UNDERSTANDING CULTURE SOCIETY AND POLTICS

1. HUMAN VARIATIONS IN SOCIETY

·Social Stratification

Introduction to Social Stratification (in Canada)

When he died in 2008, Ted Rogers, CEO of Rogers Communications, was the fifth-wealthiest individual in
Canada, holding assets worth $5.7 billion. In his autobiography (2008) he credited his success to a
willingness to take risks, work hard, bend rules, be on the constant look out for opportunities, and be
dedicated to building business. In many respects, he saw himself as a self-made billionaire, starting from
scratch, seizing opportunities, and creating business through his own initiative.

The story of Ted Rogers is not exactly a rags to riches one, however. His grandfather, Albert Rogers, was a
director of Imperial Oil (Esso) and his father, Ted Sr., became wealthy when he invented an alternating
current vacuum tube for radios in 1925. Ted Rogers Sr. went from there to manufacturing radios, owning
a radio station, and acquiring a licence for TV.

However, Ted Sr. died when Ted Jr. was five years old, and the family businesses were sold. His mother
took him aside when he was eight and told him, “Ted, your business is to get the family name back.” The
family was still wealthy enough to send him to Upper Canada College, the famous private school that
also educated children from the Black, Eaton, Thompson, and Weston families. Ted seized the
opportunity at Upper Canada to make money as a bookie, taking bets on horse racing from the other
students. Then he attended Osgoode Hall Law School, where reportedly his secretary went to classes and
took notes for him. He bought an early FM radio station when he was still in university and started in
cable TV in the mid-1960s. By the time of his death, Rogers Communications was worth $25 billion. At
that time, just three families, the Rogers, Shaws, and Péladeaus, owned much of the cable service in
Canada.

At the other end of the spectrum are the aboriginal gang members in the Saskatchewan Correctional
Centre we discussed in Chapter 1 (CBC 2010). The CBC program noted that 85 percent of the inmates in
the prison were of aboriginal descent, half of whom were involved in aboriginal gangs. Moreover the
statistical profile of aboriginal youth in Saskatchewan is grim, with aboriginal people making up the
highest number of high school dropouts, domestic abuse victims, drug dependencies, and child poverty
backgrounds. In some respects the aboriginal gang members interviewed were like Ted Rogers in that
they were willing to seize opportunities, take risks, bend rules, and apply themselves to their vocations.
They too aspired to getting the money that would give them the freedom to make their own lives.
However, as one of the inmates put it, “the only job I ever had was selling drugs.” The consequence of
that was to fall into a lifestyle that led to joining a gang, being kicked out of school, developing issues
with addiction, and eventually getting arrested and incarcerated. Unlike Ted Rogers the inmate added, “I
didn’t grow up with the best life.”
How do we make sense of the divergent stories? Canada is supposed to be a country in which individuals
can work hard to get ahead. It is an “open” society. There are no formal or explicit class, gender, racial,
ethnic, geographical, or other boundaries that prevent people from rising to the top. People are free to
make choices. But does this adequately explain the difference in life chances that divide the fortunes of
the aboriginal youth from those of the Rogers family? What determines a person’s social standing? And
how does social standing direct or limit a person’s choices?

What Is Social Stratification?

Sociologists use the term social inequality to describe the unequal distribution of valued resources,
rewards, and positions in a society. Key to the concept is the notion of social differentiation. Social
characteristics—differences, identities, and roles—are used to differentiate people and divide them into
different categories, which have implications for social inequality. Social differentiation by itself does not
necessarily imply a division of individuals into a hierarchy of rank, privilege, and power. However, when a
social category like class, occupation, gender, or race puts people in a position in which they can claim a
greater share of resources or services, then social differentiation becomes the basis of social inequality.
The term social stratification refers to an institutionalized system of social inequality. It refers to a
situation in which the divisions and relationships of social inequality have solidified into a system that
determines who gets what, when, and why.

Systems of Stratification

Sociologists distinguish between two types of systems of stratification. Closed systems accommodate
little change in social position. They do not allow people to shift levels and do not permit social relations
between levels. Open systems, which are based on achievement, allow movement and interaction
between layers and classes. Different systems reflect, emphasize, and foster certain cultural values, and
shape individual beliefs. This difference in stratification systems can be examined by the comparison
between class systems and caste systems.

The Caste System

Caste systems are closed stratification systems in which people can do little or nothing to change their
social standing. A caste system is one in which people are born into their social standing and remain in it
their whole lives. It is based on fixed or rigid status distinctions, rather than economic classes per se.
People are assigned roles regardless of their talents, interests, or potential. Marriage is endogamous,
meaning that marriage between castes is forbidden. There are virtually no opportunities to improve
one’s social position. Instead the relationship between castes is bound by institutionalized rules and
highly ritualistic procedures come into play when people from different castes come into contact. An
exogamous marriage is a union of people from different social categories.

The Class System

A class system is based on both social factors and individual achievement. It is at least a partially open
system. A class consists of a set of people who have the same relationship to the means of production or
productive property, that is, to the things used to produce the goods and services needed for survival:
tools, technologies, resources, land, workplaces, etc. In Karl Marx’s analysis, class systems form around
the institution of private property, dividing those who own or control productive property from those
who do not. Those who do not survive on the basis of their labour.

·Social Stratification and Mobility in Canada

Most sociologists define social class as a grouping based on similar social factors like wealth, income,
education, and occupation. As we note below, there is dispute within the discipline about the relative
importance of different criteria for characterizing economic position. Whether the Marxist emphasis on
property ownership is more important than the Weberian emphasis on occupational gradations is a
matter for debate. Either way, the concept of class does imply a shared standard of living based on social
factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation. These factors also affect how much power and
prestige a person has. In most cases, having more money means having more power or more
opportunities.

Standard of Living

In the last century, Canada has seen a steady rise in its standard of living, the level of wealth available to
acquire the material necessities and comforts to maintain its lifestyle. The standard of living is based on
factors such as income, employment, class, poverty rates, and affordability of housing. Because standard
of living is closely related to quality of life, it can represent factors such as the ability to afford a home,
own a car, and take vacations.

Social Classes in Canada

Does a person’s appearance indicate class? Can you tell a man’s education level based on his clothing?
Do you know a woman’s income by the car she drives? There may have been a time in Canada when
people’s class was more visibly apparent. In some countries like the United Kingdom, class differences
can still be gauged by differences in schooling, lifestyle, and even accent. In Canada, however, it is harder
to determine class from outward appearances.

For sociologists, too, categorizing class is a fluid science. The chief division in the discipline is between
Marxist and Weberian approaches to social class (Abercrombie and Urry 1983). Marx’s analysis, as we
saw above, emphasizes a materialist approach to the underlying structures of the capitalist economy.
Marx’s definition of social class rests essentially on one variable: a group’s relation to the means of
production (ownership or non-ownership of productive property or capital). In Marxist class analysis,
there are two dominant classes in capitalism—the working class and the owning class—and any divisions
within the classes based on occupation, status, or education, etc. are less important than the tendency
toward the increasing separation and polarization of these classes.

The Owning Class

The owning class is considered Canada’s top, and only the powerful elite get to see the view from there.
In Canada, the richest 86 people (or families) account for 0.002 percent of the population, but in 2012
they had accumulated the equivalent wealth of the lowest 34 percent of the country’s population
(McDonald 2014). The combined net worth of these 86 families added up to $178 billion in 2012, which
equalled the net worth of the lowest 11.4 million Canadians. In terms of income, in 2007 the average
income of the richest 0.01 percent of Canadians was $3.833 million (Yalnizyan 2010).

The Middle Class

Many people call themselves middle class, but there are differing ideas about what that means. People
with annual incomes of $150,000 call themselves middle class, as do people who annually earn $30,000.
That helps explain why some sociologists divide the middle class into upper and lower subcategories.

Upper-middle-class people tend to hold bachelor’s and postgraduate degrees. They’ve studied subjects
such as business, management, law, or medicine. Lower-middle-class members hold bachelor’s degrees
or associate’s degrees from two-year community or technical colleges.

Comfort is a key concept to the middle class. Middle-class people work hard and live fairly comfortable
lives. Upper-middle-class people tend to pursue careers that earn comfortable incomes. They provide
their families with large homes and nice cars. They may go skiing or boating on vacation. Their children
receive quality education (Gilbert 2010).

In the lower middle class, people hold jobs supervised by members of the upper middle class. They fill
technical, lower-level management or administrative support positions. Compared to traditional
working-class work, lower-middle-class jobs carry more prestige and come with slightly higher
paycheques. With these incomes, people can afford a decent, mainstream lifestyle, but they struggle to
maintain it. They generally do not have enough income to build significant savings. In addition, their grip
on class status is more precarious than in the upper tiers of the class system. When budgets are tight,
lower-middle-class people are often the ones to lose their jobs.

The Traditional Working Class

The traditional working class is sometimes also referred to as being part of the lower class. Just like the
middle and upper classes, the lower class can be divided into subsets: the working class, the working
poor, and the underclass. Compared to the middle class, traditional working-class people have less of an
educational background and usually earn smaller incomes. While there are many working-class trades
that require skill and pay middle-class wages, the majority often work jobs that require little prior skill or
experience, doing routine tasks under close supervision.

Social Mobility

Social mobility refers to the ability to change positions within a social stratification system. When people
improve or diminish their economic status in a way that affects social class, they experience social
mobility. This is a key concept in determining whether inequalities of condition limit people’s life chances
or whether we can meaningfully speak of the existence of equality of opportunity in a society. A high
degree of social mobility, upwards or downwards, would suggest that the stratification system of a
society is in fact open (i.e., that there is equality of opportunity).
Upward mobility refers to an increase—or upward shift—in social class. In Canada, people applaud the
rags-to-riches achievements of celebrities like Guy Laliberté who went from street busking in Quebec to
being the CEO of Cirque du Soleil, with a net worth of $2.5 billion. Actor and comedian Jim Carey lived
with his family in camper van at one point growing up in Scarborough, Ontario. Ron Joyce was a beat
policemen in Hamilton before he co-founded Tim Hortons. CEO of Magna International Frank Stronach
immigrated to Canada from Austria in 1955 with only $50 to his name. There are many stories of people
from modest beginnings rising to fame and fortune. But the truth is that relative to the overall
population, the number of people who launch from poverty to wealth is very small. Still, upward
mobility is not only about becoming rich and famous. In Canada, people who earn a university degree,
get a job promotion, or marry someone with a good income may move up socially.

Downward mobility indicates a lowering of one’s social class. Some people move downward because of
business setbacks, unemployment, or illness. Dropping out of school, losing a job, or becoming divorced
may result in a loss of income or status and, therefore, downward social mobility.

Intergenerational mobility explains a difference in social class between different generations of a family.
For example, an upper-class executive may have parents who belonged to the middle class. In turn,
those parents may have been raised in the lower class. Patterns of intergenerational mobility can reflect
long-term societal changes.

Intragenerational mobility describes a difference in social class between different members of the same
generation. For example, the wealth and prestige experienced by one person may be quite different from
that of his or her siblings.

Structural mobility happens when societal changes enable a whole group of people to move up or down
the social class ladder. Structural mobility is attributable to changes in society as a whole, not individual
changes. In the first half of the 20th century, industrialization expanded the Canadian economy, raising
the standard of living and leading to upward structural mobility. In today’s work economy, the recession
and the outsourcing of jobs overseas have contributed to high unemployment rates. Many people have
experienced economic setbacks, creating a wave of downward structural mobility.

Class Traits

Class traits, also called class markers, are the typical behaviours, customs, and norms that define each
class. Class traits indicate the level of exposure a person has to a wide range of cultures. Class traits also
indicate the amount of resources a person has to spend on items like hobbies, vacations, and leisure
activities.

· Global Stratification and Inequality

Global stratification compares the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries across the
world. Global stratification highlights worldwide patterns of social inequality.
Sociologists studying global stratification analyze economic comparisons between nations. Income,
purchasing power, and wealth are used to calculate global stratification. Global stratification also
compares the quality of life that a country’s population can have.

Models of Global Stratification

Various models of global stratification all have one thing in common: they rank countries according to
their relative economic status, or gross national product (GNP). Traditional models, now considered
outdated, used labels to describe the stratification of the different areas of the world. Simply put, they
were named “first world, “second world,” and “third world.” First and second world described
industrialized nations, while third world referred to “undeveloped” countries (Henslin 2004). When
researching existing historical sources, you may still encounter these terms, and even today people still
refer to some nations as the “third world.”

Another model separates countries into two groups: more developed and less developed. More
developed nations have higher wealth, such as Canada, Japan, and Australia. Less developed nations
have less wealth to distribute among higher populations, including many countries in central Africa,
South America, and some island nations.

Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification

Basketball is one of the highest-paying professional sports. There is stratification even among teams. For
example, the Minnesota Timberwolves hand out the lowest annual payroll, while the Los Angeles Lakers
reportedly pay the highest. Kobe Bryant, a Lakers shooting guard, is one of the highest paid athletes in
the NBA, earning around $25 million a year (Basketballreference.com 2011). Even within specific fields,
layers are stratified and members are ranked.

In sociology, even an issue such as NBA salaries can be seen from various points of view. Functionalists
will examine the purpose of such high salaries, while conflict theorists will study the exorbitant salaries
as an unfair distribution of money. Social stratification takes on new meanings when it is examined from
different sociological perspectives—functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.

Functionalism

In sociology, the functionalist perspective examines how society’s parts operate. According to
functionalism, different aspects of society exist because they serve a needed purpose. What is the
function of social stratification?

Conflict Theory

Conflict theorists are deeply critical of social stratification, asserting that it benefits only some people,
not all of society.

Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic interactionism is a theory that uses everyday interactions of individuals to explain society as a
whole. Symbolic interactionism examines stratification from a micro-level perspective. This analysis
strives to explain how people’s social standing affects their everyday interactions.

Symbolic interactionists also note that people’s appearance reflects their perceived social standing.
Housing, clothing, and transportation indicate social status, as do hairstyles, taste in accessories, and
personal style. Pierre Bourdieu’s (1984) concept of cultural capital suggests that cultural “assets” such as
education and taste are accumulated and passed down between generations in the same manner as
financial capital or wealth. This marks individuals from an early age by such things as knowing how to
wear a suit or having an educated manner of speaking. In fact the children of parents with a
postsecondary degree are 60 percent likely to attend university themselves, while the children of parents
with less than a high school education have only a 32 percent chance of attending university (Shaienks
and Gluszynski 2007).

In the Theory of the Leisure Class (1899), Thorstein Veblen (1857-1929) described the activity of
conspicuous consumption as the tendency of people to buy things as a display of status rather than out
of need. Conspicuous consumption refers to buying certain products to make a social statement about
status. Carrying pricey but eco-friendly water bottles could indicate a person’s social standing. Some
people buy expensive trendy sneakers even though they will never wear them to jog or play sports. A
$17,000 car provides transportation as easily as a $100,000 vehicle, but the luxury car makes a social
statement that the less expensive car can’t live up to. All of these symbols of stratification are worthy of
examination by an interactionist.

·Political Identities

What is the concept of Political Identities?

Identity is often thought of as the expression of an individual's belief system and social affiliations.
Various factors can construct an identity, including race, nationality, where a person lives and a person's
gender and sexuality. Political identity is almost always associated with a group affiliation and describes
the ways in which being a member of a particular group might express specific political opinions and
attitudes.

Partisan Politics

Political identity frequently refers to a specific political party affiliation or partisan identity. For many
voters, belonging to a political party is not simply a voting decision. In the U.S., being a Democrat or a
Republican is an important expression of a person's views on life; partisan affiliation signifies
membership in a group that defines a worldview and a core set of common values. As political parties
benefit from political identity of this kind -- since it makes for very loyal and reliable voters -- parties seek
to cultivate partisan loyalty among their members

Race and Identity

Political identity can also be shaped by race. For example, in the U.S., prior to the passage of the13th
Amendment, race determined whether a human being could legally be another's property. Until the
dismantlement of legal segregation in the 1950s and ‘60s, race often determined whether citizens could
vote, with whom they could associate, where they went to school and other fundamental aspects of life.
Moreover, between 1924 and 1965, race determined who was and was not eligible to immigrate to the
United States. Scholars such as Aziz Rana state that racial inequalities in housing, employment, criminal
justice and other areas continue to shape American life along politicized racial lines.

Class and Identity

Another possible factor that shapes political identity can be economic class. Peoples’ interests, outlook
and life prospects are frequently conditioned by their economic circumstances. For instance, factory
workers may be very different from one another in a variety of ways, yet they share a very basic set of
common experiences that comes from their shared condition as factory workers. As workers, they have
in common a set of interests, hardships and goals. The same is true of hedge fund managers, farm
laborers, nurses, high school teachers and university professors. As the political theorist Adolph Reed
argues, membership in an economic class is an important form of political identity.

Colonialism and Identity

A fourth example of political identity occurred under colonialism. Many colonial societies operated by
distinguishing the identities of “native subjects,” who enjoyed fewer rights and liberties from European
“settlers.” Sometimes this identity was race-based, such as in Belgian Rwanda. Often, as in British India
and French Algeria, colonists used their ideas of custom and culture as a basis for distinguishing “the
native” as a kind of political identity and subject that required European governance

2.SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDYING CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS

CULTURE

"Culture is the sum of all the forms of art, of love, and of thought, which, in the course of
centuries, have enabled man to be less enslaved."

Culture is the invisible bond which ties people together. It refers to the pattern of human activity.
The art, literature, language, and religion of a community represent its culture. Our cultural
values and beliefs manifest themselves through our lifestyle. Our moral values represent our
culture. The importance of culture lies in its close association with the ways of thinking and
living. Differences in cultures have led to diversity in the people from different parts of the world.

Culture is related to the development of our attitude. Our cultural values influence how we
approach living. According to the behaviorist definition of culture, it is the ultimate system of
social control where people monitor their own standards and behavior. Our cultural values serve
as the founding principles of our life. They shape our thinking, behavior, and personality.
Culture Affects Perception

How we perceive things is largely affected by our judgment skills, preconceived notions,
attitude, and emotions. These factors are closely linked with our culture. In perceiving
something as good or bad, our biases play a role and so does our way of thinking. In judging
something as easy or difficult, our attitude and our motivation levels play a key role. Our culture
determines the structure of our thinking, which influences our perceptions.

People who belong to cultures that promote individualism tend to look at only the main aspects
of a situation, while those of a culture that promotes collectivism tend to consider even the minor
details. American culture which is predominantly individualistic, promotes giving freedom of
choice to children since a young age. The Japanese culture which promotes collectivism, rather
encourages the parents/elders to make choices for their children. This is an example of how
parenting is perceived in contrasting ways due to the differences in culture. Similarly, people of
Eastern cultures perceive success as being a collective effort, while those of the American
culture perceive it as the fruit of individual effort.

SOCIETY

Society can be defined as a group of people who share a common economic, social, and
industrial infrastructure. It is an organization of people who share a common cultural and social
background. Do you know how the word, 'society' originated? The word is a derivation of the
French word societe, which came from the Latin word societas meaning 'a friendly association
with others'.

Purpose of Society and its Importance

Support

One of the primary purposes of society is the formation of an organized group of individuals who
can support each other in various ways. It is in the difficult times that you realize the importance
of being a part of society. It is the members of your social group who come forward to give you
the help needed. The support given by society can be of the physical, emotional, financial, or
medical form.

Formation of Social Groups

A society is characterized by social networks. They form an integral part of it. Social networks
are defined as the patterns of relationships between people. Relationships give rise to social
interactions between people of a society. Individuals who belong to different ethnic groups can
come together, thanks to societies. Their interactions give rise to strong social bonds that result
in long-lasting relationships. A society gives rise to a family system and an organization of
relationships, which are at the heart of any social group.

Formation of a Culture

Culture is an important element of society. Individuals of a particular society share a common

culture that shapes their way of living. Their means of subsistence and their lifestyles are
derivatives of their culture. Culture defines the pattern of human activity in a society. It is
represented by the art, literature, language, and religion of the individuals who form it.
Individuals belonging to a society are bonded by common cultural values, traditions, and beliefs
that define their culture. You may like to know why culture is important.

POLITICS

The importance of politics encompasses a (discussion of intricate proportions. Based on the

introduction above, one could say that politics is indeed present when there is a collection of
people that constitute a community. Politics is said to be a set of actions or occurrences that
raises questions on the community or society as a whole. These questions are raised because
there is the distinct possibility that the set of actions or occurrences will inevitably have a
considerable effect in the general population at a particular time.

There are certain actors that are specifically involved in the practice of politics. Normally, one
would say that politicians are among the key actors in the practice of politics. This is accurate to
some extent. These individuals formulate bills, propose policies and advocate their views on
how to enhance the performance of the country’s economy. Nevertheless, they do not have the
monopoly of employing politics as a means of carrying out things. Judges and other members of
the judiciary similarly engage in politics when they make decisions and verdicts that inevitably
affect the general public. Normally, cases are used as precedence in carrying out decisions that
involves the same principles of law. Nevertheless, the main mover and the predominant actor in
the employment of politics is the people in general. The public is capable of making changes
based on their perspectives on how things should be carried out. Simple acts that a single
individual like casting a vote or supporting a cause indicate a participation in political practice.

All in all, it could be assumed that everyone do take part in the practice of politics, one way or
the other. It is characterized as an act that points out the issues that appears to be significant in
a society. Basically, it points out whether a specific situation is indeed problem, and eventually
presents how it could have an effect on society or the community as a whole. The following
discussion will be looking into the (discussion of the three individuals regarding the issue of
refugees in the state. Moreover, the discussion will also look into the fact on whether it is
political to some extent or just basically an empty (discussion among friends.

3. RATIONALE FOR STUDYING ANTHROPOLOGY, POLITICAL SCIENCE AND

SOCIOLOGY

ANTHROPOLOGY

The range of variations in human ways of life is staggering. The study of anthropology is holistic
-- the study of humans as biological, cultural, and social beings. Anthropologists study
alternative ways in which human beings meet their needs and examine overall integration and
dissonance within a culture. Refusing to reduce the primary motives of human behavior to any
single factor-whether it be biological, economic, structural, political, technological, or
geographic-anthropologists analyze the interrelationship of all of these factors in trying to
understand human behavior.
Anthropologists study the person both as an individual and as a member of society.
Anthropologists study, for example, religion and belief systems, the arts, music, gender roles,
politics and work. Because of the breadth of topical interests, anthropology, it is said, is both a
social science and a humanity. We share the "big questions" with other disciplines: Who are
we? Why are we here? What is our purpose? By looking at other cultures and societies,
anthropologists are able to reflect on various ways of being human. Thus, anthropology teaches
respect for other ways of life, while using a variety of cross-cultural human behavior as a mirror
from which we can reflect on the things we do in our own culture.

Multiculturalism and diversity are the very essence of anthropology. The field is not only innately
cross-cultural, but global in its scope. Anthropology also has extraordinary disciplinary breadth.
The field of archeology has much in common with history, as it uses artifacts from the past to
reconstruct the cultural character of a society. Physical anthropology is very closely aligned with
biology, emphasizing physical characteristics of human beings and investigating the evidence
for human evolution. Linguistics is a field of anthropology focusing on analysis of language
development and language variations. Socio-cultural anthropology studies culture and the
relationship of culture to other aspects of social life; it shares much in common with each of the
other social sciences, and especially sociology. Many sociological theories have evolved from
anthropological research and vice versa. Applied anthropology uses anthropological knowledge
to solve contemporary problems ranging from world hunger to AIDS prevention. Anthropologists
may be involved in a wide range of activities such as research of evolutionary theory,
addressing gender inequality in society, solving a homicide case in a forensics lab, international
trade, advertising, museum and historical preservation. Other than the broad introductory
course, the anthropology courses at Hanover are socio-cultural in focus.

POLOTICAL SCIENCE

When you study Political Science, you’ll learn about how political power is distributed, how
different governments operate and interact, how rules are made and enforced. You will explore
both the "who" of politics (such as politicians, international organizations, and the public) and
the "how" (such as elections, political institutions, and public administration). Politics affects
virtually every aspect of our lives, including the the availability of education, jobs, housing and
healthcare. Whether countries are at war or at peace depends both on what governments do
and who supports them.

What is Political Science?

Political science is the study a range of political ideas, events, actions, and institutions. It
includes both understanding and explaining the world of politics that is all around us. We all
participate in politics, though most of the time we do so unknowingly. Politics is much more than
simply voting in an election or working in government. Reading or listening to news, making
donations to aid groups, or talking with friends and family about social issues and values are a
few of the many examples of political activity in our every day lives.

Political Science is concerned with the many institutions, organizations and norms that
determine how people perceive society, and in turn, how they interact within it. In Political
Science, we discuss basic concepts, such as “power”, “government” or “democracy”, in order to
get us thinking about the world around us, and our place in it. Once that we understand the
many concepts, we study the connections between them in order to better explain political
outcomes, such as: why people vote for one political party as opposed to another, why
governments and policies differ in different countries, or why armed conflicts happen in some
cases while they are avoided in other cases.

Citizen participation and engagement occurs because of the nature of the institutions that
structure society: we work and live within them, and sometimes we rebel against them. If you
study Political Science, you will look at how and why.

Where Does Political Science Lead You?

Studying political science can open up a wide range of job opportunities in both the public,
private, and not-for-profit private sectors. Students interested in careers in business, education,
law, journalism, communications, government, or politics more generally will obtain vital
knowledge and skills. Students can also get practical skills by doing co-ops with government or
organizations as part of their education experience.

You will gain expertise and proficiency in the following:

• experience working with others and interacting in a diverse community;

• greater command of reading, writing and critical thinking;

• research and analysis skills that are valuable in a range of employment areas

• an ability arrive at decisions based on the analysis and synthesis of information and data

• an ability to engage with political events and a greater understanding of the processes
involved in different political systems around the world;

These are all useful and important skills necessary for a successful career in any field.

Career Options

If you're considering a career in the government, as a lawyer, as a social advocate, or perhaps

with an international organization like the United Nations, then studying Political Science is an
obvious choice. If you’re interested in journalism and the media, or perhaps public relations,
then this might be the place to begin. Perhaps you're intrigued by Newfoundland and Labrador
politics and think that you might like to work with a political party and/or in elections. Or possibly
you're interested in learning how to analyze complex policies as you prepare for graduate
studies.

Even if you are unsure about your career plans, studying Political Science can be a great path.
Many of our graduates go into business or other practices and professions. Employers often
look for the critical thinking, analysis, and communications skills that political scientists develop
-- not to mention the valuable knowledge that you will gain about government and international
politics.

SOCIOLOGY

Individuality and independence are highly valued in our society. It is sometimes easy to forget
that everything we do, including our private thoughts and fantasies, grows out of or is shaped
through our interactions with others, especially others close to us. Whether we like it or not we
are born into groups and spend most of our social lives in those same groups. All of us
assimilate, at least in part, the perspectives of these groups and thereby acquire our language,
values, attitudes, beliefs and sense of identity. The most basic sociological premise is that
humans are social beings, shaped in many ways by the groups to which we belong. Whether
they be families, athletic teams, clubs (such as sororities and fraternities), religious groups,
socioeconomic classes, complex bureaucratic organizations, or nations, much of human life is
guided by group norms. Much of human life is also consumed with conflicts between groups,
each of which tries to defend its own self interests.

As a discipline, Sociology involves the description and explanation of social structures and
processes. These range from two-person interactions to relations between large social
institutions, such as politics and the economy, to relations between nations. Sociology also
ranges across time and serves as a useful complement to history. Changes in the social
arrangements that people create are of special interest to the sociologist for a number of
reasons.

First, Sociology increases our understanding of ourselves and our society by providing us with
concepts that describe and explain our social creations and how they influence us. We learn
who we are and why, and how we are similar to and different from people with different social
arrangements. Second, exposure to Sociology opens our minds, prompts us to review the
taken-for-granted, and encourages us to entertain alternatives. Third, it is important to be aware
that the organization and institutions of our society evolved through social processes operating
in a social environment. We need to learn how to collect and analyze representative information
about society and its members rather than to rely on information we encounter haphazardly. We
also need ideas that we can use to classify social behavior systematically and ideas that we can
use to explain the trends and relationships observed. Sociology addresses all of these issues
and more.

Sociological research also reveals the multifaceted nature of social reality, its multiple causes
and multiple effects, and provides us with sets of methods suitable for unraveling the
complexities of social life. Sociological study helps us to determine which steps are most likely
to lead toward a given goal and provides ways of assessing the extent to which a given goal
may be realized. In these ways Sociology helps us move beyond common sense to describe
and explain more accurately the classes of social behavior and the relations between them. In
short, the study of Sociology gives a view of social reality that fosters an understanding of social
arrangements.
4.

5.

8 CONFORMITY AND DEVIANCE

Deviance and Control

Deviance is a violation of norms. Whether or not something is deviant depends on contextual

definitions, the situation, and people’s response to the behaviour. Society seeks to limit deviance
through the use of sanctions that help maintain a system of social control. In modern normalizing
societies, disciplinary social control is a primary governmental strategy of social control.

Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance

The three major sociological paradigms offer different explanations for the motivation behind deviance
and crime. Functionalists point out that deviance is a social necessity since it reinforces norms by
reminding people of the consequences of violating them. Violating norms can open society’s eyes to
injustice in the system. Critical sociologists argue that crime stems from a system of inequality that keeps
those with power at the top and those without power at the bottom. Feminist sociologists emphasize
that gender inequalities play an important role in determining what types of acts are actually regarded
as criminal. Symbolic interactionists focus attention on the socially constructed nature of the labels
related to deviance. Crime and deviance are learned from the environment and enforced or discouraged
by those around us.

Crime and the Law

Crime is established by legal codes and upheld by the criminal justice system. The corrections system is
the dominant system of criminal punishment but a number of community-based sentencing models offer
alternatives that promise more effective outcomes in terms of recidivism. Although crime rates increased
throughout most of the 20th century, they have been dropping since their peak in 1991.

9. HUMAN DIGNITY , RIGHTS AND COMMON GOOD

Human rights

Are rights inherent to all human beings, whatever our nationality, place of residence, sex, national or
ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status.

Human Dignity

refers to an individual or group's sense of self-respect and self-worth, physical and psychological integrity
and empowerment.
Inclusive Citizen

As citizens we always think of the promotion of the common good or general welfare.

A responsible citizen promotes the common good by obeying the law, paying taxes honestly, informing
himself about important political issues, volunteering in the community and respecting the rights and
opinions of others.

A responsible citizen is willing to sacrifice his individual interests for the collective good of the nation. He
remembers his civic duties and serves his country despite any discomfort such a course might bring.