DLIC Mini Project

Line Follower Robot

Using OP-AMP
By

Rahul Deshpande
Tilak Jethwa

Under the Guidance of

Prof. Kavita Bani

Atharva College of Engineering

Malad-Marve Road, Charkop Naka,

Malad(W),Mumbai-95

Department of Electronics Engineering

University of Mumbai
Year 2018-2019
 Contents

Serial No. Topic Page No.

1. Introduction 2

2. Proposed Methodology 4

3. Circuit Diagram 5

4. Components 8

5. Output 9

6. Application 10

7. Reference 11
 1.Introduction

The LM358B and LM2904B devices are the next-generation versions of the industry-standard
LM358 and LM2904 devices, which include two high-voltage (36-V) operational amplifiers (op
amps). These devices provide outstanding value for cost-sensitive applications, with features
including low offset (300 µV, typical), common-mode input range to ground, and high
differential input voltage capability.

The LM358B and LM2904B devices simplify circuit design with enhanced features such as
unity-gain stability, lower offset voltage of 3 mV (maximum at room temperature), and lower
quiescent current of 300 µA (typical). High ESD (2 kV, HBM) and integrated EMI and RF filters
enable the LM358B and LM2904B devices to be used in the most rugged, environmentally
challenging applications.

The LM358B and LM2904B devices are available in micro-size packages, such as TSOT-8 and
WSON, as well as industry standard packages, including SOIC, TSSOP, and VSSOP.

The LM358 series is made using two internally compensated, two−stage operational amplifiers.
The first stage of each consists of differential input devices Q20 and Q18 with input buffer
transistors Q21 and Q17 and the differential to single ended converter Q3 and Q4. The first stage
performs not only the first stage gain function but also performs the level shifting and
transconductance reduction functions. By reducing the transconductance, a smaller compensation
capacitor (only 5.0 pF) can be employed, thus saving chip area. The transconductance reduction
is accomplished by splitting the collectors of Q20 and Q18. Another feature of this input stage is
that the input common mode range can include the negative supply or ground, in single supply
operation, without saturating either the input devices or the differential to single−ended
converter. The second stage consists of a standard current source load amplifier stage. Each
amplifier is biased from an internal−voltage regulator which has a low temperature coefficient
thus giving each amplifier good temperature characteristics as well as excellent power supply
rejection
 2.Proposed Methodology

Designing a simple and yet functional Line Follower Robot (LFR) is always a fascinating and
challenging subject to be learned, the LFR actually could be implemented in many ways start
from a simple two transistors to a sophisticated PID (Proportional, Integrate and Differential)
which take advantage of the programmable feature of microcontroller to calculate the PID
equation to successfully navigate the black track line on a white background surface.
Designing a non microcontroller based LFR is quite challenging tasks as we need to limit the
electronic components numbers so the LFR will not too complicated to be built by most average
robotics beginners or electronic hobbyists, but at the same time we need to have a good speed
control mechanism in order for the LFR to navigate the black track line successfully. The
microcontroller based design LFR in the other hand is a popular choice because it reduces a
number of electronic components significantly while still providing a flexible programmable
control to the LFR.

On this tutorial we are going to build yet another LFR using just the standard analog components
easily found on the market but use the same speed control method technique found in many good
microcontroller based Line Follower Robot design. As the result we could get a good precision
analog line follower robot that comparable to the microcontroller based Line Follower Robot
design. On this tutorial you will also learn many useful information of how to use the operational
amplifier.

This Line Follower Robot basically use a Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) photocell sensor or known
as Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) and the high intensity blue Light Emitting Diode (LED) to
illuminate the area under the photocell sensor to sense the black track line and the DC motor
speed control technique to navigate the black line track as shown on this following picture:
The easy method to navigate the black track line is to turn ON and OFF the left or the right DC
motor according to the sensor reading (black turn OFF and white turn ON), but using this
method will make the LFR to move in zigzag way. By proportionally control both left and right
DC motor speed according to the light intensity level received by the photocell sensor (reflected
back by the black track line) we could make the LFR easily navigate this track. The common
technique to control the motor speed efficiently is to use a pulse signal known as the pulse width
modulation or PWM for short.
PWM basically is an ON and OFF pulse signal with a constant period or frequency. The
proportion of pulse ON time to the pulse period is called a “duty cycle” and it expressed in
percentage. For example if the proportion of pulse ON time is 50% to the total pulse period than
we say that the PWM duty cycle is 50%. The PWM duty cycle percentage is corresponding to
the average power produced by the pulse signal; the lower percentage produces less power than
the higher percentage.
Therefore by changing the PWM duty cycles we could change the average voltage across the DC
motor terminals, this mean we could vary the DC motor speed just by changing the PWM duty
cycle. Therefore to make the LFR smoothly navigate the black track line, we have to adjust the
PWM duty cycle according to the photocell sensor reading. The brighter light intensity level
received by sensor (sensor is on the white surface) will result in higher PWM duty cycle
percentage and the darker light intensity level (sensor is on the black line) received by photocell
sensor will result in lower PWM duty cycle percentage.
By converting each of the photocell sensor light intensity level reading to the corresponding
voltage level we could achieve this objective by using what is known as the Voltage Control
Pulse Width Modulation principal.
Actually generating the PWM signal is easier with microcontroller instead of discrete
components because all you have to do is to program the microcontroller PWM peripheral to do
the task. On this tutorial we will learn of how to build this LFR with Voltage Control PWM
using the same working principal found in many today’s modern microcontroller but using just
the analog electronic components.
3.Circuit Diagram
 4.Components

1. Resistors: 220 (2), 1K (2), 15K (1), 33K (1), 47K (2), and 100K (1)
2. Trimpots: 100K (2)
3. Two Light Dependent Resistor (dark above 100KOhm and below 5KOhm on bright light
intensity)
4. Capacitors: 47uF/16v (1) and 0.1uF (5)
5. Diodes: 1N4148 (2)
6. High Intensity 3 mm blue Light Emitting Diode (2)
7. Optional 5 mm auto flash RGB LED with 330 Ohm resistor for the power indicator
8. Transistors: BC639 (2)
9. IC: National Semiconductor LM324 Quad Operational Amplifier (1)
10. DC Motor: Solarbotics GM2 Geared DC motor with Wheel (2)
11. Prototype Board: 52 x 38 mm for main board and 50 x 15 mm for sensors
12. 3xAA Battery holder
13. CD/DVD ROM (2)
14. Plastic Beads and Paper Clip for the castor (the third wheel)
15. Bolt, Nuts, Double Tape and Standard Electrical Tape for the black line