Introduction
Erik B. Nelson and Dominique Guillot, Schlumberger
The first edition of Well Cementing was published in
1990. Since then, cementing technology has advanced
rapidly on many fronts, and Schlumberger decided to
produce an updated edition.
Well cementing technology is an amalgam of many
interdependent scientific and engineering disciplines,
including chemistry, geology, and physics and petro-
leum, mechanical, and electrical engineering. Each is
essential to achieve the primary goal of well cement-
ing—durable zonal isolation. By preparing this second
edition, the authors have aspired to produce a compre-
hensive and updated reference concerning the applica-
tion of these disciplines toward cementing a well.
Like the first edition, this textbook comprises five
principal sections. The first section (Chapter 1) illus-
trates how the quality of the hydraulic seal provided by
the cement sheath can affect well performance. The
second section (Chapters 2 through 11) presents infor-
mation that must be considered during the design phase
of a cementing treatment. Various aspects of cement job
execution are covered in the third section (Chapters 12
through 14). The fourth section (Chapter 15) addresses
cement job evaluation. The fifth section contains appen-
dices that present information about rheology, cement
testing, and cementing calculations.
In the preface, D.G. Calvert states that “primary
cementing (is) the most important operation performed
on a well.” Indeed, from operational experience, few
would dispute that no other event has a greater effect on
the production potential of a well. Yet it is interesting to
note that very little work has been published regarding
the quantification of zonal isolation from a reservoir
engineering point of view. In Chapter 1, common reser-
voir engineering concepts are used to derive a theoreti-
cal index of zonal isolation, which can be used to calcu-
late the maximum tolerable cement sheath permeability
(matrix and interfacial). The index of zonal isolation
concept is subsequently applied to typical wellbore sce-
narios, and the results further underscore the critical
importance of cement sheath integrity. Chapter 1 also
provides several examples of consequences suffered by
operators when adequate zonal isolation is not attained.
Well Cementing ■ Introduction
Chapter 2 is concerned with the central unifying
theme of this textbook—Portland cement. The physical
and chemical properties and the performance of this
remarkable material are crucial to every facet of well
cementing technology. This chapter presents (in a well
cementing context) a review of the manufacture, chem-
ical composition, hydration chemistry, and classification
of Portland cements. The updated discussion reflects an
improved understanding of aluminate-phase hydration,
and also includes a section concerning advanced tech-
niques for monitoring and modeling cement hydration.
Well cementing exposes Portland cement to condi-
tions far different from those anticipated by its inventor.
Cement systems must be designed for placement under
conditions ranging from below freezing in permafrost
zones to greater than 1,000°F [538°C] in some thermal
recovery wells. After placement, the cement systems
must preserve their integrity and provide zonal isolation
during the life of the well. It has only been possible to
accommodate such a wide range of conditions through
the development of additives that modify the behavior of
Portland cements for individual well requirements. The
impressive array of cement additives used in the well
cementing industry is discussed in Chapter 3. The chem-
ical nature of the various classes of additives is
described, and typical performance data are provided.
In addition, building upon the material presented in
Chapter 2, the mechanisms by which the additives oper-
ate are also explained.
The rheology of well cement systems is examined in
Chapter 4. A review of the relevant rheological models
and concepts is presented, followed by discussions of
flow in pipes and annuli, the effects of particle-laden
fluids, foamed cement rheology, and equipment for rhe-
ological characterization.
The rheological behavior of a cement slurry must be
optimized to effectively remove drilling mud from the
annulus. The appropriate cement slurry design is a func-
tion of many parameters, including the wellbore geome-
try, casing hardware, formation integrity, drilling fluid
characteristics, and presence of spacers and washes. A
large amount of theoretical and experimental work con-
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cerning mud removal has been performed since 1940,
yet this subject remains controversial today. Chapter 5 is
a review of the work performed to date, contrasting the
opposing viewpoints and distilling some mud removal
guidelines with which the majority of workers in this
field would agree.
The interactions between cement systems and the
formations with which they come into contact are impor-
tant topics. Such interactions encompass four principal
effects—fluid loss, formation damage, bonding, and lost
circulation. It is generally acknowledged that an inap-
propriate level of fluid-loss control is often responsible
for primary and remedial cementing failures. In addi-
tion, invasion of cement filtrate into the formation may
be damaging to production. Chapter 6 discusses static
and dynamic fluid loss, the deposition of cement filter-
cakes on formation surfaces, and the influence of a pre-
viously deposited mudcake on the fluid-loss process.
Recent work concerning cement-to-formation bonding is
also highlighted. Another section of Chapter 6 reviews
methods for preventing or correcting lost circulation.
Because lost circulation is best attacked before the
cementing process is initiated, the treatment of this
problem during drilling is also presented.
During the past 16 years, the cementing industry has
rapidly expanded the number of special cement systems
that address problems such as slurry fallback, lost circu-
lation, and microannuli and salt-formation, permafrost,
deepwater, and corrosive-well environments. These
technologies are described in Chapter 7. The more
notable systems discussed in the chapter include
foamed cements, engineered particle-size distribution
cements, flexible cements, cements containing blast-fur-
nace slag, and cementitious drilling fluids. The composi-
tions of the cement systems (several of which do not
involve Portland cement) are explained, and typical per-
formance data are provided.
Until recently, the well cementing industry was
largely concerned with only one mechanical property of
set cement—compressive strength. Today, we recognize
that compressive strength alone is an insufficient indi-
cator of a cement system’s ability to provide zonal isola-
tion throughout the lifetime of a well and after aban-
donment. Consequently, a significant effort is under way
to better understand the mechanical response of cement
systems to downhole conditions. Chapter 8 discusses the
industry’s current level of understanding. In this chap-
ter, basic rock-mechanics concepts are presented in
the context of well cements, followed by an examination
of how these concepts may be applied to design appro-
priate cement systems for the anticipated downhole
environment.
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Annular fluid migration has been a topic of intense
interest and controversy for many years, and a thorough
review is presented in Chapter 9. This complex phenom-
enon may occur at any time during well construction,
production, and abandonment, and it has long been rec-
ognized as one of the most troublesome problems of
the petroleum industry. The causes and consequences
of fluid migration are discussed, and theoretical and
experimental models are described. In addition, meth-
ods to predict and solve fluid migration problems are
presented.
The physical and chemical behavior of well cements
changes significantly at high temperatures and pres-
sures; consequently, special guidelines must be followed
to design cement systems that will provide adequate
casing protection and zonal isolation throughout the life
of so-called “thermal wells.” In addition, the presence of
corrosive zones and weak formations must frequently be
considered. Thermal cementing encompasses three
principal types of wells—deep oil and gas wells, geo-
thermal wells, and thermal recovery (steamflood and
fireflood) wells. In Chapter 10, each scenario is dis-
cussed separately, because the cement system design
parameters can differ significantly. The chemistry of
thermal cements, including newer systems that are not
based on Portland cement, is also presented, and data
are provided to illustrate the long-term performance of
typical systems.
Proper mixing and placement of well cements rely
upon the application of electrical and mechanical tech-
nology. Chapter 11 focuses on cementing equipment and
casing hardware. In line with the trend toward deeper
wells and more severe working environments, this tech-
nology has become increasingly sophisticated, and the
equipment has become more flexible in application and
more reliable in operation. First, an extensive discussion
is presented concerning the various types of equipment
for bulk handling, storage, cement mixing, and pumping.
In addition, the special considerations for onshore and
offshore cementing, as well as cementing in remote loca-
tions, are examined. The second section of this chapter
is a discussion of the wide variety of casing hardware
(float equipment, cementing plugs, stage tools, central-
izers, scratchers, liners, etc.) and explains how these
devices work. This presentation is supported by an
extensive series of illustrations.
Chapters 2 through 11 contain information the engi-
neer must consider when designing a cement system or
choosing the proper equipment for the cementing treat-
ment. Sophisticated computer programs are available to
perform most job-design tasks; nevertheless, this has not
diminished the need for simple engineering common
Well Cementing
sense. The methodology by which an engineer may sys-
tematically develop an optimal cement job design is dis-
cussed in Chapter 12. Examples of job design procedures
are also presented.
Chapter 13 is a presentation of primary cementing
techniques. This chapter explains primary cementing
terminology, the classification of casing strings, and the
special problems associated with the cementation of each
type of string. The cementing of large-diameter casings,
multilaterals, expandable tubulars, horizontal wells, and
liners, as well as stage cementing, is also covered.
Chapter 14 is devoted to remedial cementing tech-
niques—plug cementing and squeeze cementing. The
chapter begins by describing the types of well problems
that can be cured by remedial cementing. The next sec-
tion discusses plug cementing techniques and includes
information about special tools and cement design
guidelines. The third section presents squeeze cement-
ing from both a theoretical and practical point of view.
Placement techniques such as low- and high-pressure
squeezes, Bradenhead squeezes, and hesitation
squeezes are described. Finally, common misconcep-
tions about remedial cementing, reasons for failure, and
evaluation of remedial cementing jobs are discussed.
After a well has been cemented, the results are often
evaluated to check whether the objectives have been
reached. Chapter 15 is a comprehensive presentation of
the available techniques to perform such evaluations.
These include hydraulic testing; nondestructive meth-
ods such as temperature, nuclear, or noise logging; and
acoustic and ultrasonic cement logging. The theoretical
basis of each technique is discussed, the measuring
devices are described, and the interpretation of the
results is explained. The interpretation discussion is
supported by many illustrations.
Three appendices are included in this textbook to
supplement the material covered in the chapters.
Appendix A is a digest of rheological equations com-
monly used in well cementing, presented in a tabular
format. Appendix B is an updated examination of labo-
ratory cement testing procedures and the equipment
commonly used to perform such tests. This discussion
Introduction
describes many devices and techniques that were not
available when the first edition was published. Appendix
C is a presentation of common calculations for slurry
design, primary and remedial cementing, and foamed
cementing. Most of these calculations are performed
today by software applications; nevertheless, this mater-
ial has been included for the reader’s reference.
It is important to mention that this edition of Well
Cementing differs from its predecessor in terms of
nomenclature. The text generally conforms to symbol
guidelines published by the Society of Petroleum
Engineers (SPE), and the editors have endeavored to
give symbols a consistent meaning throughout the entire
textbook. Consequently, the reader will notice that the
symbols in many equations differ from those that
appeared in the original referenced publications. Also,
since this book encompasses many disciplines, symbol
conflicts frequently occurred. To avoid confusion, this
textbook presents a comprehensive nomenclature list
and, where symbol conflicts exist, the meaning of the
symbols in particular chapters is noted. For example, in
rock mechanics, the symbol E refers to Young’s modulus
while, for cement job evaluation, E refers to acoustic
waves. Therefore, E denotes Young’s modulus in Chapter
8 and the peak amplitude of the acoustic wave arrival in
Chapter 15.
As stated earlier, this textbook was written to provide
the reader with updated technical information concern-
ing well cementing. Since work to produce this book
began in late 2002, virtually all aspects of cementing
technology have continued to advance at a rapid pace;
consequently, we were obliged to continually revise and
update many chapters until press time. While this has
been somewhat exasperating for the authors, it is a
strong indication of the industry’s continuing commit-
ment to the improvement of well cementing technology.
We have attempted to present the material in a logical
and easily understandable form and to reduce the aura
of mystery that seems to be associated with many
aspects of this technology. It is our fervent hope that this
new edition of Well Cementing will be a useful addition
to the reader’s reference library.
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