field. We also thank the head and the
technicians of the Soil Mechanics Laboratory as well as
the Structure Laboratory of Gadjah Mada University for
their assistance during the laboratory study.
References
[1] Basahel, Hassan, and Hani Mitri. Application of rock mass
classification systems to rock slope stability assessment: A case
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[2] I. M. Patuti, A. Rifa'i and K. B. Suryolelono. Mechanism and
Characteristics of The Landslides in Bone Bolango Regency,
Gorontalo Province, Indonesia, International Journal of Geomate,
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[3] Ali, S., Ivan, G., and Kim, D. H., Rock Slope Stability Problems
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[4] Sukamto, Sumadirdja, H., Suptandar, T., ardjoprawiro, S., &
Sudana, D. Peta Geologi Tinjau Lembar Palu, Sulawesi.
(Bandung: Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Geologi, 1973).
[5] Surono, 1948, (editor.) & Hartono, U. (Udi), (editor.) 2013,
Geologi Sulawesi, Cetakan pertama. (Menteng, Jakarta LIPI
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[7] Wajdi, M. F., Santoso, S. B., Kusumanto, D. and Digdowirogo,
S., Metamorphic Hosted Low Sulphidation Epithermal Gold
System at Poboya, Central Sulawesi: A General Descriptive
Review (Sistem Emas Epitermal Sulfidasi Rendah dalam Batuan
Metamorf di Poboya, Sulawesi Tengah: Tinjauan Deskriptif
Umum), (2011).
[8] Junaedy, M., Efendi, R. and Sandra, S., Studi Zona Mineralisasi
Emas Menggunakan Metode Magnetik Di Lokasi Tambang Emas
Poboya, Online journal of Natural Science, Vol. 5 (No. 2): 209-
222, August 2016.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.22487/25411969.2016.v5.i2.6708
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2017.09.007
[10] Bieniawski, Z., Engineering Classification of Jointed Rock
Masses. In Transaction of the South African Institution of Civil
Engineers, Vol.15 (Issue 12): 335–344, December 1973.
[11] Rai, M., Kramadibrata, & Wathmena, R., Mekanika Batuan,
(Bandung: ITB, 2010).
[12] de Vallejo, L. I., & Ferrer, M., Geological Engineering. (London,
New York: CRC Press Taylor dan Francis Group, 2011).
[13] Umrao, R. K., Singh, R., Ahmad, M. and Singh, T. N. Stability
analysis of cut slopes using continuous slope mass rating and
kinematic analysis in Rudraprayag district, Uttarakhand.
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(http://www/SciRP.org/journal/gm).
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[14] Bieniawski, Z. T., The geomechanics classification in rock
engineering applications. In: Proceedings of the 4th International
Congress Rock Mechanics, Montreux, Balkema, Rotterdam, Vol.
2: pp. 41–48, January 1979.
[15] Barton, N., Lien, R., and Lunde, J., Engineering classification of
rock masses for the design of tunnel support, Rock Mechanics,
Vol. 6 (Issue 4):189–236, December 1974.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01239496
[16] Bieniawski, Z. T., Engineering Rock Mass Classification: A
Complete Manual for Engineers and Geologists in Mining. Civil
and Petroleum Engineering, (Toronto: John Wiley and Sons,
August 1989).
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 S. Ramadhani, A. Rifa’i, K. B. Suryolelono, W. Wilopo

[17] Abbas, S. M. and Konietzky, H., Rock mass classification Ahmad RifRifa’i
a’i was born on July 12, 1969. In
systems. Introduction to Geomachincs
Geomachincs, (Departement
Departement of Rock 1988 he continued his civil engineering
Mechanics, Technical University Freiberg (ebook), 2014) education at the faculty of Engineering,
[18] Barton, N., Some new Q Q-val
value
ue correlations to assist in site Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia. He
design,, International journal of Rock
characterization and tunnel design achieved his bachelor's degree in 1993. In 1994
Mechanics and Mining Sciences. Vol. 39 (Issue 2) 2):: 185–216
185 216, he continued his Master's, Geotechnics, Institute
February 2002
2002. Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia and earned his
doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S1365
doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S1365 1609(02)00011
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1365-1609(02)00011
1609(02)00011-4 master's degree in 1996. His doctorate was
[19] Romana,
Romana, M., New adjustment ratings for application of obtained in 2002 at The Swiss Federal Institute of Technology of
Bieniawski
Bie niawski classification to slope, In:: Proceedings of the Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland. Research interest in soil mechanics,
international symposium on role of rock mechanics (pp. 49-53 49 53). tunneling, and the foundation has res
resulted
ulted in several publications in the
Zacatecas, Mexico, September 1985 1985. form of international journals. Dr. Ahmad Rifai is a member of the
[20] Romana, M., Sero
Seron,
n, J. B., and Montalar, E., SMR Geo Geomechanics
mechanics Indonesian Soil Engineers Association (HATTI) and International
Classification: Application, Experience and Validation
Validation, Inn: 10th Society for Soil Mechani
Mechanics
cs and Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMG)
(ISSMG).
ISRM
SRM Congress 2003 Jan 1. International Society for Rock E mails:: ahmad.rifai@ugm.ac.id,
E-mail ahmad.rifai@ugm.ac.id kabulbasah@yahoo.com
Mechanics
Mechanics, January 20032003.
Kabul Basah Suryolelono was born on 13
March 1947. a bachelor's degree in civil
Authors’ information engineering faculty of engineering Universitas
Gadjah Mada. the master's education earned the
1
Doctoral Candidate, Department of Civil and Environmental Dip. HE at IIHE Delft, The Netherlands, and
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Gadjah Mada University, doctoral education at the UniUniversity
versity Joseph
Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.
Indonesia Fourier Grenoble
Grenoble,, France.Research interest in
2
Geotechnics special soil reinforcement, Ground
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of water flow, Dam (soil mechanics) has prod
produced
uced several publications in
Engineering, Gadjah Mada University,
University, Yogyaka
Yogyakarta
rta 55281, Indonesia.
the form of international journals. Prof Kabul Basah Suryolelono is a
3 member of the Soil Engineering Associatio
Associationn of Indonesia (HATTI) and
Department of Geological and Center for Disaster Mitigation and
Internation
International
al Geosynthetic Society (IGS)
(IGS).
Technological Innovation (GAMA
(GAMA-InaTEK)
InaTEK) Gadjah Mada University,
Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.
Indonesia
Wahtu Wilopo was born on 19 Nov 1975 1975.. A
Sriyati Ramadhani (corresponding author) was bachelor's degree in geological engineering
born on September 25, 19751975,, at Yogyakarta,
Yogyakarta faculty of engineering Gadjah Mada University
s achieved her graduate
Indonesia. In 2002 she (1999) The
(1999). he master's education earned at Mining
education in civil engineering, Faculty of Engineering Faculty, Chulalongkorn University,
Engineering, Tadulako University,
University Palu, Thailand (2004) and doctoral education at the
Indonesia. In 2003 shehe pursued her master's Kyushu University, Japan
Japan.. Research interest in
degree in Geotechnical Engineering in civil Geological engineering, especially concerning
engineering faculty of Gadjah Mada University about hydrogeology, hydro geochemistry, environmental geology,
and earned hers master's degree in 2006
2006.. Since 2005 sshe
he was appointed Groundwater geology,
Groundwater geology disaster risk reduction, early warning system,
as a permanent lecturer at the Department of Civil Engineering of debris flow and landslide. He has produced several publi
publications
cations in the
Gadjah Mada University,
University, Indonesia. She is currently studying doctor
doctoral
al form of international journals. He is serving for Head of Central
postgraduate at Gadjah Mada University
University, Yogyakarta Indonesia. Laboratory, Gadjah Mada University · Department of Geological
Several studies have been conducted, among others, concerning slopes Engineering, Engineering geology, hydrogeology and disaster
stability which has produced publications in the form of journals. management, Indonesia, Yogyakarta
Yogyakarta.
Sriyati Ramadhani is a member of the Geotechnical Engineering E-mail:
E mail: wwilopo@gmail.com
Association of Indonesia (HATTI) as well as the Association of
Technical Manpower of Indonesia (ASTTI)
(ASTTI).
E-mail:
mail: sriyatiramadhani@mail.ugm.ac.id

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ll rights reserved International Rev
Review
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 International Review of Civil Engineering (I.RE.C.E.), Vol. 9, N. 3
ISSN 2036 - 9913 May 2018

Model of Timber Crib Walls Using Counterweight

in Bone Bolango Regency Gorontalo Province Indonesia

Indriati Martha Patuti1, Ahmad Rifa’i2, Kabul Basah Suryolelono2, Suprapto Siswosukarto2

Abstract – Crib wall is one type of retaining wall that is often done for slope reinforcement.
Usually made of pre-cast concrete beams mounted interlocked-hooks with considerable
construction costs. Based on that it is necessary to research the construction of slope
reinforcement with low cost and easy in its implementation. The purpose of this research is
to design crib wall by utilizing the local material. The research location is the slope of Trans
Sulawesi-Pantai Selatan Street, precisely the slope of the road in Muara Bone Village (Bone
Subdistrict) and Oluhuta Village (Kabila Bone Subdistrict), Bone Bolango Regency. Crib
wall material used is timber obtained from around the research area. Slope stabilization
analysis was performed using limit equilibrium with the help of Slide3 2017. The results of
external and internal stability analysis showed that the slopes with the construction of timber
crib walls in stable condition (Factor of Safety, FS>1.5). It is expected that the crib wall
model can be an alternative to stabilize the roadside slopes in Bone Bolango Distr ict, due to
the cheaper construction cost compared to other conventional retaining wall construction .
Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.

Keywords: Timber Crib Walls, Slope Stability, Factor of Safety, Limit Equilibrium Methods,
Counterweight of Slopes

Nomenclature G3 Weight of crib elements

B’ Tensile force at the earth side crib element due
ah Coefficient of horizontal active lateral pressure to horizontal component of earth pressure
 Inclination angle Eh Horizontal earth pressure
 Slope hE Vertical height from the base to the assumed
δ Angle of inclination of earth pressure point of action of the resultant
Eah Total horizontal earth pressure k Reduction factor
 Unit weight j Reduction in mobilization of friction factor
H Height of slope a Length of the crib cell
FS Factor of safety b Width of the crib cell
3D3 Dimension a’ Effective base length of crib wall
2D2 Dimension b’ Effective base width of crib wall
Mr Sum of resisting moment N Normal force due to self-weight of soil and crib
Ms Sum of moment leading to overturning wall
Fv Sum of vertical forces EVN Vertical component of earth pressure from
 Fr Sum of resisting forces backfill
 Fs. Sum of disturbing forces FLC Safety factor against the lifting up of crib
A Area of wall base element
B Breadth of wall base FCJ Safety factor against the breaking of joints
e Eccentricity element
 Stress b Bulk unit weight
z height of crib wall c’ Effective cohesion
N*B Weight of fill material between crib layers ’ Angle of effective internal friction
(earth side) E Young’s modulus
N*A Weight of fill material between crib layers µ Poisson’s ratio
(earth side) w Water content
NA, B Normal component of forces on the joints (for m Moisture content
inclined wall)  Density
G1 Frictional force from silo pressure Fc’// Compressive strength

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 I. M. Patuti, A. Rifa’i, K. B. Suryolelono, S. Siswosukarto

Fv’// Shear strength

GLE General limit equilibrium (1)

I. Introduction
and:
Landslide events frequently occur in mountainous
areas such as Bone Bolango District. That becomes a
challenging task because it has repeatedly been done to
improve the stability of the slope. During this method
commonly used is the reinforcement of slopes with the
conventional retaining wall, which is the wall of a stone- The resultant earth pressure will be given by
clutch. Also, this retaining wall, such as reinforcement of , which will act at 1/3 of height from the
concrete walls, is often used for slope reinforcement. bottom of the wall. In general, the factor of safety against
Construction costs are quite expensive. Based on this slipping can be given by the equation:
it is necessary to model slope retrofitting using local
materials. Utilization of materials in crib wall design is
expected to reduce the cost of construction, in addition to (2)
a natural building.
The occurrence of the landslide in Bone Bolango
The factor of safety against overturning is defined as:
regency, especially the roadside slope of Trans Sulawesi-
Pantai Selatan Street caused by the geological condition
and local topography. The structure of the rock easily (3)
landslides with a very steep hill. Andesite rocks on the
slopes of Oluhuta Village, Kabila Bone subdistrict, have
been destroyed and weathered due to the discontinuity. where Mr=sum of resisting moment; Ms=sum of
This zone is a zone passed by active fault [1], [2]. moment leading to overturning. The maximum and
Several studies have been conducted by researchers on minimum stresses at wall base are given by:
the design and analysis of crib walls as done by [3]-[9]
and so on. References [5] and [8] research the numeric (4)
simulation of crib wall, while [6] and [7] investigate the
failure of the crib wall. The studies of 3D equilibrium
limit method analysis have also been widely used, as did where =sum of vertical forces; A and B=area and
by [11]-[18]. This 3D analysis is a development of 2D breadth of wall base; e=eccentricity [19]. The safety of a
analysis. single crib element against the detachment from the crib
system will be checked. In this case it is required to
check the strength of joints. In case of inclined walls, the
II. Literature Review lifting up of crib elements can be happened in two ways
II.1. Crib Walls [4]:
a. From vertical and horizontal forces (Fig. 1(b)). If
Crib walls are gravity retaining walls, a structure built A,B= self-weights of crib elements and soil trapped
up of longitudinal and transverse elements to form a between crib layers in case of inclined crib wall, then
series of rectangular cells into which infill is placed. Crib total pressure on each side of crib elements can be
constructed from interlocking, precast, concrete calculated as follows:
components.
They are filled with free draining material and earth
backfill to eliminate the hazards of hydrostatic pressure
(5)
building up behind the wall. Crib wall elements can be
made of concrete, steel, bamboo, or wood [4]. The spaces
between the interlocking are filled with a granular
material, i.e., sand, or aggregate [6]. Failure for the wall
will be by one of the following modes:
1. Sliding and overturning of wall
2. The overstress on foundation (bearing capacity
failures)
3. Sliding and overturning of crib elements
4. Overloading of crib elements and shearing of joints
The coefficient of active lateral pressures used in this
analysis are calculated using the following equation after
Coulomb’s earth pressure theory [4]: For vertical walls:

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 I. M. Patuti, A. Rifa’i, K. B. Suryolelono, S. Siswosukarto

(11)
and:

The safety factor against the breaking of joints will be

given by:
Tensile force at the earth side crib element due to
horizontal component of earth pressure will be (12)
calculated as:

(6) (13)

The safety factor against the lifting up of crib The example of cribwall models as shown in Fig. 2,
elements at earth side will be given by: Fig. 3 and Fig. 4.

(7)

(a) (b) (c)

Figs. 1. Illustration of the forces acting on vertical and inclined crib

walls made from precast concrete elements [21]
Fig. 2. Wooden log crib wall for noise control in Lower
b. Lifting up from the forces parallel to wall inclination Austria [4]
(Fig. 1(c)). In this case, the forces are resolved in
parallel and normal direction to the wall inclination
and the forces at the joint are calculated as:

(8)

and:

(9)

The safety against uplifting will be given by:

(10) Fig. 3. Double log crib wall with drainage[5]

In the above equation, and j and for II.2. Three-Dimension of Limit Equilibrium Analysis
practical purpose, kB j can be assumed as 0.5 [21]. For Three-dimensional slope stability analysis are
each of these cases a global factor of safety of 1.5 extension of general 2-D limit equilibrium method [23]-
will be required. [24]. The basic definition of these inter-column force
According to monolithic theory, the maximum functions was similar to that proposed by Morgenstern
compression at the outer side of crossing point is given and Price [13].
by:

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 I. M. Patuti, A. Rifa’i, K. B. Suryolelono, S. Siswosukarto

factor design method. Data processing is analyzed using

limit equilibrium method, i.e General Limit Equilibrium
(GLE)/Morgenstern-Price Methods. Numerical analysis
is done with the help of Slide3 2017 software. Shear
strength parameters used in the analysis was the value of
an effective cohesion (c’) and the angle of effective
internal friction (’).

TABLE II
THE PROPERTIES OF SOIL AND ROCK IN OLUHUTA VILLAGE
Layer 1 Layer 2 Fill
Parameters
(Clayey sand) (Andesite) material
Water content, w (%) 12.17 1.18 0.61
Bulk unit weight, b (kN/m3) 19.24 24.41 25.30
Cohesion, c’ (kN/m2) 12.95 520.00 343.00
Angle of internal friction, ’ (o) 30.00 53.00 50.00
Young’s modulus, E (kN/m2) 1,64E+04 1.23E+07 2,39E+07
Poisson’s ratio,µ 0.15 0.30 0.28

TABLE III
Fig. 4. Cross-section through a typical crib wall [6] THE PROPERTIES OF TIMBER
Parameters Average Values
Slide3 2017 is a brand new 3-dimensional limit Moisture content, m (%) 15.13
Density,  (kN/m3) 5.17
equilibrium method for slope stability program created Compressive strength, Fc’// (kN/mm2) 22.37
by Rocscience. With Slide3 most of the analysis features Shear Strength, Fv’// (kN/mm2) 2.83
found in our very popular 2D program Slide are now Young’s modulus, E (kN/m2) 10,549
available in full 3D, including complex geology,
anisotropic materials, loading, and support. Slide3 offers
a wide variety of strength models for soil and rock, IV. Result and Discussion
including Mohr-Coulomb, undrained, tremendous IV.1. Numeric Simulation of The Natural Slope
strength, anisotropic, generalized Hoek-Brown,
SHANSEP, and more. These strength criteria allow the The analysis was conducted in Muara Bone and
model all commonly encountered material types in slope Oluhuta Village, Bone Bolango Regency. The slip
stability analysis [20]. surface described non-circular shape. The results of
stability analysis and slope behavior in the locations are
illustrated in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6.
III. Research Method
The objects of the research were the road side slope in
Muara Bone Village (Bone Subdistrict) and Oluhuta
Village (Kabila Bone Subdistrict), Bone Bolango
Regency. The samples of soil/rock were the undisturbed
and disturbed sample that obtained on the dry season.
The crib walls used local materials, namely timber
(coconut woods). The physical and mechanical properties
of the soil/rock and timber discovered based on the
laboratory test results were presented in Table I, Table II,
and Table III.

TABLE I
THE PROPERTIES OF SOIL AND ROCK IN MUARA BONE VILLAGE
Layer 2
Layer 1 Fill
Parameters (Volcanic Fig. 5. Results of analysis of natural slope stability
(Silty sand) material
Breccia) in Muara Bone Village
Water content, w (%) 29.4 0.81 0.61
Bulk unit weight, b (kN/m3) 14.82 25.42 25.30
Cohesion, c’ (kN/m2) 0 190.00 343.00
The results by GLE method show that the natural
Angle of internal friction, ’ (o) 37.00 50.00 50.00 slopes in Muara Bone Village was unstable/critics
Young’s modulus, E (kN/m2) 890 9.26E+06 2,39E+07 (FS=0.35<1.5). The factor of safety (FS) in Oluhuta
Poisson’s ratio, µ 0.35 0.25 0.28 Village was 1.542. The condition of slope was stable, but
during the rainy season (water content of clayey sand,
The test carried by American Standard Test Materials w=20%), this slope was unstable, FS=1). Slope
(ASTM). The timber characteristics corrected again by instability caused by geological conditions with slopes
SNI 7973-2013 [22]. In the case, used the load resistance forming material have experienced weathering and the

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 I. M. Patuti, A. Rifa’i, K. B. Suryolelono, S. Siswosukarto

geometry of the slope is so steep. Moreover, triggered by The angle of inclination of earth pressure
rainfall is high enough to cause a reduction in shear (=2/3=30o). The bearing capacity for gravel, permit=
strength and pore water pressure increase. 300 kN/m2.

Fig. 9. The geometry and forces acting on the timber crib walls

1. Stability analysis of the external forces.

Fig. 6. Results of analysis of natural slope stability in Oluhuta Village Based on the calculated by equations (1)-(4), the
results of the external stability analysis for the timber
IV.2. Numeric Simulation of the Timber Crib Walls crib walls as described in Table IV.

The slope reinforcement design is done by using local TABLE IV

materials i.e. timber/coconut wood (Fig. 7 and Fig. 8). THE RESULTS OF EXTERNAL STABILITY ANALYSIS
ON THE TIMBER CRIB WALLS
The height of the crib wall, H=1.5-6.0 m, but in this
External Stability Value
analysis, the timber crib wall is designed with a height of The total horizontal earth pressure acting on the wall surface, 10.48
4 m. Eah (kN/m)
The vertical component of earth pressure, Eav (kN) 1.85
The normal force due to self-weight of the soil and timber crib 91.6
walls, N (kN)
The minimum pressure at the bottom soil, 1 (kN/m2) 18.32
The maximum pressure at the bottom soil, 2 (kN/m2) 164.88
Safety against of the bearing capacity failure, permit/max>1.5 1.87
Safety against the overturning, Fo> 1.5 1.76
Safety against sliding, Fs>1.5 4.92

2. Stability analysis of the internal forces.

Based on the calculated by equation (5)-(13), the
results of the external stability analysis for the timber
crib walls as described in Table V.
Fig. 7. Cross Section of timber crib walls TABLE V
THE RESULTS OF INTERNAL STABILITY ANALYSIS
ON THE TIMBER CRIB WALLS
Internal Stability Value
Safety against lifting force at earth side (from horizontal and 4.26
vertical force), FLC>1.5
Safety against lifting force at earth side (from force parallel to 7.78
the slope of the wall), FLC>1.5
Safety against the breaking of joint, FCJ,A> 1.5 2.66
Safety against the breaking of joint, FCJ,B> 1.5 1.54

The safety against the shear failure through crib walls

Fig. 8. Front side of timber crib wall
by Slide3 2017 based on Morgenstern-Price/GLE
Method) as shown in Figs. 10. The factor of safety (FS)
The analysis of sample was performed on one of the
after constructing timber crib wall increased to 9.6 in
locations, the slope in Muara Bone Village, Bone
Muara Bone Village and 2.92 in Oluhuta Village.The
Subistrict, with timber crib wall. The geometry of wall as
timber crib wall has the safety factor greater than the
shown in Fig. 9, with an average thickness of 0.23 m crib
safety factor of natural slope without reinforcement. The
layer. The slope inclination ()=0o, the wall inclination
class quality of materials used in the crib wall
angle (=20o from the vertical). The average of angle of reinforcement becomes one of the factors that affect the
internal friction,  = 45o, and the average of bulk unit value of what is safe.
weight,  = 21.83 kN/m3.

Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3

102
 I. M. Patuti, A. Rifa’i, K. B. Suryolelono, S. Siswosukarto
(a) Muara Bone Village (Bone Subdistrict)
(b) Oluhuta Village (Kabila Bone Subdistrict)
Figs. 10. Result of the analysis slope stability of timber crib walls
V. Conclusion
Based on the analysis done with the equilibrium limit
method, the following conclusions have been drawn from
this study:
1. Based on numerical simulation with the limit
equilibrium method, the safety factor of natural slope
in the research area illustrates that during the dry
season, the slopes in Muara Bone was unstable
FS=0.352. In Oluhuta Village, factor of safety in the
dry season tends to be safe, which amounted to 1.542
but during the rainy season, the slopes in Oluhuta
Village was unstable, FS=1.0.
2. The analysis of the crib walls describe the crib wall
designs have safety factor that qualifies (FS>1.5),
both external and internal stability. External stability
analysis of the crib wall describe the value of the
safety factor against bearing capacity failure, sliding
and overtuning failure sequentially hazard was 1.85;
1.87; and 4.92. The results of the analysis of internal
stability with the limit equilibrium method (by Slide
3D) represents the average value of a safety
factoragainst shear failure of timber crib wall in
Oluhuta Village, and Muara Bone Village
sequentially were 2.91 and 9.78. The value of safety
Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved
103
against lifting force of elements cribat earth side
(from horizontal and vertical force), FLC is 4.26. The
value of safety against lifting force of elements cribat
earth side (from the force parallel to the slope of the
wall), FLC is 7.78. The value of safety against the
breaking of joint by monolithic theory are FCJ,A=2.66,
and FCJ,B=1.54.
3. Crib wall with utilization expected this to be one of
the alternatives in selecting the type of slope
reinforcement in Bone Bolango Regency. Besides
aiming for efficiency of construction costs, as well as
to add aesthetic value.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the head and the
technicians of the Soil Mechanics Laboratory and
Structures Laboratory of GadjahMada University for
their assistance during the experimental work. Great
appreciation is also given to the Ministry of Research,
Technology and Higher Education of the Republic of
Indonesia for the financial support. According to the
2017 research budget.
References
[1] I. M. Patuti, A. Rifa'i and K. B. Suryolelono, Mechanism and
Characteristics of The Landslides in Bone Bolango Regency,
Gorontalo Province, Indonesia, International Journal of Geomate,
Vol. 12 (Issue 29): 1-8, January 2017.
[2] I. M. Patuti, A. Rifa'I, K. B. Suryolelono and S. Siswosukarto,
The Effect of Water Content Change in Pluto-Volcanic
Subsurface Slope Stability Based on Limit Equilibrium and Finite
Element Method, 1st Warmadewa University International
Conference Architecture and Civil Engineering, pp 198-205,
Warmadewa University, Bali, October 2017.
[3] M. S. Acharya and F. Florineth, Vegetated Bamboo Crib Wall - A
Suitable Alternative to Stabilise Road Side Slopes in Nepal,
European Geosciences Union 2006, Vienna, Austria, 2006.
[4] M. S. Acharya, Analytical Approach to Design Vegetative Crib
Walls, Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, Vol. 35 (Issue
162): 1-14, August 2017.
[5] J. P. Fernandes and N. Guiomar, Simulating the Stabilization
Effect of Soil Bioengineering Interventions in Mediterranean
Environments Using Limit Equilibrium Stability Models and
Combinations of Plant Species, Ecological Engineering, Vol. 88,
pp. 122-142, December 2016.
[6] G. D. Lehmer and C. G. Ekwueme, Description and Analysis of
Crib Wall Failures, Fifth Forensic Engineering Congress, pp.
414-423, Washington D.C., 2009.
[7] L. Shaw-Shong, L. Peir-Tien and L. Fang-Liang, Failure
Investigation of Crib Wall, Piled Reinforced Concrete Wall and
Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil Wall, The 17th Southeast Asian
Geotechnical Conference, pp 1-4,Taiwan, May 2010.
[8] G. Bella, M. Barbero, F. Barpi, M. Borri-Brunetto and D. Peila,
An innovative Bio-Engineering Retaining Structure for
Supporting Unstable Soil, Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 9,(Issue 2):247-259, 2017
[9] G. Tardíoa and S. B. Mickovski, Implementation of Eco-
Engineering Design into Existing Slope, Ecological Engineering,
Vol. 92, pp. 138-147, 2016
[10] W. H. Roth and A. Delnik, Numerical Modeling of a Crib-wall
Failure, Fourth International Conference on Case Histories in
Geotechnical Engineering 9, pp 746-754, St. Louis, Missouri,
March 1998.
[11] G. Liu, X. Zhuang and Z. Cui, Three-Dimensional Slope Stability
Analysis Using Independent Cover Based Numerical Manifold
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and Vector Method, Engineering Geology, Vol. 225(Issue 225),
pp. 83-95, February 2017.
[12] D. Park and R. L. Michalowski, Three-Dimensional Stability
Analysis of Slopes in Hard Soil/Soft Rock with Tensile Strength
Cut-Off, Engineering Geology, Vol. 229, pp. 73-84, November
2017.
[13] L. Zhang, M. D. Fredlund, D. G. Fredlun and H. Lu, Comparison
of 2-D and 3-D Slope Stability Analysis for Unsaturated Soil
Slopes,Geo Regina, Canada, 2014.
[14] K. Lim, A. Li and A. Lyamin, Three-Dimensional Slope Stability
Assesment of Two-Layered Undrained Clay, Computers and
Geotechnics, Vol. 70, pp. 1-17, July 2015
[15] L. Zhang, F. D. Fredlund, D. G. Fredlund, H. Lu and G. Wilson,
The Influence of The Unsaturated Soil Zone on 2-D and 3-D
Slope Stability Analysis, Engineering Geology, Vol. 193, pp. 374-
383, 2015.
[16] A. Ahmed, K. Ugai and Q. Q. Yang, Assessment of 3D Slope
Stability Analysis Methods Based on 3D Simplified Janbu and
Hovland Methods, International Journal of Geomechanics, Vol.
12(Issue 2): 81-89,March 2012.
[17] D. Dong-ping, L. Liang and Z. Lian-Heng, LEM for Stability
Analysis of 3D Slopes with General-Shaped Slip Surfaces,
International Journal of Geomechanic, Vol. 17 (Issue 10): 1-12,
2017.
[18] X. Zhou and H. Cheng, Analysis of Stability of Three-
Dimensional Slopes using the Rigorous Limit Equilibrium
Method, Engineering Geology, Vol. 160 (Issue 27): 21-33, June
2013.
[19] J. A. Ortigao and A. S. Sayao, Handbook of Slope Stabilisation,
1st ed., (Berlin, SpringerVerlag, 2004).
[20] RocScience, Slide3D Limit Equilibrium Slope Stability for Civil
Applications, Roc News Summer 2-017, 2017.
[21] Brandl H., Tragverhalten und Dimensionierung von
Raumgitterstützmauern (Krainerwänden) (Vienna, Austria,
Bundesministerium für Bauten und Technik, Straßenforschung
Heft 141, 1980, pp 115–220).
[22] Badan Standardisasi Nasional, SNI 7973: Spesifikasi Desain untuk
Konstruksi Kayu (Jakarta, Badan Standardisasi Nasional,2013).
[23] Taleb, H., Berga, A., Finite Element Analysis of Slope Stability
Reinforced with Pile, (2017) International Review of Civil
Engineering (IRECE), 8 (1), pp. 25-33.
doi:https://doi.org/10.15866/irece.v8i1.11147
[24] Taleb, H., Berga, A., Slope Stability Analysis with Interaction of
Frictional Contact, (2017) International Review of Civil
Engineering (IRECE), 8 (4), pp. 167-176.
doi:https://doi.org/10.15866/irece.v8i4.11535
member of the Geotechnical Engineering Association of Indonesia
(HATTI).
E-mail: ipatuti@yahoo.com
Ahmad Rifa’i (corresponding author) was born
on July 12, 1969. In 1988 he continued his Civil
Engineering education at the Faculty of
Engineering, GadjahMada University,
Indonesia. He achieved his bachelor's degree in
1993. In 1994 he continued his Master's
Geotechnics, Institute of Technology Bandung,
Indonesia and earned his master's degree in
1996. His doctorate was obtained in 2002 at The Swiss Federal Institute
of Technology of Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland. Research interest in
soil mechanics, tunnelling, and the foundation has resulted in several
publications in the form of international journals. Dr. Ahmad Rifa’i is a
member of the Indonesian Soil Engineers Association (HATTI) and
International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
(ISSMG).
E-mail: ahmad.rifai@ugm.ac.id
Kabul Basah Suryolelono was born on
February 11, 1946. A bachelor's degree in Civil
Engineering Faculty of Engineering,
GadjahMada University. The master's education
earned the Dip. HE at IIHE Delft, The
Netherlands, and doctoral education at the
University of Joseph Fourier, Grenoble,
France.His research interest on geotechnics
special soil reinforcement, groundwater flow, dam (soil mechanics) has
produced several publications in the form of international journals.
Prof. Kabul Basah Suryolelono is a member of the Soil Engineering
Association of Indonesia (HATTI) and International Geosynthetic
Society (IGS).
E-mail. kabulbasah@yahoo.com
Suprapto Siswosukarto was born on 7April
1965. A bachelor's degree in Civil Engineering
Faculty of Engineering, GadjahMada
University, and doctoral school at Civil
Engineering, University of Leeds, England.
Research interest in bamboo and wood structure
has produced several publications in the form of
international journal.
E-mail: suprapto_siswosukarto@ugm.ac.id

Authors’ information
1
Doctoral Candidate, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, GadjahMada University,
Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.
2
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, GadjahMada University, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia.

Indriati Martha Patuti was born on March 13,

1969, at Gorontalo, Indonesia. In 1987 she
continued her education in Civil Engineering
Department, Faculty of Engineering,
Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia.
She achieved a bachelor's degree in 1993. In
2007 she pursued her master's degree in
Geotechnical Engineering in Department of
Civil and Environmental, Engineering Faculty, Gadjah Mada
University and earned her master's degree in 2009. Since 2005 she was
appointed as a permanent lecturer at The Department of Civil
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Gorontalo State University,
Indonesia. She is currently studying doctor at Gadjah Mada University,
Indonesia. Several studies have been conducted, among others,
concerning landslide which has produced one publication in the form of
international journals. Also, research on slope stability resulted in
papers at the international conference. Indriati Martha Patuti is a

Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3

104
 International Review of Civil Engineering (I.RE.C.E.), Vol. 9, N. 3
ISSN 2036 - 9913 May 2018

Analysis of the Main Causes of Cost Overruns in Construction

Industry in Developing Countries and the UK

W. Hamid, A. Waterman

Abstract – Cost overruns problem is still a critical issue despite many improvements are being
made in the management of construction projects. Therefore, this research aims to identify the
main causes of cost overruns in construction industry in developing countries and to make a
critical analysis with the ones in the United Kingdom. In addition, some existing studies regarding
cost estimation and cost overruns have been reviewed by the authors. In order to carry that out, in
this research the authors used a secondary data collection such as books, journals, international
standard and some Internet information through few search engines, like Google scholar, Science
direct, Emerald Insight etc. Besides that, a qualitative research method has been used to review
considerable number of books, articles, website, journals etc. In the findings, it has been
concluded that the major common causes of cost overruns in construction projects in developing
countries and in the United Kingdom were: change in design, inflation, increasing of the
material’s price, project complexity, change in the project scope and inadequate contract and
procurement method. The reasons behind each of these factors and how to minimize them have
been critically explained. Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cost Estimation, Cost Overrun, Cost Control, Cost Management, Cost in
Construction

I. Introduction This is exacerbated in the construction industry where

Cost is considered as one of the main three aspects of
the iron triangle (together with time and performance or
quality) and as a challenge the construction project
manager faces to deliver a successful project within
budget, time and according to the specified quality [1].
Effective cost forecasting is one of the major factors
of delivering a successful construction project because
inaccurate cost estimating can lead to turn profits into
losses [2]. Cost estimating is a major aspect of
construction projects. It has been defined by Akintoye [3]
as the technical tool or process undertaken to evaluate
and forecast the total budget of an executed work for a
specified time by using all available resources in a
project. It provides the foundation cost of resource
elements of the tender price for construction work. Cook
[4] defined estimating as a technical process that has to
be implemented by a builder in order to calculate the net
costs that are likely to be incurred in executing a certain
work at a specific time.
There are tremendous impacts on contracting business
in case of inaccurate estimating. On one hand,
overestimated costs lead to a higher tender price
submitted by the contractor, and this may result in a
rejection of the tender by the client. On the other hand,
underestimated costs could result in a difficult position
where contractors are unable to deliver the project at the
contracted price and may therefore incur in financial
losses.
profitability is relatively low compared to other
industries [5]. Thus, inaccurate cost estimation
potentially causes the loss of strategic opportunities to a
construction contractor [3].
An accurate estimation depends on many factors;
including the cost estimator’s experience, the quality and
the availability of information and the amount of time
that has been given to the estimator [6]. Estimation is
essential to provide possibly the most realistic forecast of
cost and time at all project stages. The estimator should
have the ability to produce estimates series, from the
inception stage to the final stage. The more accurate the
estimate is the more the extent of risk and uncertainties
decreases[7]. Cost estimation process includes these
uncertainties due to possible lack of understanding of the
hypotheses that support estimates [8].
Construction plays a major role in today’s economy
for many countries, especially developed countries [9], as
indicated by UK Contractors Group [10] regarding how
the construction sector has helped to grow the economy,
for example, in the UK, in three aspects. Firstly, positive
contribution to other sectors by showing it relies on long
supply chains. Secondly, there is an indication that
investments stay in the UK due to the low average of
imports. Finally, construction industry is employing
qualified and unqualified people, and that will benefit
employment in the country. As a result, unemployment
rate has reduced in the UK. Therefore, construction can
be considered as a beneficial investment for the country

Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved https://doi.org/10.15866/irece.v9i3.14525

105
 W. Hamid, A. Waterman
in the future. For instance, the contribution of investing
in education, such as new schools will improve the UK
economically. Excellence [11] stated that the growth in
construction sector over the past few years has resulted in
a strong business confidence and in new opportunities
with private house building output currently at a high
level. Ashworth and Perera [12] stated the important
need of understanding the cost control and construction
economics for many reasons. For example, the
requirements of the client today are more complicated,
with a tendency towards modern designs, materials,
techniques and construction methods. Therefore, more
effective control system is required from the initiation
stage to the completion stage. The designer has a wide
range of options to choose from and this leads to variety
in construction. Therefore, the traditional methods
sometimes are unable to cope in this environment to
attain value for money. Moreover, contractors have lost
lots of their profits in the last decade. Therefore, they are
more conscious about cost now in an attempt to rectify
losses as much as possible. Finally, there is more
expectation on achieving better cost control in
construction projects and this is due to the essential tools
and techniques desirable to achieve greater accuracy of
estimate. Bergeron and St-Arnaud [13] stated that an
accurate estimation can assist the project manager to
have an effective resources allocation and risk
management. At the same time, an effective estimation
can also increase enterprises success and, therefore, it
can save a lot of money.
Many researchers have discussed the failure of
construction projects, and yet there is no one who has
agreed method of measuring project success. However,
there are three various measures suggested by Morris and
Hough [14] to identify whether the project is successful
or not. Firstly, they conditioned that the project should be
functioned technically and financially. Secondly, the
researchers suggested measures on the project
management which indicates if the schedule and budgets
goals have been achieved. Finally, an evaluation should
be carried out on the contractors’ performance to show if
it provides beneficial services for the project. Therefore,
there is no unique path of identifying the project success.
However, cost estimation is a critical issue to be taken
into account in the success or failure of project. Smith [3]
considered that the process of cost estimating is very
important as it enables construction companies to
determine what their direct costs will be, and to provide a
`bottom line’ cost below which it would not be
economical for them to carry out the work.
In summary, cost estimation in construction is
reviewed. In addition, the main reasons for cost overruns
in the UK and in the developing countries are intensively
discussed.
II. Cost in Construction
II.1. Overview of Cost Overrun
Cost overrun is a very common problem in different
Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved
106
types of projects especially construction industry. It is
stated that cost overrun occurs when the final project cost
is exceeding the estimated cost throughout the initiation
and planning stages of the project [15]. This issue
indicates a difference between the project budget and the
overall financial project cost. Cost overrun represents a
failure to perform the cost discipline in projects. Olawale
and Sun [16] realized that, despite using many project
control techniques, cost overrun exists when construction
projects are unable to meet the cost requirements.
In construction industry, stakeholders (clients,
contractors and consultants) take the project cost
management as their responsibility and this is due to the
impact of both direct and indirect cost on the project
[17]. Shehu et [15] clarified that when the estimating is
accurate, it represents an excellent foundation to
implement project monitoring, whilst, inaccurate cost
estimating affects both clients and contractors. Inaccurate
estimating could be over or underestimated cost. An
overestimated cost is unacceptable to the client during
the feasibility stage, while the underestimated cost can be
enhanced. In the last situation, clients and contractors
will experience financial losses based on the contractual
conditions [18]. However, Enshassi et al. [19] stated that
cost overrun can be in the excess of the total cost. The
cost overrun rate can be calculated and compared by
dividing the contract amount change over the original
contract amount during the award stage [20].
Jackson [21] mentioned few projects as examples of
projects that were implemented and that presented cost
overruns in the United Kingdom. The first project is the
Scottish parliament building which is considered as an
extremely high cost project in the United Kingdom. The
main causes for cost overruns in this project were:
inflation change, delay in the designs, issues of one of
the underground stations under the building and
approvals of costs. The British Library is another project
that experienced cost overruns which was completed in
1998 and the final budget overran more than the triple of
its original budget, due to the change in staff and their
responsibilities. The last example, given by Jackson [21],
is The Guy's House which exceeded its original budget
twice due to different causes such as, change in design
significantly, construction requirements changes and
delays in construction. Flyvbjerg and Stewart [22]
indicated another example of cost overruns which is
represented by The Olympic Games 2012. The project
exceeded its initial cost by approximately two billion
pound, due to many causes, for instance, issues with the
contractor regarding the price negotiation, and inaccurate
estimating of budget and resources.
II.2. Cost Performance in Construction Projects
Construction is a dynamic industry due to the risks
and uncertainties in its budgets, technologies and process
that the it faces [23]. These project’s complexities,
uncertainties and the rising of stakeholders create
difficulties in cost management in construction projects.
International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3
 W. Hamid, A. Waterman
Thus, this leads to project’s delay and cost overrun
[24]. Construction projects often have poor reputation
due to the widespread cost and time overruns [25].
Construction sector still faces challenges despite lot of
improvements have been made [26]. Overruns in projects
cost exist when the project cost at the final stage
becomes greater than the initial estimation [27]. Though,
the original estimation is continuously changing
throughout the project execution. Due to this reason,
Avotos [27] stated that it is essential to consider and
calculate the possible cost overrun of the project.
According to Flyvbjerg, et al. [28] the initial cost has to
be made when a decision of starting building is taken.
However, Love, et al. [29] supported the saying that cost
overrun should be established to compare the initial
budget with the final budget at the completion stage.
Le-Hoai, et al. [30] also stated that the cost overrun
size may different from a project to another, depending
on many factors such as the project size, its location and
its type. For instance, Eden et al. [31] said that private
projects have larger cost overruns larger public projects.
At the same time, Koushki, et al. [20] and Frimpong et
al. [32] indicated that cost overruns are more significant
and more common in large projects than in small ones.
This idea has been supported later by Gkritza and Labi
[33], who pointed out that cost overrun is more frequent
with long-term projects. In contrast, Odeck [34] believed
that due to the attention that project managers pay to the
management of large projects, they can have fewer cost
overruns comparing to the small projects.
II.3. Causes of Cost Overruns in Construction Projects
in Developing Countries
In this section, the main causes of cost overruns are
presented, representing results from different studies,
throughout the periods of cost overruns in different
construction projects in different countries. In general,
these factors, that have an effect on cost performance of
the project and cause cost overruns, are present from the
estimating stage to the final stage of the project [35]. The
aim of presenting factors that cause cost overruns is to
understand them, and therefore, to minimize the impact
and create strategic plans to face uncertainties in all
project stages [26].
Elinwa and Buba [36] conducted a different
questionnaire taking into account the causes of cost
overruns which were listed by Okpala and Aniekwu [37].
In this study, 150 questionnaires were also delivered
to professionals in three various areas in north Nigeria.
The main cause of cost overruns that has been
identified was the materials cost; the researchers
highlighted: the increasing of materials’ prices, the
fraudulent practices, the poor planning and the high cost
of machineries. This study upheld the previous ones of
the authors [36], [37], but at the same time, the authors
added others causes for cost overruns which were the
lack of geotechnical research before commencing the
construction stage and the complicated process of
Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved
107
approval of construction which caused delays. Despite
some similar causes of cost overruns in the previous
studies, Table I shows some variations in these studies.
TABLE I
MAIN CAUSES OF COST OVERRUNS IN NIGERIA (TAKEN FROM OKPALA
AND ANIEKWU, 1988; ELINWA AND BUBA, 1993)
Okpala and Aniekwu Elinwa and Buba
Main causes of cost overruns
(1988) (1993)
Financial issues Payment for
 
implemented works
Shortage in materials 
Fluctuations in price  
Poor contract management 
Increasing of materials’ prices 
Fraudulent practices  
Poor planning
high cost of machineries 
In further studies, Chang [38] identified three causes
that contribute to cost and schedule increases: the
owner's control, the beyond control and the consultant’s
control. These findings were based on an analysis of case
study of engineering design projects in California.
Flyvbjerg et al. [39] mentioned that cost overruns
causes can be similar to most developing countries due to
similar roots of problems that these countries have in
construction projects. An example that supported
Flyvbjerg et al. [39] is the study which was carried out
by Kaming et al. [40]. The authors conducted some
interviews with 31 project managers of skyscrapers
projects in Indonesia to define the major causes that
affect overruns in projects’ cost and time. It has been
concluded that the shortage of materials because of the
inaccurate planning and estimating, the materials' price
increment, the ineffective management of contractors,
the works complexity and the bad climate were the most
important reasons for cost overruns in Indonesian
projects. Moreover, Frimpong et al. [32] have reached to
similar results in another developing country. The
authors wanted to determine the main factors that caused
delays and cost overruns in the groundwater project in
Ghana, by sending 125 questionnaires to the consultants,
the owners and the contractors. These factors were: the
increase in the materials’ cost, payments problems with
the agencies, poor management of contractors, inaccurate
cost estimation and poor technical performance. It can be
seen that these reasons for delays and cost overruns are
similar to those in developing countries. Fig. 1 shows
these reasons. More recently, Le-Hoai et al. [30] obtained
similar results in a research conducted in Vietnam
through 285 questionnaires sent to professionals of large
projects in the country. The study came to similar results
of those obtained from the study in the state of Kuwait.
This is because that the financial problems of contractors,
poor supervision, owners’ financial resources and
changes in design were also part of the five more
frequent factors that caused cost overruns in Vietnam. By
reviewing some studies, it has been shown that the main
causes of cost overruns in developing countries are
similar in construction sector which supported the idea
proposed by Flyvbjerg, et al. [39].
International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3
 W. Hamid, A. Waterman

billion dollars. Megaprojects have been also defined in

same way by Flyvbjerg et al. [39] and they also stated
Ineffective Payments
Complexity
management problems of
that costs underestimation and delays length throughout
works level
of contractors agencies the planning stage were the main factors for cost
overruns in construction megaprojects. The authors
mentioned other factors such as: poor plan that takes into
consideration health and safety risks during the
Cost implementation, changes in design and requirements may
Kaming, Frimpong,
et al.
materials’
et al. occur during the construction stage, poor information of
increase
changes in currencies exchange rates and the geological
risks.

TABLE II
Unexpected Inaccurate Poor
weather
SUMMARY OF STUDIES ABOUT COST OVERRUNS
estimating technical
IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
skills
Main causes of cost Okpala and
Elinwa and Buba (1993)
overruns Aniekwu (1988)
-Owner's financial constraints
Fig. 1. Main reasons for cost overruns (taken from Frimpong, et al., -Financial difficulties of
2003; Kaming, et al., 1997) contractors
Koushki, et al. (2005) Kuwait -Contractors did not meet the
Chen and Hsu [41] highlighted fourteen significant specifications of the job
causes influencing cost for engineering consulting firms -Delays caused by design
-Changes and change orders
in Taiwan, from a survey of 118 professionals working in -Lack of supervision
engineering consulting companies. -Owners’ financial resources
The most important factors were: the project size, the -Financial difficulties of
Le-Hoai, et al. (2008) Vietnam
project duration, the project contract and the description contractors
-Changes in the design
of both repayment plan and cash flow. A year later, Le- -Poor project management
Hoai et al. [30] researched construction industry in Asia -Shortages of materials
and Africa, through interviewing 87 Vietnamese -High cost of materials
construction professionals. This resulted in seven -Lack of experience
Enshassi, et al. -Poor technical knowledge of
categories of principal factors including market and (2009)
Gaza (Palestine)
workers
estimate, incompetence, design, poor and slow -Lack of skilled leaders in the
constraint, workers, government and capability of project managerial jobs
finance.
-Bad climate
Enshassi, et al., [19] carried out a study in Gaza to -Changes in the scope of the
determine the main reasons for cost overruns in project
construction projects in occupied Palestine. The authors Kaliba, et al. (2009) Zambia -Inflation
distributed 120 questionnaires among consultants, -Schedule delays
-Poor technical and
owners and contractors. The results showed that the main administrative knowledge
reasons were: shortages of materials, high cost of
materials and lack of experience and poor technical Jergeas and Ruwanpura [43] have reinforced their
knowledge of workers. The authors indicated an previous study by conducting another study to find the
important factor which was not been mentioned in main causes of cost and schedule overruns in oil sand
previous studies. This factor is the lack of skilled leaders megaprojects in Canada. The study included a survey of
in the project managerial jobs, which can affect the eighty-seven professionals from different nations and it
relationship with the client, in addition to the effect of was concluded to have similar causes of cost overruns to
poor performance. In the same year, Kaliba et al. [42] those determined by Flyvbjerg et al., [39]. The main
explored the main causes of cost overruns in Zambian causes were: the insufficient knowledge in the project
road construction projects. The study was a mix of case and its complexity, the poor strategies in managing the
studies, questionnaires and interviews in this country. project, the inaccurate costs estimation and the poor
According to the study and unlike previous studies, planning when dealing the design changes and
the major cause for cost overruns in Zambia was the bad implementation requirements, the poor information of
climate. On the other hand, other causes were frequent to changes in currencies exchange rates and the health and
the research conducted in other developing countries. For safety risks. Fig. 2 shows common causes of cost
instance, changes in the project scope, inflation, schedule overruns in Megaprojects of construction
delays and poor technical and administrative knowledge. Table II shows that more researches have been
A summary of the main causes of cost overruns of conducted during the past years and this focus was more
these studies is shown in Table II. Few years ago, Jergeas on developing countries than developed countries.
and Ruwanpura [43] have defined megaprojects as Although it is essential and useful to review those studies
construction projects whose budget is more than one to understand main causes of cost overruns because

Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3

108
 W. Hamid, A. Waterman
construction projects have almost similar features in the
world. However, these causes cannot be general for all
countries because some of these factors are specific for
each country [16]. Newly, some studies, carried out few
years ago, will be analyzed.
Fig. 2. Common causes of cost overruns in Megaprojects of
construction (adapted from Flyvbjerg, et al., 2003; Jergeas and
Ruwanpura, 2010)
Durdyev, et al., [44] carried out a descriptive survey in
an attempt to determine the main causes of cost
increasing in the construction of residential projects of
Turkey. The main survey focused on consultants, owners
and contractors. 40 sub-factors have been classified into
5 groups, identified as the main causes of cost overruns
in the construction of residential projects of Turkey
which are poor planning, fluctuation in materials’ prices,
high cost of required resources (money, labour, materials
and machinery), inaccurate cost estimation, lack of skills
of workers and high prices of land. Similar to previous
study, Chan [45] classified 27 variables delivered to
quantity surveying managers of large contracting
companies in Hong Kong, into 8 critical factors
influencing project overruns. These factors are: project
complexity, design requirement of the contractor,
insurance and finance charges, regional economic
condition, site layout, stakeholders’ interest, procurement
arrangement and project duration. The study also
clarifies that estimators who address these factors can
improve their cost estimation accuracy and project costs.
In Pakistan, Nawaz et al. [46] conducted a research
about the construction industry using cost performance.
It can be concluded, from the research, that bribery
and corruption, incessant changes during execution, site
mobilization delay, consultants’ attitude, poor site
management, extra work without approvals and political
interest were the major reasons which drive the projects
Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved
109
to be out of original budgets. Rosenfeld [47] investigated
about the root-cause analysis concerning cost overruns in
the construction projects globally and identified 15
possible root causes; three of them were determined to be
core. The factors included continuous changes of
requirements, tender prices that are unrealistic, tender
documents that are premature, and definitions by project
owners. Finally, Twana [48] identified that the volatility
of the construction industry together with the high level
of risk exposure signify some of the factors and have an
effect on the cost in Kurdistan region. The discovery of
factors that cause construction project cost overrun
continues to evolve with numerous findings and
positions. It can be seen that developing countries have
common causes of cost overruns in construction industry,
Despite there are many studies that have been carried
out and there are still cost overruns problems in
construction projects. Researchers used a combination of
both qualitative and quantitative methods which involve
numerous ranges of previous studies, interviews and
surveys. A critical analysis of the major causes in
developing countries and those in the United Kingdom
and why these causes occur, is presented after reviewing
some studies on construction projects in the United
Kingdom.
II.4. Causes of Cost Overruns in Construction Projects
in the United Kingdom
A considerable number of studies have been
conducted to find the main causes of cost overruns in the
United Kingdom. Jackson [21] made a study to identify
the main reasons that construction projects exceed its
initial budget. The author delivered 500 questionnaires to
quantity surveying practices, which are professional
practices allocated to estimate projects costs. The author
analyzed some projects which have exceed the original
budget in the same year as a complementary part to the
study. The study concluded that changes in the design,
caused by clients, was the main cause for cost overruns.
In addition, the outcomes showed that lack of
availability of information in the planning stage,
incomplete designs, absence of design details throughout
the implementation stage and inaccurate cost estimation,
are serious factors that cause overruns in construction
projects in the UK. Nevertheless, Olawale et al. [16] has
complemented this study in a more recent one.
Olawale et al. [16] conducted a combination of 250
questionnaires, distributed among the top consultancy
and construction firms in the UK, and interviews with 15
practitioners in construction projects. Initially, the
research was carried out using the questionnaires, which
were distributed to 100 construction consultancies and
150 construction companies in the UK. These companies
were chosen according to Building Magazine which
publishes annually a list of 150 construction companies
in the UK. In addition, the rate of response was 44 % (on
110 questionnaires). It can be shown from Table III that
the majority of the participants were working as senior
International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3
 W. Hamid, A. Waterman

managers or directors (71.82%) and project managers gives credibility to this study. It can be looked at as a
11.80%. Moreover, about 84% of the participants had reliable study about construction projects in the UK due
more than 16 years of experience. to the high response average and it represents various
viewpoints of project stakeholder such as clients,
TABLE III
contractors and consultants. A critical analysis of the
ROLES AND YEARS OF EXPERIENCE OF RESPONDENTS (TAKEN FROM
OLAWALE, 2010) major causes in developing countries and those in the
Years of experience of United Kingdom and why these causes occur is presented
Roles Percentage Percentage
respondents in the next section.
Director/senior
71.82% 0-5 4.54%
management
Commercial II.5. Further Critical Analysis for Cost Overrun
2.73% 6-10 2.73%
manager Causes in Developing Countries and
Contracts manager 1.82% 11-15 8.18%
Project manager 11.80% 16-20 18.18% United Kingdom (Discussion)
Quantity surveyor 1.82% 21-25 18.18%
Construction
It can be seen that developing countries have common
1.82% >25 48.18% causes of cost overruns in construction industry. Despite
manager
Others 8.18% > there are many studies that have been carried out, there
are still cost overruns problems in construction projects.
Olawale et al. [16] interviewed some of the Researchers used a combination of both qualitative
participants during the second stage of the study, which and quantitative methods which involve numerous ranges
was an interview of 30 minute with each practitioner. As of previous studies, interviews and surveys. By analyzing
a result, 15 professionals agreed to be interviewed. Most the main causes in most developing countries, it can be
of the interviewees were contractors and three of them recognized that inflation is the shared factor that cause
were working in consultancy firms. Generally, cost overruns in these countries. However, some studies
interviewees had more than 20 years of experience. were carried out in the 1980s, and therefore, inflation is
Moreover, the questionnaire and the interviews listed not necessarily still having the same impact as a cause
20 factors that caused cost overruns which was a result of for cost overruns in some counties. For instance,
reviewing past literature. The participants were told to Durdyev et al. [44] stated that inflation has the least
give a rank for these factors in order of importance. In impact on construction costs in comparison to other
addition, the respondents were given the opportunity to factors due to significant economic change between the
mention extra causes of cost overruns during the 1980s and the 2000s.
interview and questionnaires [16]. The author listed 20 When noticing the causes of cost overrun in
factors which were considered the main reasons that developing countries and in the United Kingdom, it can
inhibit the control of cost in a construction project in the be shown that there is a similarity in the major causes
UK, as well as the main factors that cause cost overruns, which are change in design, inflation, increasing of the
by using the Relative Importance Index [RII]. These material’s price, project complexity, change in the
factors are shown in Table IV. with the RII for each of project scope and inadequate contract and procurement
the factors. method. The reasons behind each of these factors can be
critically clarified: a change in design can be caused by
TABLE IV different reasons such as design errors or clients request
ROLES AND YEARS OF EXPERIENCE OF RESPONDENTS (TAKEN FROM for change and such reasons require extra works.
OLAWALE, 2010)
Therefore, it causes time and cost overruns. In
Cost overruns causes Rank RII
Change in design 1 0.94 addition, and from the researcher’s experience in a
Risks and uncertainties 2 0.89 construction project, it can be added that insufficient
Inaccurate time estimation 3 0.86 investigation of the site status can be another reason for
Poor performance of subcontractors and suppliers 4 0.82 design change. Undoubtedly, this affects the overall
Works complexity 5 0.81
Conflicts and disputes between parties in the project 6 0.81 project cost.
Contradictions in contract documentation 7 0.8 The second important and shared cause of cost
Misinterpretation of Contract and requirement 8 0.8 overruns in developing countries and the UK is Inflation.
Prices inflation 9 0.79 However, some studies were carried out in the 1980s,
Financial and payment issues for completed works 10 0.78
Poor training and experience of project management 11 0.77 and therefore, inflation is not necessarily still having the
Lack of skills of workers 12 0.69 same impact as a cause for cost overruns in some
Unexpected climate conditions 13 0.68 counties. For instance, Durdyev et al., [44] stated that
Dependency on imported materials 14 0.65 inflation has the least impact on construction costs in
Poor planning 15 0.62
Fluctuation in interest rate 16 0.59 comparison to other factors due to significant economic
Fluctuation of exchange rate currencies 17 0.58 change between the 1980s and the 2000s. Unlike in
Weak regulations and controls 18 0.58 developing countries, inflation came at the middle of the
Project fraud and corruption 19 0.55 causes list and not as a major reason for cost overruns.
However, inflation can be a major factor that may
The research has been carried out by a PhD student in affect the UK construction industry after the Brexit from
one of the UK’s most prestigious universities, which

Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3

110
 W. Hamid, A. Waterman
the European Union. Further research after this event
should be conducted to find out the potential impact of
the brexit on the construction industry. In relation to the
inflation, increasing of the material’s price was another
important factor for cost overruns. The main reason for
the impacts of these two causes is that the construction
project often can remain for years until completion.
Therefore, labours, materials cost, equipment etc. may
change time to time.
The complexity of a work can be also seen as a
common factor for cost overruns. This is due to the fact
that projects with high level of complexity result in
complex estimation, plans, schedules and stakeholders’
diversity. Those stakeholders have various interests in
the project, and to integrate their interest it may take time
due to the excepted dispute can occur, therefore,
influencing the project and causing cost overrun.
Complexity can be also affected by inflation and the
increasing of materials prices due to the long time that
complex projects need to be completed. During the
project time, a potential inflation may occur and there
can also be a change in the materials prices. The change
in the project scope can be a main cause of cost overruns
because the project scope involves all project schedule,
plans, estimation and quality. Therefore, any change in
these aspects means more time and resources are
required, and therefore, more costs against the estimated
budget. Also, poor scope may result in conflict and
dispute among project parties which this leads to spend
time and money to some conflict and dispute techniques
such as litigation and arbitration. All the mentioned
reasons can lead to project cost overrun. Finally,
inadequate contract and procurement method.
Contracts touch all business aspects such as terms of
payment and pricing. Therefore, contracts should specify
each aspect of the project work, otherwise, a dispute may
be found and dispute techniques like arbitration and
negotiations need to be established in order to solve this
dispute. This process can take time and at the end
additional costs will be added to the initial budget. In the
same context, unclear ambiguous clauses in the contract
may also be a reason for dispute, thus, this generates cost
overruns in a project. Furthermore, it is worthwhile
noting that selecting contract and procurement method is
critical to the project success. Choosing the low bid
without considering the contractor’s experience and
his/her technical capability to manage the project may
lead to time and cost overruns. What can be done for
these causes is explained in the conclusion section.
III. Conclusion
Construction industry has been playing a major role in
today’s economy for many countries, especially
developed ones [9]. The main critical issue in
construction projects is that most projects often have
failure of either time or cost overruns [14]. Therefore,
Ashworth and Perera [12] state the importance of an
understanding of cost control and construction
Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved
111
economics for many reasons such as the client
requirements are more complicated. Thus, effective
control system is required from the initiation stage to the
completion stage. Another reason is the tendency
towards modern designs, materials, techniques and
construction methods to attain value for money. A
secondary data collection such as books, journals,
international standard and some Internet information
were used in this research through using search engines,
like Google scholar, Science direct, Emerald Insight etc.
Besides that, qualitative research method was used to
review a considerable number of books, articles, website,
journals etc.
It has been reviewed how cost estimation is essential
to the contract tendering process in construction industry
because it provides the funds required for the project.
Inaccurate cost estimating could have a significant
impact on contracting business [3]. Therefore, this could
lead to cost overruns when the final project cost exceeds
the estimated cost [15]. Le-Hoai et al. [30] stated that
inappropriate practice of construction management
usually contributes to cost overrun.
The main objective of the research is to identify cost
overruns causes and its impact on construction industry
in developing countries and those in the United
Kingdom. It is shown that there is a similarity in the
main causes of cost overruns. After reviewing many
studies, which were conducted in different developing
countries about cost overruns in construction projects, it
is found that there are various causes for cost overruns
depending on the country. Olawale et al. [16] listed 20
factors which were considered the main reasons that
inhibit the control of cost in a construction project in the
UK. Generally, it can be concluded that the major
common causes of cost overruns in construction projects
in developing countries and in the United Kingdom were:
change in design, inflation, increasing of the material’s
price, project complexity, change in the project scope
and inadequate contract and procurement method. The
reasons behind each these factors and what can be done
to reduce them can be critically clarified below.
It can be seen that developing countries have common
causes of cost overruns in construction industry, despite
many studies have been carried out and there are still
cost overruns problems in construction projects.
Researchers used a combination of both qualitative
and quantitative methods which involve numerous ranges
of previous studies, interviews and surveys. By looking
at the main causes in most developing countries, it can be
recognized that inflation is the shared factor that cause
cost overruns in these countries. However, some studies
were carried out in the 1980s, and therefore, inflation has
not still necessarily the same impact as a cause for cost
overruns in some counties. For instance, Durdyev, et al.,
[44] stated that inflation has the least impact on
construction costs in comparison to other factors due to
significant economic change between the 1980s and the
2000s. It can be shown that the major causes of cost
overrun in developing counties and in the United
International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3
 W. Hamid, A. Waterman
Kingdom, are change in design, inflation, increasing of
the material’s price, project complexity, change in the
project scope and inadequate contract and procurement
method. The reasons behind each of these factors can be
critically clarified below.
A change in design can be caused by different reasons
such as design errors or clients request for change and
such reasons require extra works. Therefore, it causes
time and cost overruns. In addition, and from the
researcher’s experience in a construction project, it can
be added that insufficient investigation of the site status
can be another reason for design change. Undoubtedly,
this affects the overall project cost. In order to control
design changes, the main step to take is to hire
professional people with high skills and applying
competent techniques during the project. In addition,
effective communication with the design team and
integrating the process of design that is appropriately
planned, investigating and reviews, and taking sufficient
time for corrections can assist to achieve effective
outcomes and therefore, overcome the cost overruns
problem. Furthermore, those professionals should
establish planning, controlling and monitoring to raise
the performance of the project during the project life
cycle. Finally, ensuring a proper investigation of site to
take all site circumstances into consideration in the
design to acquire the best cost effective design choices.
Inflation is the shared factor that caused cost overruns
in these countries. However, according to some studies,
carried out in the 1980s, inflation is not necessarily still
having the same impact as a cause for cost overruns in
some countries. For instance, Durdyev, et al. [44] stated
that inflation has the least impact on construction costs in
comparison to other factors due to significant economic
change between the 1980s and the 2000s. Unlike in
developing countries, inflation came at the middle of the
causes list and not as a major reason for cost overruns.
However, inflation can be a major factor that may
affect the UK construction industry after the Brexit from
the European Union. Further research after this event
should be conducted to find out the potential impact of
the Brexit on the construction industry. In relation to the
inflation, increasing of the material’s price was another
important factor for cost overruns. The main reason for
the impacts of these two causes is that the construction
project often can remain for years until completion.
Therefore, labors, materials cost, equipment etc. may
change from time to time. Work complexity can be also
seen as a common factor for cost overruns. This is due to
the fact that projects with high level of complexity result
in complex estimation, plans, schedules and
stakeholders’ diversity. Those stakeholders have various
interests in the project, and to integrate their interest it
may take time due to the excepted dispute can occur,
therefore, influencing the project and causing cost
overrun. Complexity can be also affected by inflation and
the increasing of materials prices due to the long time
that complex projects need to be completed. During the
project time, there is potential inflation may occur and
Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved
112
also change in the materials prices. To reduce the impact
of complexity on the project cost, it is advised to
implement few steps such as a detailed work breakdown
structure, good planning, milestones and ensure a high
communication in the team. These steps can be essential
for the project success.
The change in the project scope can be a main cause
of cost overruns because the project scope involves all
project schedule, plans, estimation and quality.
Therefore, any change in these aspects means more
time and resources are required, and therefore, more
costs against the estimated budget. Also, poor scope may
result in conflict and dispute among project parties which
this leads to spend time and money to some conflict and
dispute techniques such as litigation and arbitration. All
the mentioned reasons can lead to project cost overrun.
Since change is inevitable in a project and in order to
achieve a proper project scope, it is important to create
an appropriate change management plan that can be used
by the project’s stakeholders to satisfy their need during
the project. In addition, establishing KPI in the milestone
form and identify the successful key factor in
conjunction with the client will measure the success of
achieving the project scope.
Acknowledgements
I am deeply grateful for the Higher Committee for the
Development of Education in Iraq (HCDE) for providing
me a great opportunity and supporting me financially to
study a master’s degree in construction project
management at The University of Manchester in the UK.
This article is a part of my dissertation in my master’s
degree 2016.
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Turkey.International Journal of Science and Management, 1(1),
pp. 3-12.
[45] Chan, C. T. W. (2012). The principal factors affecting
construction project overhead expenses: an exploratory factor
analysis approach. Construction Management Economics, 30(10),
903–914.
[46] Nawaz, T., Shareef, N. A., & Ikram, A. A. (2013). Cost
performance in construction industry of Pakistan. Industrial
Engineering Letters, 3(2), 19–34.
[47] Rosenfeld, Y. (2014). Root-cause analysis of construction-cost
overruns. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,
140(1). Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943-7862.0000789
[48] Twana A. M. (2015). Failure In Construction Project. Retrieved
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http://keu92.org/uploads/Search%20engineering/Delays%20in%2
0Construction%20Project%20Twana.pdf
Authors’ information
Waleed Hamid
Place of birth: Anbar, Iraq
MSc/Construction Project Management–
Manchester-University of Manchester–2016
Address: House 4, Sector 633, Al-Rabea Street,
Baghdad, Iraq.
E-mail: hawma_2012@yahoo.com
Anthony Waterman
Lecturer–University of Manchester
Director of ADW Developments Limited
Address: ADW Developments Limited, Croft
House, 26 Spring Crofts, Herts, WD23 3AR,
London, UK.
E-mail: anthony.waterman@manchester.ac.uk
International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3
 International Review of Civil Engineering (I.RE.C.E.), Vol. 9, N. 3
ISSN 2036 - 9913 May 2018

Multipurpose Rule Curves for Multipurpose Reservoir

by Conditional Genetic Algorithm

R. Hormwichian1, J. Tongsiri2, A. Kangrang3

Abstract – Multipurpose rule curves are suitable guide lines to operate multipurpose reservoirs
during a considered time period. This study applied the conditional genetic algorithm and
reservoir simulation model by considering multipurpose objective functions. 25 years of historic
inflow data (1992-2016) and 50 years of future inflow (2017-2066) under climate change scenario
B2 data and land use change data for the Man Oon Reservoir in Thailand have been considered.
The extreme inflow, the future inflow and the synthetic inflow of reservoirs were used in evaluating
the obtained rule curves. The situations of water shortage water excess as well as stored water at
the end of the wet season were shown. The results showed that the multipurpose rule curves with
objective function of minimized average excess spill water, can mitigate flood situations more than
the other rule curves, furthermore it is possible to have more stored water at the end of wet season
than water stored when using the other rule curves. Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. -
All rights reserved.

Keywords: Reservoir Rule Curves, Optimization Techniques, Reservoir Operation, Genetic

Algorithm

I. Introduction searching procedure. The GA was often applied to solve

Nowadays, flood and drought situations are serious
problems in many regions because of high population
growth, economic expansion, land use change, climate
change, etc. Water resource management is required to
include all index issues in order to achieve high solving
efficiency. The improvement of reservoir operation is an
interesting method because of non-construction method
that suddenly performs. In addition this method can save
time and money and it can enhance environmental
conservation. The optimal rule curves are necessary
guidelines to consider reservoir operation. Generally,
monthly reservoir rule curves have been used to decide
between release and storage of water for each month
during the considered inflow period. The historic inflow
period of the reservoir is often used to simulate the
reservoir system. However, the future situation of a
reservoir system requires optimal future rule curves that
are suitable to operate the reservoir effectively.
Furthermore, a reservoir operating system is a large
and complex system [1]-[2]. Many optimization
techniques have been applied to find the optimal rule
curves; for example, dynamic programming (DP),
genetic algorithm (GA), differential evolution (DE), ant
colony optimization (ACO), simulated annealing
algorithm (SA), shuffled frog leaping algorithm (SFLA),
particle swam optimization (PSO), cuckoo search (CS),
etc. [3]-[10]. The obtained rule curves are effectively
applied with searching conditions, such as inflow data,
water demand downstream, standard operating,
smoothing function rule as well as objective functions of
the complex problems in many fields because of its easy
application with many objective functions [11]-[13],
[23]-[28]. The objective functions of searching and the
considered inflow data have a strong influence on the
obtained rule curves. Therefore, suitable objective
functions of the reservoir and considered inflow period
are required for a multipurpose reservoir. Generally, the
purposes of a multipurpose reservoir are to maximize
stored water at the end of the wet season in order to
supply demands of the following dry season and to
maximize reserve volume to mitigate flood events during
the wet season.
The conflict of interest for multipurpose reservoir
requires the optimal rule curves for each purpose and for
each considered period. This study proposes a
conditional genetic algorithm (CGA) to connect with the
reservoir simulation model by considering multipurpose
of objective functions for searching procedures. The
proposed model was applied to the Nam Oon Reservoir,
Sakon Nakorn, Thailand considering 25 years of historic
monthly inflow data and 50 years of future inflow under
scenario B2. Comparisons between rule curves of the
CGA and the current rule curves under synthetic inflow
and future inflow were shown to demonstrate the
effectiveness of each rule curve.
II. Materials and Methods
II.1. Reservoir Operation Model
The main items that are considered in the reservoir

Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved https://doi.org/10.15866/irece.v9i3.14532

114
 R. Hormwichian, J. Tongsiri, A. Kangrang

operating system are available water (calculated from the stops [14]-[15].
water balance concept) and downstream water demands. The integrating conditional genetic algorithm and
Monthly release is estimated by considering the reservoir simulation model to search optimal rule curves
monthly available water with release criteria, operating is described in Fig. 2.
policies and reservoir rule curves. For this study, the
reservoir operation model was created following the GA Searching
concept of water balance. The reservoir operation model Set initial population of rule curves
is used under physical reservoir data, inflow data, water
demand, hydrological data, standard operating rule and
water balance equation as presented in Fig. 1 and Eq. (1): Input Data Reservoir Simulation
GA generating
-Water demand the new rule curves
-Water balance
-Historic inflow -Considering rule curves
W  S 1  I  P  E  DS (1) -Future inflow parameters
-Calculate water release
Reproduction
where W is the available water during month , S-1 is the -Selection
-crossover
stored water at the end of month -1; I is the monthly -mutation
inflow to the reservoir, P is the precipitation during Evaluation
multi-objective functions
month , E is the average value of the evaporation loss
and DS is the minimum reservoir storage capacity. LRC
No
represents the lower rule curves during month  and Criteria
URC represents the upper rule curves during month. satisfied?

Yes
Release
Stop GA
1 Obtain the multi-objective rule curves
1
Fig. 2. Conditional Genetic Algorithm with Reservoir Simulation
1 to search Rule Curves
1
Firstly, the minimum average excess spill water per
Available water year ( U ) is set as the objective function of the searching
procedure subject to the constraints on the simulation
model as in the following:
Fig. 1. Standard Operating Rule
1 n 
Then, monthly release of water from the reservoir (R) Min U ( Xi )   
Sp v  (2)
will be used to calculate the multi-objective functions in  n v 1 
the searching procedure, such as average excess release
12
of water per year, frequency of water shortage as well as
the maximum of the water stored at the end of the wet
if R  D ,then Spv    R  D  (3)
 1
season, etc. These objective functions will be recorded
and used in the CGA model. The details of each Else Spv  0
objective function will be described in the next section.
where n is the total number of considered years, Sp is
the excess spill water during year  (a year in which
II.2. Conditional Genetic Algorithm releases are higher than the target demand) and i is the
with Reservoir Simulation iteration number.
Firstly, the conditional genetic algorithm was created Secondly, the maximum of the average stored water at
with the reservoir simulation model. The procedure starts the end of the wet season ( N ) is set as the objective
from creating initial population of rule curves, boundary function of the searching procedure subject to the
search, probable crossover and mutation, and stopping constraints on the simulation model as in the following:
criteria. Then, the population initial rule curves were sent
to reservoir simulation model to operate considering 1 n 
input data. The monthly release was calculated using Max N ( Xi )   
SN v  (4)
initial rule curves. Then, the monthly release water was  n v 1 
used to calculate objective function and to evaluate the
initial rule curves to accept in first generation. Also, the where n is the total number of considered years, SN is
new accepted rule curves will be used to replace the the stored water at the end of the month of November
initial population. This procedure is repeated until the during year  (November is the last month of the wet
new accepted rule curves are appropriate, then the search season in Thailand) and i is the iteration number.

Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3

115
 R. Hormwichian, J. Tongsiri, A. Kangrang

II.3. Illustrative Application of Proposed Model

Nam Oon River
This study applied the proposed models to the Nam
Nam Oon Reservoir
Oon reservoir Thailand, which has the third biggest dam
in the northeast region of Thailand. The Nam Oon
reservoir is located in the Songkham Basin with an
upstream watershed area of 1,100 km2 (Fig. 3). The
schematic diagram of the Nam Oon reservoir is presented Electric generation
in Fig. 4. Both indicated that the Nam OonRiver is a
Irrigation Area
branch of the Song KramRiver. The water demands from (29,728 ha.)
reservoir are for electricity generation, irrigation, flood Water supply, Industrials,
control, industrial demand, domestic water supply and Environmental
environmental conservation. conservation etc.
The CGA connecting the reservoir simulation model
Flow direction Nam Oon River
to find the multi-objectives rule curves is constructed
through the MATLAB toolbox. Reservoir
Nam Song Kram River

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of the Nam Oon basin

There are two cases considering objective functions of

the searching procedure; the first is to minimize average
excess spill water per year and the second is to maximize
average stored water at the end of the wet season. For
each considered objective, the functions that will be used
will consider both historic inflow data and future inflow
data.
The 25 years of historic inflow data were recorded
from 1992 – 2016, whereas the 25 years of future inflow
data were created by the SWAT model under scenario B2
from 2017 – 2041 [16]-[17] (Fig. 5). The HEC-4 model
was used to create the synthetic inflow data into the
monthly inflows as a synthetic data set of 1,000 events to
evaluate the efficiency of each obtained rule curve, as
well as comparing them with the current rule curves.
Moreover, the inflows were also used to evaluate the
obtained rule curves.
Fig. 3. Location of the Nam Oon reservoir

1,200
Historic Inflow (1992-2016) Future Inflow (2017-2066)

1,000

800
Inflow (MCM)

600

400

200

0
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
2022
2024
2026
2028
2030
2032
2034
2036
2038
2040
2042
2044
2046
2048
2050
2052
2054
2056
2058
2060
2062
2064
2066

Historic Inflow Inflow-B2 Year

Fig. 5. Historic inflow and future inflow of Nam Oon reservoir

Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3

116

III. Results and Discussion
III.1. Historic Rule Curves with
Multi-Objective Function
The 25 years of monthly historic inflow data, monthly
data of evaporation, rainfall, irrigation, domestic and
industrial water requirements and monthly environmental
conservation were used in the reservoir simulation model
connecting with CGA while considering different
objective functions.
Then, the optimal historic rule curves of each case
were obtained. These obtained rule curves of all the cases
were plotted to be compared with the current rule curves
as shown in Fig. 6. They indicated that the rule curve
patterns in all cases were similar to the current rule
curves. The patterns of the obtained curves are similar to
the patterns of other reservoirs in Thailand from other
studies [8]-[9], [19]-[20] because of the seasonal inflow
effect. Fig. 6 also presents the optimal historic rule
curves of the Nam Oon reservoir using minimize excess
spill water (RC2-min spill-historic), using maximize
store water at the end of wet season (RC3-max store-
historic), using multi objectives of maximize store and
minimize spill (RC6-multi historic) as well as compared
to the current rule curves (RC1).
The obtained rule curves also indicated that the upper
levels of CGA models for both objective functions are
higher than the upper level of the current rule curves,
whereas the lower level of them is slightly different.
Hence, they can increase the storage water for the next
dry season. This will help to alleviate water shortages in
the next year, as it can be seen in other studies [21]-[22].
III.2. Future Rule Curves with
Multi-Objective Functions
The 25 years future inflow period 2017-2041 under
the B2 scenario and the other monthly information, like
in the former section, were used in the reservoir
simulation model connecting with CGA considering two
600
Normal high water storage (520 MCM)
Storage Capacity (MCM)
500
400
300
RC1-current
200
100
Dead storage capacity (43 MCM)
0
Jan
Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved
R. Hormwichian, J. Tongsiri, A. Kangrang
different objective functions. The optimal future rule
curves of each case were obtained. All the obtained
future rule curves were plotted with the current rule
curves as shown in Fig. 7. They indicated that the rule
curve patterns of all cases are similar when compared to
the current rule curves.
Fig. 7 also shows the optimal future rule curves of the
Nam Oon reservoir using minimize excess spill water
(RC4-min spill-future), using maximize store water at the
end of wet season (RC5-max store-future), using multi
objectives of maximize store and minimize spill (RC7-
multi future) as well as when compared with the current
rule curves (RC1). The obtained rule curves also
indicated that the storage capacity of upper rule curves of
CGA models for both objective functions are higher than
the upper rule curves of the current ones, whereas their
lower levels are slightly different. Hence, they can reduce
the spill water and keep the storage capacity full at the
end of the rainy season. This will help to alleviate water
shortages in the next year, as seen in other studies [21]-
[22].
III.3. Efficiency of Rule Curves Under Synthetic
Inflow Conditions
The efficiency of the obtained rule curves from all
cases of searching were evaluated by the operating
reservoir simulation considering the synthetic inflow
data. 1,000 samples of synthetic inflow were generated
from the historic inflow over 50 years.
Table I shows the situations of the water shortage
using both multi-objective rule curve and the current rule
curves. They indicated that the average magnitudes of the
water shortages using CGA rule curves are lower than
the magnitudes using the current rule curves
(17.208±8.126 million cubic meters (MCM)/year for
average water shortage of CGA compared to water
shortages of current rule curves that are 41.586 ±6.258
MCM/year).
RC2-min spill-historic RC3-max store-historic RC6-multi historic
Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Time (month)
Fig. 6. Optimal historic rule curves of Nam Oon reservoir
International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3
117
 R. Hormwichian, J. Tongsiri, A. Kangrang

The frequencies and the duration times of the water end of the wet season when using CGA rule curves are
shortages using CGA rule curves are lower than the higher than the stored level when using the current rule
frequencies and the duration times of the current rule curves. They found that the stored level when using
curves. RC3-max store-historic is the highest with
Table II presents the situations of excess spill water 425.996±6.258 MCM, because of the searching objective
when using each multi-objective rule curve and the function effect. The high capacity at the end of the wet
current rule curves. The results indicated that the average season surely guarantees the storage of a great amount of
magnitudes of excess release using the CGA rule curves water for the following dry season.
are less than the magnitudes using the current rule curves
(66.471±18.241 MCM/year for average excess water of TABLE III
MAXIMUM STORED WATER AT END OF WET SEASON USING 1,000
CGA compared to the excess spills of the current rule
SAMPLES OF SYNTHETIC INFLOW FOR EACH MULTI-OBJECTIVE FUTURE
curves of 90.509 ±19.573 MCM/year). The frequencies RULE CURVE
and the duration times of the excess spill water using the Rule curves Stored water at the end of November (MCM)
CGA rule curves are lower than the frequencies and the  323.307
RC1 (current)
duration times using the current rule curves.  13.364
 319.307
RC2-min spill-historic
TABLE I  17.384
SITUATIONS OF WATER SHORTAGE OF SYSTEMS CONSIDERING 1,000  425.996
RC3-max store-historic
SAMPLES OF SYNTHETIC INFLOW FOR EACH MULTI-OBJECTIVE  6.258
RULE CURVE  325.145
Magnitude RC4-min spill -future
Frequency Duration (year)  17.277
Rule curves (MCM/year)  368.699
(times/year) RC5-max store-future
Average Maximum Average Maximum  9.836
 0.971 41.586 130.189 18.238 21.056  317.641
RC1 (current) RC6-multi-historic
 0.032 6.258 36.162 6.990 4.693  14.640
RC2-min spill-  0.281 17.208 116.854 1.818 2.968  323.899
historic  0.103 8.126 29.775 0.684 1.405 RC7-multi-future
 17.020
RC3-max  1.000 128.288 144.549 25.000 25.000
store-historic  0.000 3.774 3.685 0.000 0.000
RC4-min spill -  0.493 18.880 114.844 2.445 4.918 III.4. Efficiency of Multi-Objective Future Rule Curves
future  0.108 8.145 28.606 0.866 2.054
Under Future Inflow Conditions
RC5-max  1.000 100.800 106.000 25.000 25.000
store-future  0.000 1.206 4.967 0.000 0.000 For the future situation, the obtained rule curves of all
RC6-multi-  1.000 42.778 102.147 25.000 25.000 case searches were used to operate the reservoir system
historic  0.000 4.645 39.238 0.000 0.000
for evaluating the efficiency by considering 25 years of
RC7-multi-  0.361 18.769 119.361 2.039 3.647
future
future inflow under B2 scenario. Table IV shows the
 0.106 8.280 28.797 0.734 1.598
situations of water shortage when using each future rule
Note:  = average,= standard deviation
curve and the current rule curves. They indicated that the
TABLE II average magnitudes of the water shortages using the
SITUATIONS OF EXCESS SPILL WATER OF SYSTEMS CONSIDERING 1,000 CGA future rule curves are lower than the magnitudes
SAMPLES OF SYNTHETIC INFLOW FOR EACH MULTI-OBJECTIVE using the current rule curves (6.380 MCM/year for the
RULE CURVE
average water shortages of CGA compared to the
Magnitude
Rule curves
Frequency
(MCM/year)
Duration (year) shortage with the current rule curves of 24.600
(times/year) MCM/year). The frequencies and the duration of water
Average Maximum Average Maximum
 0.676 90.509 356.605 3.376 7.017 shortages using the CGA rule curves are lower than with
RC1 (current)
 0.100 19.573 74.965 1.402 2.960 the current rule curves. The results also indicate that
RC2-min spill-  0.543 66.471 328.849 2.537 5.166 situations of water shortage when using the future rule
historic  0.112 18.241 83.273 0.846 2.160 curves (RC5-max store-future) are lower because these
RC3-max  0.935 170.380 414.268 12.543 17.018 rule curves attempt to keep the water at the maximum
store-historic  0.052 21.709 64.248 6.713 5.451
level at the end of the wet season following the searching
RC4-min spill  0.555 67.614 325.539 2.581 5.233
-future  0.112 18.205 80.325 0.906 2.183
objective function. Table V shows the situations of the
RC5-max  0.880 155.300 373.173 11.000 18.000 excess spill water when using both multi-objective future
store-future  0.074 22.888 70.750 5.022 5.081 rule curve and current rule curves. The results indicated
RC6-multi-  0.670 92.679 374.179 3.589 7.311 that the average magnitudes of the excess release using
historic  0.109 20.965 80.586 1.527 3.079 the CGA rule curves are lower than the magnitudes using
RC7-multi-  0.554 67.785 327.092 2.539 5.189 the current rule curves (180.958 MCM/year for average
future  0.110 18.148 79.683 0.842 2.141 excess water for CGA compared to the excess spills of
Note:  = average ,= standard deviation the current rule curves that are 199.661 MCM/year). The
frequency and the duration time of the excess spill water
Table III shows the stored water at the end of the wet
using the CGA rule curves are lower than the frequency
season (November) using every multi-objective rule
and the duration using the current rule curves.
curve. The results indicated that the stored water at the

Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3

118
 R. Hormwichian, J. Tongsiri, A. Kangrang

600
Normal high water storage (520 MCM)

Storage Capacity (MCM)

500

400

300
RC1-current RC4-min spill-future RC5-max store-future RC7-multi future
200

100

Dead storage capacity (43 MCM)

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Time (month)

Fig. 7. Optimal future rule curves of Nam Oon reservoir

TABLE IV level of 473.454 MCM because of the searching

SITUATIONS OF WATER SHORTAGE OF SYSTEMS USING FUTURE
objective function effect. In addition, these results are
INFLOW FOR EACH MULTI-OBJECTIVE FUTURE RULE CURVE
Magnitude
similar to the results of the historic inflow rule curves
Frequency Duration (year) that consider the same objective function for the
Rule curves (MCM/year)
(times/year)
Average Maximum Average Maximum searching procedure.
RC1-current 0.680 24.600 159.000 3.778 7.000
RC2-min TABLE VI
0.120 6.460 147.000 2.000 3.000
spill-historic MAXIMUM STORED WATER AT END OF WET SEASON USING FUTURE
RC3-max INFLOW FOR EACH MULTI-OBJECTIVE FUTURE RULE CURVE
0.980 96.600 147.000 24.500 39.000
store-historic Rule curves Stored water at the end of November (MCM)
RC4-min
0.400 6.380 134.000 2.500 4.000 RC1-current 415.631
spill -future
RC2-min spill-historic 409.876
RC5-max
0.980 91.900 106.000 24.500 39.000 RC3-max store-historic 495.114
store-future
RC4-min spill -future 422.378
RC6-multi-
0.980 31.000 113.000 24.500 39.000 RC5-max store-future 473.454
historic
RC6-multi-historic 399.420
RC7-multi-
0.340 8.020 144.000 2.429 4.000 RC7-multi-future 423.349
future

TABLE V
SITUATIONS OF EXCESS SPILL WATER OF SYSTEMS USING FUTURE
IV. Conclusion
INFLOW FOR EACH MULTI-OBJECTIVE FUTURE RULE CURVE
This study applied conditional genetic algorithm
Magnitude
Rule curves
Frequency
(MCM/year)
Duration (year) (CGA) with reservoir simulation model to search the
(times/year) multi-objective rule curves of the Nam Oon Reservoir,
Average Maximum Average Maximum
RC1-current 0.920 199.661 923.360 11.500 24.000 SakonNakhon province, Thailand. There were two
RC2-min spill- objective functions applied to search optimal rule curves;
0.820 181.317 923.360 5.125 17.000
historic
RC3-max
(1) minimize average excess water spill and (2)
0.980 267.581 923.360 24.500 25.000 maximize store water at the end of wet season. The 25
store-historic
RC4-min spill
0.840 180.958 923.360 6.000 17.000
years of future inflow were created by the SWAT model
-future considering both climate change of scenario B2 and land
RC5-max
store-future
0.960 266.358 923.360 16.000 24.000 use change of Agri-map. The 25 years of future inflow
RC6-multi- and 1,000 samples of synthetic inflow were used to
0.920 207.504 923.360 11.500 24.000
historic simulate the reservoir system for evaluating the
RC7-multi- performance of rule curves. The results showed that the
0.860 182.551 923.360 6.143 17.000
future
obtained rule curves from CGA with objective function
of minimize average excess water spill are more suitable
Table VI shows the stored water at the end of the wet for reservoir operation than the current rule curves in
season (November) when using each multi-objective both the historic situation and the future situation.
future rule curve. The results indicated that the stored Furthermore, the frequency and the magnitude of
water at the end of the wet season when using CGA rule excess water releases when using the newly obtained rule
curves are higher than the stored level when using the curves are lower than those of current rule curves. For
current rule curves. It has also been found that the stored the obtained rule curves from CGA with objective
level when using RC5-max store-future had the highest function of maximize store water at the end of wet season

Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3

119
 R. Hormwichian, J. Tongsiri, A. Kangrang
are more suitable for reservoir operation than the current
rule curves in both the historic situation and the future
situation too. In addition, the frequency, magnitude of
excess water releases and stored water at the end of wet
season when using the newly obtained rule curves are
less than those of current rule curves. These conclude
that the CGA models considering future inflows are
effective for searching optimal rule curves for future
situations. Whereas the maximum stored water at the end
of the wet season is an effective objective function for
searching optimal rule curves for storing water for the
next dry season.
Acknowledgements
This research was financially supported by
Mahasarakham University Grant 2018; the authors would
like to acknowledge Mahasarakham University.
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Authors’ information
Rattana Hormwichian received her Ph.D. in
Civil Engineering from Mahasarakham
University, Thailand in 2014
2014. She is currently
an Assistant
A stant Professor at the Faculty of
Engineering at Mahasarakham University,
Thailand. Her research interests include water
resource management and optimization
techniques.

Jedsada
Jedsada Tongsiri received his B.Eng. degree in
Civil Engineering ffrrom
m Kasetsart University,
University,
Thailand in 2000. He is currently aaM.Eng
M.Eng
M.Eng.
student in Civil Engineering at Mahasarakham
University, Thailand.

Anongrit Kangrang received his Ph.D. in Civil

Engineering from Thammasat University,
University,
Thailand in 2006. He is currently an Associate
Professor
Professor at the Faculty of Engineering at
Mahasarakham University, Thailand. His
research interests include water resource
management and optimization techniques.

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ll rights reserved International Rev
Review
iew of Civil Engineering, V
Vol.
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9, N. 3

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 International Review of Civil Engineering (I.RE.C.E.), Vol. 9, N. 3
ISSN 2036 - 9913 May 2018

Effect of Lime and Cement on the Geotechnical

Properties of an Expansive Soil

Sarah Djouimaa, Madani Sid, Mustapha Hidjeb

Abstract – The phenomenon of clays swelling is the cause of possible disorders dependent on the
movement of the soil. The technique of the stabilization to improve such a soil state using cement
and lime is utilized all around the world. The stabilization of the soil can be a very important
solution because it brings important modifications to their geotechnical properties. This document
aims to study the influence of the lime and the cement on the geotechnical properties of the
expansive soil. The studied mechanical properties are the plasticity, the compaction, the
unconfined compression strength, the free swell and the shear strength characteristics of the soil
with varying proportions of lime and cement, Properties of the untreated soil were determined.
The percentages of lime and cement added are respectively 2 %, 4 %, 6 % and 8 % by the dry
weight of the soil. The untreated soil values were used as points of comparison. The obtained
results show a significant reduction in the plasticity index and in the percentage of free swell of
expansive soil with the increase of the quantity of lime and cement. Also it has been found that the
addition of lime and cement increases the optimum moisture content, the unconfined compression
strength, and the shear strength of the soil. The soil used in this research was taken in the zone of
Me’daourouch, near the city of Souk Ahras. This research work studied in particular three
aspects, Such as the effect of admixtures cement and lime, the effect of the variation of the
percentage of admixtures and the effect of curing time after mixing of admixtures on the
stabilization. Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.

Keywords: Expansive Soil, Cement, Lime, Stabilization

I. Introduction reactions occur, and they lead to the improvement of soil

The presence of Expansive soils in the Algerian North
engendered damages on the superstructures, The
alternation drought-rehydration cause locally non-
uniform movements of soil which can lead to the
fissuring of buildings. Expansive clays indeed see their
volumes varying with their moisture content, Causing
damage on the constructions which foundations are
shallow [1]. It is the variation of the moisture content that
is the triggering factor for the variations of volume [2].
An increase of the moisture content pulls the
phenomenon of swelling whereas its decrease leads to
the phenomenon of shrinkage [3]. The swelling of
clayey soils or certain sedimentary rocks establishes a
very important phenomenon in geotechnics because it is
at the origin of numerous damage for the structures
founded on them [4]. The treatment of the soil with an
hydraulic binder is a technique which consists in
incorporating, Within the soil, these elements of
contribution, such as lime, cement, fly ash, industrial
waste products, nitrate of potassium, chloride of calcium
and phosphoric acid, mixing them with some water, more
or less confidentially in situ, until the obtaining of a
homogeneous material to confer him new properties in
an expansive soil to reduce the swell potential [5]. When
the lime and the cement are added to the soil, two
properties: a short term reaction, including cation
exchange and flocculation and long term one, including
pozzolanic reaction. Nowadays the usage of chemical
stabilization to improve the mechanical properties of soil,
the reduction of their plasticity and the resistant in the
action of the traffic and the environmental conditions is
necessary to stabilize the soil [6]. The lime, as strong
base, increases the pH of the soil and it causes the attack
of the constituents of the soil (silica and alumina). it
forms then aluminates and silicates of calcium hydrated
(pozzolanic reactions) which, by crystallizing, act as a
sociable binder between grains [7]-[1]. The addition of
the lime causes a cation exchange occurs between the
absorbed ions and the brought cations which modifies
CEC and reduces the size of the double layer of the
clayey particles [8]. The reactions of the cement with a
soil consist essentially of a hydration of silicates and
aluminates of anhydrous calcium, with a passage by the
phase solution followed by the crystallization of the
hydrated products: this is called hydraulic grip [9]. [10]
indicated that there was a decrease in plasticity of soil
after lime stabilization. The treatment of a soil with
cement leads to a fast and an important increase in its
strength and its portance [11]. The aim of the presented
study is to characterize and to investigate the
stabilization of the soil in laboratory by the addition of

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 S. Djouimaa, S. Madani, M. Hidjeb

lime and cement. In order to illustrate the effect of
adding cement and lime on the geotechnical behaviour of
the expansive soil. The soil was subjected to a series of
tests such as atterberg limit compaction characteristics,
free swell, shear strength and unconfined compressive
strength, furthermore, the influence of the curing time is
investigated.
cao, the Ca++ provided by cement and lime can replace
the Na+ in the expansive soil, which leads to the
stabilization of the clay. Normal Proctor tests were
carried out according to standard NF P94-093, which will
study the influence and the relation between the dry unit
weight of the soil as well as the water content.

II. Experimental Studies

II.1. Material
The samples used in this study were collected from
the expansive soil of a depth of 1-5m below the surface
of the soil. The site is located in M’daourouch
approximately at 50 km South of Souk Ahras city which
is characterized by a semi-arid climate and by an
expansive soil. The properties and the characteristics of
the untreated soil are given in Table I. Fig. 1. Normal Proctor test material

TABLE I
PROPERTIES OF THE STUDIED SOIL For the natural soil the optimum water content
Properties obtained is of 15.8 % (Fig. 5). The optimum water
Φ<80 µm 96,8 content and the maximum dry unit weight of the natural
Nature water content (%) 21,5 and treated specimens were determined by using the
Liquid limit (%) 51
standard Proctor compaction test, in a standard
Plastic limit (%) 22
Plasticity index (%) 29 cylindrical mould, whose dimensions were 101 mm in
Optimum water content OMC (%) 15,8 diameter and 100 mm in height. Unconfined compressive
maximum dry unit weight MDD (t/m3) 01,89 strength tests were carried out on the natural and treated
CaCo3 Soil (%) 01,86 soil according to the appropriate French standard NF P
CaCo3Cement (%) 62,2
CaCo3lime (%) 88,00 94-077.

The results of particle size analyses of the soil of

M’daourouch show that the 96,8 % of the particles are
fine grained. The used lime was quicklime, in the form of
white powder, and the cement was cement Portland.

II.2. Preparation of Specimens and Testing Method

The samples of the soil were dried at the first time in
oven at the temperature of 105° C. After having crushed
the soil finely the powder is mixed with water in a
homogeneous way then it is compacted in a mould. The
water content of the samples is fixed at 15,8% and their
dry density, with 1,89 t/m3 (optimum water content and
maximum dry unit weight), all soil samples were
prepared at a temperature of 25°C±2. The percentages of
added limes and cement are ,respectively, 2%, 4%, 6%
and 8%. Fig. 2. Unconfined compression apparatus
The untreated materials were also studied in order to
have an element of comparison. The treated samples are The tests were carried out with cylindrical moulds of
subjected to four different tests: unconfined compressive 100 mm of height and 101 millimeters of diameter at a
test, direct shear test, swelling and standard Proctor constant loading speed of 0.1 mm/min. In order to study
compaction test, in order to see their effects on the the effect of the treatment on the compressive strength
behavior and the changes in engineering properties of the after having prepared the samples with and without the
soil. The Atterberg limit tests of the untreated and treated treatment the samples treated with the various
samples according to NF P94-051, 1993, are given in percentages of lime and cement respectively 2%,4%, 6%
Table II. and 8% are then protected by a film from paraffin before
According to Table II it can be found out that each being stored with 20°C±1during 7, 14, 21 and 28 days.
one of the two additives has an important percentage of

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 S. Djouimaa, S. Madani, M. Hidjeb

TABLE II soil which reduces its plasticity and translates more

GEOTECHNICAL RESULTS OF THE TREATED SAMPLES
resistance and stability to the soil. These two initial
Compaction curve
Additives
γd (t/m3) Wopt (%) LL (%) PL (%) PI (%)
reactions caused a modification to the mechanical
Cement 0 1,89 15,8 51 22 29 structure of treated soil.
(%) 2 1,82 16,9 48 19 31
4 1,81 17,5 51 21 27
6 1,78 18,3 52 24 25
8 1,77 19,5 53 21 19
lime 0 1,89 15,8 51 22 29
(%) 2 1,81 17,1 49 29 25
4 1,79 17,9 52 25 23
6 1,76 19,9 48 26 20
8 1,72 21,1 47 27 21

All the samples were compacted before each test using

a standard Proctor compaction effort of 587 kj/m3 at
optimum water content, with a diameter of 101mm and a
height of 100mm.
The direct shear tests were carried out with cylindrical
specimens of 19 mm of height and a diameter of 60 mm,
Fig. 3. Effect of lime on atterberg limits
at a constant shearing speed (0,08mm/min) according to
appropriate French standard NF P 94-071.
The direct shear test was carried out under the normal
pressures (σ1) of 50, 100, 200 and 300kPa. These values
correspond to the vertical stress exerted by most
structures of engineering constructions based on this kind
of treated soil. Free swell test was carried out according
to XP P94.091; the samples were prepared at optimum
water content and maximum dry density in a mould with
50.74 mm in diameter and 20 mm in height.
The sample was placed between two porous stones
with a load of 0.5 kPa and the cell is completely filled
with water.
Fig. 4. Effect of cement on atterberg limits

III. Results and Discussion

III.1. Effect of Stabilizer on Physical Properties
The change in the consistency limits is due to some
mechanism in the clay surface after the treatment with
cement or lime, a reduction in the value of the the
plasticity index can be seen ,deduced by the cation
exchanges which decreases the thickness of the double
layer thus the plasticity of the soil is reduced. The results
proved that the liquid limit increased and the plastic limit
decreased when the soil is mixed with cement.
The results of the Atterberg limit tests are presented in
Figs. 3 and 4. The reductions of the plasticity index of
the samples treated by cement mainly due to an increase
in plastic limit. The samples stabilized by lime and
cement presented the same behavior of reduction in LL.
This is due to the reactions of the cation exchanges
because of the presence of the cations of Ca++ in lime
and cement which replaces those of sodium in the
expansive soil. Thus the clay particles agglomerate and
become larger and then provide less surface sensitive to
water. The plasticity index decreased with the increase of
lime.
These variations can be caused by the modifications in
the behavior of the treated soil due to the hydration
resulting from the reaction of cement or lime with the
III.2. Compaction Results Proctor
The compaction curves present a reduction in the
maximum dry density with the increase in the percentage
of lime or cement. The results of compaction tests are
presented in Table II. research have found a reduction of
the maximum dry density and an increase of the optimum
moisture content of the soil treated with lime. That
explains why lime and/or cement reduce also the
sensitivity of the soil to the water owing to the fact that
the addition of lime or cement occupies the inter-particle
void between the clay particles and it absorbs water
which decreases the dry density this can be related to the
important effect of cement and lime on the change of the
characteristic of the treated soil when compared to the
expansive soil without additive this can be attributed to
the immediate formation of the cemented products.
Indeed, clay does not have anymore the same nature
when the physical properties change. When compacted,
the soil treated with lime has a maximum dry density
lower than untreated soil. The addition of the
cement/lime affects by increasing the optimum water
content and by decreasing the maximum dry unit weight
of the natural soil.
Figs. 5 and 6 show that as the percentage of lime or
cement increases, the dry unit weight decreases and the

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124
 S. Djouimaa, S. Madani, M. Hidjeb
optimum water content increases. Standard Proctor tests
were showed that the influence of the lime on the
optimum water content is more remarkable than that of
the cement.
Fig. 5. Examples of compaction curves of lime-treated soil
Fig. 6. Examples of compaction curves of cement-treated soil
Fig. 7. Effect of cement on the optimum water content
III.3. Unconfined Compressive Strength Test
The treatment by cement or lime gives the better
resulting on the compressive strength. The improvement
in the unconfined compressive strength depends on the
percentage of cement and lime. The compressive strength
of the treated soil increases with the increase in the
percentage of cement and lime compared with the
untreated soil.
Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved
125
Fig. 8. Effect of cement on the dry density
Fig. 9. Effect of lime on the dry density
Fig. 10. Effect of lime on the optimum water content
Figs. 11 and 12 show the variation of the compressive
strength with the different percentages of cement and
lime. For samples that have the same curing period, the
differences between the cement and the lime result in the
variation of the strength.
The cure period is a very important factor, the
chemical stabilization requires a curing time in order to
complete the chemical reaction. Unconfined compressive
strength according to the curing time is illustrated in
Figs. 13.
After 7 days of cure an increase in the unconfined
compressive strength of the soil can be seen for all
combinations from a value of 311kPa up to the values of
between 421kPa and 520kPa.
International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3
 S. Djouimaa, S. Madani, M. Hidjeb

(a)

Fig. 11. Unconfined compressive strength of soil

With various additions of cement

(b)

Figs. 13. Comparison of soil strength of different curing period (a)

Cement stabilized soil, (b) Lime stabilized soil

TABLE III
COHESION AND ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION TESTED AT DIFFERENT
Fig. 12. Unconfined compressive strength of soil CURING DURATION
With various additions of lime Cement Lime
Angle of internal friction
content content Cohesion (kPa)
(degree)
This result indicates that the curing period influences (%) (%)
the strength of the samples treated with lime or cement, 7 days 14 days 28 days 7 days 14 days 28 days
so that the increase in treatment time increases the - 2 66,9 83,7 125,6 21,5 23,2 27,2
- 4 91,5 109,7 165,8 23,4 26,5 31,4
unconfined compressive strength of the treated soil. - 6 129,4 153,2 203,6 28,6 32 38,3
Because of the influence of the cementitious - 8 164,2 189,5 248,7 32,1 34,9 42,7
compounds the unconfined compressive strength 2 - 69,2 89,7 157,8 23,9 25,1 29,4
increases with the curing time by increasing in the lime 4 - 99,3 117,4 183,1 27,1 29,9 33,8
6 - 135,8 161,1 221,8 33,2 35,4 40,1
values which is due to the pozzolanic reaction. The effect 8 - 172,5 218,7 263,2 38,4 40,3 45,1
of the treatment with cement is better than the one of
lime. The variation of internal friction angle with cement
and lime content, illustrated in Figs. 16 and 17, is similar
III.4. Variation of Shear Strength Parameters to the one of cohesion in Figs. 14 and 15. The maximum
internal friction angle is also observed at 8% cement and
The values of the cohesion and the internal friction 8% lime content. An increase in the cohesion from a
angle of the samples treated at 7, 14, 28 days are given in value of 157 kPa to a value of 263 kPa at 28 days of
Table III. curing during with cement is presented in Fig. 14. The
The two stabilizers lead to an increase in the shear effect of the treatment with lime is quite slow compared
strength parameters; this increase is due to the formation to the one of cement and it does not exceed 249 kPa in
of cementation compounds dependent on the addition of long term, the angle of friction of the soil treated with
the different percentage of cement and limes that makes lime and cement presents the same behavior of cohesion
the connection between the grains of clays increase and in Figs. 16 and 17. The internal friction angle increases
consequently there is more shear strength. also with the time. The results of the direct shear tests are
The maximum of cohesion is observed with the 8% of the same for the cohesion and the internal friction angle;
cement and the 8% of lime content (Table III) which they depend on the type of treatment and the curing
represents a good adherence between the grains. period.

Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3

126
 S. Djouimaa, S. Madani, M. Hidjeb
Fig. 14. Effect of curing time and percentage of cement
on cohesion of treated soil
Fig. 15. Effect of curing time and percentage of lime
on cohesion of treated soil
Fig. 16. Effect of curing time and percentage of cement on the angle of
internal friction of treated soil
Fig. 17. Effect of curing time and percentage of lime on the angle of
internal friction of treated soil
Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved
127
As the results of unconfined compressive test; the
direct shear test also shows that the cement treatment
allows to increase the cohesion and the internal friction
angle of the soil better than the lime one.
III.5. Effect of Stabilizers on the Swelling
of Expansive Soil
The swell percentages of the treated soil with cement
and lime are indicated in Figs. 18 to 23, in order to study
the effect of the various additives on reducing the
percentage of soil swelling.
Fig. 18. Swell versus time graphics for different
cement contents without cure
The addition of 2% of cement shows a reduction of
36.6% on swelling percentage and a reduction of 22.8%
can be seen with the addition 2% of lime (Table IV). The
reaction of the soil with cement/lime reduces the pores so
there is a modification in the hydraulic properties of the
soil Thus there is a reduction in swelling percentage.
Fig. 19. Swell versus time graphics for different cement contents
with 7days cure
It is possible to note that the addition of 2% cement
caused better results in swell percent when compared
with 2% lime addition.
Figs. 18 to 23 show the different percentages of final
swelling reduction of the soil according to the different
International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3
 S. Djouimaa, S. Madani, M. Hidjeb

percentages of additions. It has been found out that the

swell percentage values of treated soils decrease more
with the increase of curing time.

Fig. 22. Swell versus time graphics for different lime contents
with 7 days cure

For a percentage of cement of 8%, the swelling of the

clay is reduced to 73,8% in a cure period of 28 days and
Fig. 20. Swell versus time graphics for different cement swelling becomes negligible.
contents with 28 days cure
With an addition of 8% of lime the percentage of
Also the swell percentage decreases with the increase swelling decreases by 56,5% for 7 days of cure up to a
in the amount of lime or cement. It has been found out value of 57,3% for 28 days of cure.
that the swell percentage of treated soils decreases with
the increase in the amount of lime/cement added and in
addition with the increase in curing time, which means
an increasingly important effect from the results
obtained, the addition of 8% of cement gives the largest
reduction of the swelling potential 57.3%, while the
value of 8% of lime caused a swelling reduction of
53.6%.

Fig. 23. Swell versus time graphics for different lime contents
with 28 days cure

TABLE IV
VARIATION OF SWELLING PERCENTAGE WITH PERCENT CEMENT, LIME
AND CURING TIME
specimens % Change in dH/H
Without curing 7days curing 28days curing
A 0,0 0,0 0,0
98%A+2%Cement 36,6 46,7 58,8
96%A+4%Cement 43,5 50,4 65,9
93%A+6%Cement 49,3 56,9 69,7
Fig. 21. Swell versus time graphics for different
90%A+8%Cement 57,1 60,1 73,8
lime contents without cure
98%A+2%Lime 22,8 26,8 40,9
96%A+4%Lime 31,8 35,4 54,3
93%A+6%Lime 44,8 48,6 54,9
III.6. Effect of Curing on the Swelling Percentage 90%A+8%Lime 53,6 56,5 57,3
Fig. 24 shows a significant decrease in the percentage
in the swelling of soils treated with cement or lime. It is This is due to an exchange reaction as well as an
also noted that this improvement in the percentages of adsorption of non-exchanged calcium ions, and the
swelling of the treated soil is due to the increase of the formation of a cementing agent, which binds the particles
curing time between them, and thus limiting the increase in volume
of clays.

Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3

128
 S. Djouimaa, S. Madani, M. Hidjeb
Fig. 24. Comparison among the swell potential values of natural,
cement, and lime treated soils
IV. Conclusion
Based on an experimental study concerning the effect
of both cement and lime on the characteristic of the
clayey soil, it is shown many changes in the properties of
the treated soil can be seen.
From this research the following results are obtained:
the addition of cement and lime to the expansive soil
reduced the plasticity index; it represents a good
improvement indicator. Compaction results show a
reduction in the maximum dry unit weight and an
increase in the optimum moisture content with the
increase in the content of cement and lime. An increase
in the unconfined compressive strength with the increase
of the percentage of the additives.
The cure time is an important factor in the
stabilization of the soil, the result after 28 days is better
than the one after 7 days of cure. Swell percentage
decreases with the increase in the percentage of the
additives, the results of swelling shows an important
improvement of the treated soil. The addition of 8% of
cement in 28 days of cure gives a reduction of 73,8% in
the swelling percentage compared with the treatment of 7
days of cure which gives a reduction of 57,1%. So there
is a significant improvement by the addition of cement
and lime in the treated soil. Also the treatment by cement
and lime has shown an increase in the shear strength.
Furthermore ,the cement content is more effective
than the lime content.
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Authors’ Information
Sarah Djouimaa is an Assistant Professor in
Dept. of Civil Engineering University of
Mohamed Cherif Messaadia Souk-Ahras
Algeria. She received a degree in civil
engineering from Constantine university of
Science and Technologie in 2006 and a master’s
degree in geotechnical option from the
University of 20 August 1955, Skikda, Algeria
in 2009, she is a member of the Management, Maintenance and
Rehabilitation of Urban Infrastructures, Laboratory. Her research
interests include swelling and soil treatment.

Madani Sid is a Professor in Dept. of Civil

Engineering University of Mohamed Cherif
Messaadia Souk-Ahras Algeria. he received the
PhD degree in rock mechanics in France in
1991. His research interests include the
Experimental Verification of Swelling Laws, he
is a Director of a research team in the laboratory
"Management, Maintenance and Rehabilitation
of Urban Infrastructures”.

Mustapha Hidjeb is a Professor in geotechnical option Dept. of Civil

Engineering , University of 20 Auguest 1955 Skikda. Algeria. his
research interests include Stability, Sliding, Soil Treatment, Industrial
Waste, Swampy Vegetable Fibers he is Director of the Laboratory of
Materials, Geotechnics, Habitat and Urbanism.

Copyright © 2018 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved International Review of Civil Engineering, Vol. 9, N. 3

130
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