Module 1

Introduction to Mechatronics
Sensors & Transducers

Sensors - Characteristics
Temperature, flow, pressure sensors
Displacement, position and proximity sensing
Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors
ME407 Mechatronics
Arun Shal U B
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Govt. Engineering College Kozhikode
September 22, 2019
ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

Outline

I The term mechatronics was ‘invented’ by a Japanese engineer

in 1969, as a combination of ‘mecha’ from mechanisms and
‘tronics’ from electronics.
I Mechatronics is defined as a multi-disciplinary field of study
that implies the synergistic integration of electronic
engineering, electrical engineering , control engineering
and intelligent computer control with mechanical
engineering for the design and manufacture of products and
processes


I Physically, a mechatronic system is composed of four prime
components. They are sensors, actuators, controllers and
mechanical components.
Figure shows a schematic diagram of a mechatronic system
integrated with all the above components.
Figure: The basic elements of a mechatronic system.

Modules of a Mechatronics System.

I Sensing
I Sensors
I Signal Conditioning
I Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Conversion
I Controlling
I Open Loop and Closed Loop Control
I Action
I Drive circuits
I Actuators
I Motors

Evolution of automated systems:

I Completely mechanical automatic systems (before and early
1900s)
I Automatic devices with electronic components such as
relays,transistors, op-amps (early 1900s to 1970s)
I Computer controlled automatic systems (1970s–present)

I A mechatronic system has at its core a mechanical system

which needs to be commanded or controlled by a controller.
I The controller needs information about the state of the
system. This information is obtained from sensors.
I In many cases, the signals produced by the sensors are not in a
form ready to be read by the controller and need some signal
conditioning operations performed on them.
I The conditioned, sensed signals are then converted to a digital
form by Analog-to-Digital Convertor (ADC) and are then sent
to the controller.

Open loop & Closed loop control

I In some cases, the command signals are sent to the actuators
without utilizing any feedback information from the sensors.
This is called open-loop system, and for it to work, this
requires a good calibration between the input and output of
the system.
I The more common mode of operation is the closed-loop mode
in which the command signals sent to the actuators utilize the
feedback information from the sensors. This mode of
operation does not require calibration information.

Examples of Mechatronic Systems

I Antilock Brake System (ABS)
I Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI)
I Traction Control System (TCS)
I Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC)
I Automatic Camera
I Scanner
I Hard Disk Drive
I Industrial Robots
I Mobile Robots (Wheeled Robots, Legged Robots)

Benefits of Mechatronic Systems
I Enhanced features and functionality (Eg : Modern washing
machines)
I More user-friendly (Power door lock, key-less entry, cruise
control)
I Precision control
I More efficient
I Lower cost
I Flexible design
I More reliable
I Smaller size
I safer
I The term sensor is used for an element which produces a

signal relating to the quantity being measured.
Eg: Resistance temperature element
I Transducers are defined as elements that when subject to
some physical change experience a related change.
I Thus sensors are transducers. However, a measurement system
may use transducers, in addition to the sensor, in other parts
of the system to convert signals in one form to another form.
I All types of sensors can be classified as two kinds, either
Passive Sensors or Active Sensors.

I Static Characteristics : The static characteristics are the

values given when steady-state conditions occur, i.e. the
values given when the transducer has settled down after
having received some input.
I Dynamic Characteristics : The dynamic characteristics
refer to the behavior between the time that the input value
changes and the time that the value given by the transducer
settles down to the steady-state value. Dynamic characteristics
are stated in terms of the response of the transducer to inputs
in particular forms.

Sensors - Static Characteristics
I Range and span : The range of a transducer defines the

limits between which the input can vary. The span is the
maximum value of the input minus the minimum value.
I Error : Error is the difference between the result of the
measurement and the true value of the quantity being
measured
I Accuracy : Accuracy is the extent to which the value
indicated by a measurement system might be wrong.
I Sensitivity :The sensitivity is the relationship indicating how
much output there is per unit input, i.e. output/input.


I Hysteresis error : Transducers can give different outputs
from the same value of quantity being measured according to
whether that value has been reached by a continuously
increasing change or a continuously decreasing change.
I Non-linearity error : Errors due to assumption of

non-linearity.
I Stability : The stability of a transducer is its ability to give

the same output when used to measure a constant input over
a period of time.
I Dead band/time : The dead band or dead space of a
transducer is the range of input values for which there is no
output.
I Resolution : The resolution is the smallest change in the input
value that will produce an observable change in the output.

Sensors - Dynamic Characteristics
I Response time : This is the time which elapses after a

constant input, a step input, is applied to the transducer up to
the point at which the transducer gives an output
corresponding to some specified percentage, e.g. 95%,of the
value of the input
I Time constant : This is the 63.2% response time. A
thermocouple in air might have a time constant of perhaps 40
to 100 s. The time constant is a measure of the inertia of the
sensor and so how fast it will react to changes in its input

Figure: Response to a step input.


I Rise time : This is the time taken for the output to rise to
some specified percentage of the steady-state output. Often
the rise time refers to the time taken for the output to rise
from 10% of the steady-state value to 90 or 95% of the
steady-state value.
I Settling time : This is the time taken for the output to settle
to within some percentage, e.g. 2%, of the steady-state value.

Sensors - Classification
Sensors can be classified into various groups according to the

factors such as measurand, application fields, conversion principle
and thermodynamic considerations.
Detail classification of sensors in view of their applications is as
follows.
1. Temperature
2. Fluid flow
3. Fluid pressure
4. Displacement, position and proximity sensors
5. Velocity and motion

Temperature and Light Sensors
I Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in

terms of expansion or contraction of solids, liquids or gases,
change in electrical resistance of conductors, semiconductors
and thermoelectric emfs.
I Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples,
thermistors are widely used in monitoring of manufacturing
processes such as casting, molding, metal cutting etc.

Temperature and Light Sensors
Few examples of Temperature/Light Sensors are

I Bimetallic strips
I Resistance temperature detectors
I Thermistors
I Thermo-diodes and transistors
I Thermocouples
I Photo diodes
I Photo resistors
I Photo transistor

Bimetallic strips
I Used as thermal switch in

controlling the temperature or heat
in a manufacturing process or
system.
I Contains two different metal strips
having different coefficients of
expansion, bonded together.
I On heating the strips bend into
Figure: Construction and curved strips with the metal with
working of Bi-metallic strip higher coefficient of expansion on
the outside of the curve.

Bimetallic strips
I Figure shows a typical arrangement

of a bimetallic strip used with a
setting-up magnet.
I As the strips bend, the soft iron
comes in closer proximity of the
small magnet and further touches.
I The electric circuit completes and
generates an alarm thereby help to
Figure: Construction and protect the desired application from
working of Bi-metallic strip heating above the pre-set value of
temperature

Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
I RTDs work on the principle that

the electric resistance of a metal
changes due to change in its
temperature.
I On heating up metals, their
resistance increases and follows a
linear relationship as shown in
Figure. The correlation is
Figure: Behavior of RTD
Rt = R0 (1 + αT )
materials

Figure: Construction of a Resistance temperature detector (RTD)
I An RTD has a resistor element connected to a Wheatstone

bridge. A small amount of current is continuously passing
though the coil. As the temperature changes the resistance of
the coil changes which is detected at the Wheatstone bridge.

I RTDs are used in the form of thin films,wire wound or coil.

I They are generally made of metals such as platinum, nickel or
nickel-copper alloys.
I Platinum wire held by a high-temperature glass adhesive in a
ceramic tube is used to measure the temperature in a metal
furnace.


Typical applications include:
I Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
I Food Processing
I Stoves and grills
I Textile production
I Plastics processing
I Petrochemical processing
I Micro electronics
I Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and
tanks
I Exhaust gas temperature measurement

Thermistors
Figure: Schematic of a thermistor
I Thermistors are available in the form of a bead (pressed disc),

probe or chip.
I The bead is connected to an electric circuit through two leads.
I To protect from the environment, the leads are contained in a
stainless steel tube.
Thermistors
I Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with

increasing temperature.
I The material used is generally a semiconductor material such
as a sintered metal oxide (mixtures of metal oxides, chromium,
cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel) or doped polycrystalline
ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other
compounds.
I As the temperature of semiconductor material increases the
number of electrons able to move about increases which
results reduced resistance.
I Thermistors are rugged and small in dimensions.
I They exhibit nonlinear response characteristics.
Thermistors

I To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature
inside the engine
I To monitor the temperature of an incubator
I Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats
I To monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging
I To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
I To maintain correct temperature in the food Handling and
processing industry equipments
I To control the operations of consumer appliances such as
toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc.

Thermocouple
I Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of

dissimilar metals heated, it produces an electric potential
related to temperature.
I As per Thomas Seebeck (1821), when two wires composed of
dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the ends is
heated, then there is a continuous current which flows in the
thermoelectric circuit.
I The net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a
function of junction temperature and composition of two
metals. It is given by,

Thermocouple
The net open circuit voltage is a function of junction temperature
and composition of two metals. It is given by,
∆VAB = α∆T
Where α, the Seebeck coefficient
Figure: Schematic of thermocouple circuit

Thermocouple
I Generally, Chromel(90% nickel and 10%
chromium)–Alumel(95% nickel, 2% manganese, 2% aluminium
and 1% silicon) are used in the manufacture of a
thermocouple.

Thermocouple

I To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel
making process
I Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g.
chemical production and petroleum refineries
I Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
I Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
I Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and
smelting process in the steel, iron and aluminum industry

Light sensors
I A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light. There

are different types of light sensors such as photocell,
photoresistor and photo diodes
I Photoresistor, also called as light dependent resistor (LDR) has
a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident
light intensity.
I Photodiode is a solid-state device which converts incident light
into an electric current. It is made of Silicon. It consists of a
shallow diffused p-n junction, normally a p-on-n configuration.

Liquid Flow Sensors
I Liquid flow is generally measured by applying the Bernoulli’s

principle of fluid flow through a constriction.
I The quantity of fluid flow is computed by using the pressure
drop measured.
I The fluid flow volume is proportional to square root of pressure
difference at the two ends of the constriction.
I There are various types of fluid flow measurement devices such
as Orifice plate, Turbine meter etc.

Liquid Flow Sensors-Orifice plate
Figure: Orifice Plate
I It has a disc with a hole at its center, through which the fluid
flows.

Liquid Flow Sensors-Orifice plate
I The pressure difference is measured between a point equal to

the diameter of the tube upstream and a point equal to the
half the diameter downstream.
I Orifice plate is inexpensive and simple in construction with no
moving parts.
I It exhibits nonlinear behavior and does not work with slurries.
I It has accuracy of ±1.5%.

Liquid Flow Sensors-Turbine meter
I Turbine meter has a multi blade rotor mounted centrally in the

pipe along which the flow is to be measured.
I Figure shows the typical arrangement of the rotor and a
magnetic pick up coil.
Liquid Flow Sensors-Turbine Meter
I The fluid flow rotates the rotor. Accordingly the magnetic pick
up coil counts the number of magnetic pulses generated due to
the distortion of magnetic field by the rotor blades.
I The angular velocity is proportional to the number of pulses
and fluid flow is proportional to angular velocity.
I Turbine flow meter has an accuracy of ±0.3%

Mass Flow Meter-Coriolis Flow Meter

Mass Flow Meter-Coriolis Flow Meter
I Inertial flow meter or Coriolis meter is a device that measures

mass flow rate of a fluid through a tube
I A mass flow meter operating on the "Coriolis Principle"
contains a vibrating tube in which fluid flow causes a twist
proportional to the mass flow rate.
I Coriolis flow measurement is fast and accurate

Fluid pressure
I Chemical, petroleum, power industry often need to monitor

fluid pressure.
I Various types of instruments such as diaphragms, capsules,
and bellows are used to monitor the fluid pressure.
I Specially designed strain gauges doped in diaphragms are
generally used to measure the inlet manifold pressure in
applications such as automobiles.

Fluid pressure - Diaphragm
I A typical arrangement of strain gauges on a diaphragm is

shown in figure
I Application of pressurized fluid displaces the diaphragm.
I This displacement is measured by the stain gauges in terms of
radial and/or lateral strains.
I These strain gauges are connected to form the arms of a
Wheatstone bridge.
Fluid pressure - Diaphragm
Figure: Diaphragms:(a) flat, (b) corrugated.
I Corrugations in the diaphragm result in a greater sensitivity.

Fluid pressure - Capsule & Bellow
Figure: Schematic of Capsule and

Bellow Figure: Bellow with a LVDT
I Capsule is formed by combining two corrugated diaphragms.

I It has enhanced sensitivity in comparison with that of
diaphragms.
I A stack of capsules is called as ‘Bellows’

Fluid pressure - Bourdon tube
Figure: Tube cross-section
Figure: Tube pressure sensor
I Bourdon tube is a C-shaped tubes with elliptical cross section.

I the C opens up to some extent when the pressure in the tube
increases.

Pressure - Piezoelectric Sensor
Figure: (a) Piezoelectricity, (b) piezoelectric capacitor.
I Piezoelectric materials when stretched or compressed generate

electric charges with one face of the material becoming
positively charged and the opposite face negatively charged.
As a result, a voltage is produced.
Pressure - Piezoelectric Sensor

I Piezoelectric materials are ionic crystals, which when stretched
or compressed result change in the charge distribution in the
crystal
I One face of material becomes positively charged and the other
negatively charged.
I The net charge q on a surface is proportional to the amount
by which the charges have been displaced
I Since the displacement is proportional to the applied force F:
q = kx = SF
where k is a constant and S a constant termed the charge

sensitivity.
Pressure - Tactile sensor
I A tactile sensor is a particular form of pressure sensor.

I Used on the ‘fingertips’ of robotic ‘hands’ to determine when a
‘hand’ has come into contact with an object
I Also used for ‘touch display’ screens where a physical contact
has to be sensed.

Figure: Schematic of a tactile sensor
I Figure shows the construction of piezo-electric polyvinylidene

fluoride (PVDF) based tactile sensor.
I It has two PVDF layers separated by a soft film which
transmits the vibrations.
I An alternating current is applied to lower PVDF layer which

generates vibrations due to reverse piezoelectric effect.
I These vibrations are transmitted to the upper PVDF layer via
soft film. These vibrations cause alternating voltage across the
upper PVDF layer.
I When some pressure is applied on the upper PVDF layer the
vibrations gets affected and the output voltage changes.
I This triggers a switch or an action in robots or touch displays.


I Displacement sensors are concerned with the measurement
of the amount by which some object has been moved
I Position sensors are concerned with the determination of the
position of some object in relation to some reference point.
I Proximity sensors are a form of position sensor and are used
to determine when an object has moved to within some
particular critical distance of the sensor. They are essentially
devices which give on/off outputs.
I Displacement and position sensors can be grouped into
contact sensors in which the measured object comes into
mechanical contact with the sensor, or non-contacting where
there is no physical contact between the measured object and
the sensor
Displacement - Potentiometer sensor
Figure: Potentiometer Sensor
I A potentiometer consists of a resistance element with a sliding

contact which can be moved over the length of the element.
I Such elements can be used for linear or rotary displacements
Displacement - Strain-gauged element
Figure: Strain gauges: (a) metal wire, (b) metal foil, (c) semiconductor.
I The electrical resistance strain gauge is a metal wire, metal foil

strip or a strip of semiconductor material which is wafer-like
and can be stuck onto surfaces

Displacement - Strain-gauged element
I When subject to strain, its resistance R changes, the fractional

change in resistance ∆R/R being proportional to the strain ,
i.e.
∆R
= G
R
where G, the constant of proportionality, is termed the gauge
factor.
I Since strain is the ratio (change in length/original length)
then the resistance change of a strain gauge is a
measurement of the change in length of the element to which
the strain gauge is attached.

Displacement - Capacitive element
I The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
r 0 A
C=
d
where r is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between
the plates, 0 a constant called the permittivity of free space,
A the area of overlap between the two plates and d the plate
separation.

Displacement - Capacitive element
Figure: Forms of capacitive sensing element.
I In (a) one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that

the plate separation changes
I in (b) the displacement causes the area of overlap to change
I in (c) the displacement causes the dielectric between the
plates to change.
Displacement - Differential transformers
Figure: LVDT
I The linear variable differential transformer, generally referred

to by the acronym LVDT, consists of three coils symmetrically
spaced along an insulated tube
Displacement - Differential transformers
I The central coil is the primary coil and the other two are
identical secondary coils which are connected in series in such
a way that their outputs oppose each other.
I A magnetic core is moved through the central tube as a result
of the displacement being monitored.
I when the core is displaced from the central position there is a
greater amount of magnetic core in one coil than the other
I The result is that a greater e.m.f. is induced in one coil than
the other.

Proximity Sensor - Eddy Current Proximity Sensor
Figure: Schematic of Eddy Current Proximity Sensor
I Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect

non-magnetic but conductive materials.
I They comprise of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a
triggering circuit.

Proximity Sensor - Eddy Current Proximity Sensor
I When an alternating current is passed thru this coil, an

alternative magnetic field is generated.
I If a metal object comes in the close proximity of the coil, then
eddy currents are induced in the object due to the magnetic
field.
I These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which
distorts the magnetic field responsible for their generation.
I As a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the
amplitude of alternating current.
I This can be used to trigger a switch .

Proximity Sensor - Inductive proximity switch
Figure: Schematic of Inductive proximity switch
I Inductive proximity switches are basically used for detection of

metallic objects.
I An inductive proximity sensor has four components; the coil,
oscillator, detection circuit and output circuit.
I An alternating current is supplied to the coil which generates a

magnetic field.
I When,a metal object comes closer to the end of the coil,
inductance of the coil changes.
I This is continuously monitored by a circuit which triggers a
switch when a preset value of inductance change is occurred.

Figure: Schematic of Capacitive proximity sensor.
I capacitive proximity sensor consists of a single capacitor plate

probe with the other plate being formed by the object, which
has to be metallic and earthed
I As the object approaches so the ‘plate separation’ of the
capacitor changes, becoming significant and detectable when
the object is close to the probe.
Proximity Sensor - Capacitive proximity sensor
Figure: Schematic of Capacitive proximity sensor.
I capacitive proximity sensor consists of a single capacitor plate

probe with the other plate being formed by the object, which
has to be metallic and earthed
I As the object approaches so the ‘plate separation’ of the
capacitor changes, becoming significant and detectable when
the object is close to the probe.
Proximity Sensor - Optical Proximity Sensor
Figure: Schematic of Optical proximity sensor.
I A complete optical proximity sensor includes a light source,

and a sensor that detects the light.
I Infra-red light is used in most optical sensors.
I The light sensor in the optical proximity sensor is typically a
semiconductor device such as a photodiode,
Proximity Sensor - Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor
Figure: Ultrasonic proximity sensor.
I Ultrasonic proximity sensors emit and receive sound waves

I The carrier signal is a high frequency, inaudible sound wave.

Proximity Sensor - Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor
I They detect the presence of the target object in one of two

configurations.
I Diffuse or Reflective sensors have the transmitter and
receiver packaged in the same housing. When a target enters
the sensing range of the device, the ultrasonic waves are
reflected back to the sensor.
I Opposed or Thru-Beam sensors have the transmitter and
receiver packaged separately. The receiver is mounted facing
the transmitter and when an object enters the sensing range of
an opposed sensor, it blocks the transmitted signal. Rather
than activating the trigger when the frequency is received, the
trigger is activated when the signal is broken.

Optical Encoders
I An encoder is a device that provides a digital output as a

result of a linear or angular displacement.
I Position encoders can be grouped into two categories:
incremental encoders, which detect changes in rotation from
some datum position; and absolute encoders, which give the
actual position.

Optical Encoders-Incremental encoders
Figure: Incremental encoders

Optical Encoders-Absolute encoders
Figure: Absolute encoders

Optical Encoders-Absolute encoders
Figure: Binary and Gray Codes

Synchros & Resolvers

I Resolvers and synchros are Inductive angular transducers
I They are built like small electrical motors, where inductive
coupling between a rotating part (the rotor) and a
stationary part (the stator) generates signals indicating
shaft position.
I They are intrinsically absolute and require no
semiconductors on the transducer.
I Since they consist primarily of copper and steel, they are
virtually insensitive to temperature over a wide range.
I Their manufacture does not employ any sensitive electronics
or optics
I Their mounting does not require any shaft to shaft coupling or
extra bearings
Synchros
Figure: Modern schematic diagram of a synchro
I The synchros employ single winding rotor that revolves inside

a fixed stator.
I The stator in a simple synchro has three windings positioned
1200 apart and are electrically connected in a Y-connection.

Synchros
I The operation of synchros is same as the operation of rotating

transformers
I An AC reference voltage, at frequencies up to a few kHz, is
used to excite the rotor winding of the synchro.
I The magnitude of the induced voltage in any stator winding is
proportional to the SINE of the angle θ , where θ is the angle
between the rotor coil axis and the stator coil axis.

Synchros
I If an AC reference voltage,V sin(ω), is used to excite the rotor

of a synchro across its terminals R1 and R2, then the stator’s
terminal voltages are :
S1 to S3 = V sin(ω) sin(θ)
S3 to S2 = V sin(ω) sin θ + 1200

S2 to S1 = V sin(ω) sin θ + 2400


Synchros
Figure: View onto the connection Figure: A Simple two synchro system
description of a synchro transmitter

Resolvers
I A resolver is defined as an angular position sensor or

transducer used to measure the instantaneous angle of the
rotor shaft to which it is attached.
I These sensors are absolute over a single turn and are originally
developed for military and avionic applications
I In general applications, the resolver gives rotary angular
position information to a decoder, which is stationed in a PLC
I PLC interprets this angular position information and runs the
commands based on the position of shaft

Resolvers
Figure: Schematic diagram

Figure: Cross section of brushless
resolver

Resolvers
I The resolver is basically a rotary transformer and it has one
primary winding and two secondary windings.
I The primary winding is called as the reference winding and the
two secondary windings are called as SINE and COSINE
Windings.
I The two secondary windings, SINE and COSINE are
mechanically separated by 900 from each other.
I the rotor winding is excited by an AC voltage called the
reference voltage (Vr).
I As the rotor winding is excited, two voltages are induced in the
two stator windings; SINE and COSINE.
I The induced voltages in the stator windings gives the angle of
the input shaft from a fixed zero point.
Resolvers
Figure: Schematic diagram

Resolvers - Working

Synchros & Resolvers-Applications
I Even before World War II, resolvers and synchros have been
used in military applications to measure and control the angle
of gun turrets on tanks and warships.
I These sensors are also used by machine tool and robotics
manufacturers to provide the accurate shaft angle and
rotational information.
I Due to small size, long term reliability, absolute position
measurement, high accuracy, and low noise operation; these
devices are mainly used in aviation applications.

Acoustic Emission Sensors
I Acoustic emission (AE) is the phenomenon of radiation of

acoustic (elastic) waves in solids that occurs when a material
undergoes irreversible changes in its internal structure
I An AE-sensor converts the surface movement caused by an
elastic wave into an electrical signal which can be processed by
the measurement equipment.
I The piezoelectric element of the AE-sensor should pick up
faintest surface movements (i.e. have high sensitivity) and
convert this movement most efficiently to an electrical voltage.
I AE-sensors can be designed highly sensitive at a certain
frequency (also termed resonant) or with a broad frequency
response (broad band)
AE Method offers following advantages

I It can observe the progress of plastic deformation and
microscopic collapse in real time.
I It can diagnose facilities while they are in operation.
I It can locate a flaw by using several AE sensors

AE Sensors are classified in to two types

I Resonance modal: Sensors that are highly sensitive at a
specific frequency
I Wide bandwidth model: Sensors that possess a constant
sensitivity across a wide band of frequencies.

Acoustic Emission Sensors-Applications
I Product testing
I Tool monitoring
I Facility diagnosis
I Safety monitoring in civil engineering
I Diagnosis of the integrity of large structures

Vibration Measurement
I Vibration is the back and forth or repetitive motion of an

object from its point of rest.
I The characteristics of this vibratory motion are period,
frequency, displacement, velocity, acceleration, amplitude and
phase of this vibratory motion are period, frequency,
displacement, velocity, acceleration, amplitude and phase.
I Vibration measurement is an effective, non-intrusive method to
monitor machine condition during start-ups, shutdowns and
normal operation.
I Vibrations are measured by measuring the displacement,
velocity or acceleration of the vibrating body.

Vibration Measurement
Figure: Flow chart of a digital, single-channel measurement system

Vibration Transducers - Variable Resistance Transducer
I Resistance of the strain

gauge changes when it is
subjected to mechanical
deformation.
I It shows vibration as change
in output voltage.

Vibration Transducers - Piezoelectric Transducer
Vout (t) = νhp(t)

Where ν is Voltage Sensitivity
Coeft
I It measures the motion using
piezoelectric effect of the
material.
I Advantages
I It’s compactness and
ruggedness.
I High sensitivity.
I It can be used at high
frequency range.

Vibration Transducers - Electro-Dynamic Transducer
Vout (t) = Blv (t)
I It measures the motion using

electro-magnetic induction
I Used to measure velocity of
vibration

Vibration Pickup
I When a transducer is used in conjunction with another device

to measure vibrations, it is called a vibration pickup.
I The vibratory motion is measured by finding the displacement,
velocity and acceleration of the test object.
I The commonly used vibration pickups are known as seismic
instruments.

Vibration Pickup- Vibrometer-Siesmometer
I A vibrometer or a seismometer is
an instrument that measures the
displacement of a vibrating body.
I It consists of a mass-spring-damper
system mounted on the vibrating
body.
I The relative displacement between
the mass and the base is sensed by
the transducer.

Vibration Pickup- Vibrometer-Siesmometer
Disadvantages:
I At large frequency ratio vibormeter give accurate result.
I So, for fixed operating frequency , natural frequency need to
be low that means mass must be large and the spring must
have a low stiffness.
I As a result instrument become bulky which is not desirable in
many applications.

Vibration Pickup- Accelerometer

I Accelerometer used to measure the
acceleration of vibrating body.
I It is widely used to vibration
measurement and also to record
earthquakes.
I From the accelerometer record, the
velocity and displacements are
obtained by integration.
I Two type of accelerometer are
commonly used compression type
and shear type.
I Mostly piezoelectric transducer are
used in accelerometer.
Vibration Pickup- Accelerometer
Disadvantages:
I Frequency ratio is small so, instrument requires large natural
frequency.
I It need to be small mass and high spring stiffness, so the
instrument will be small size.
I It exhibits better all-round characteristics than any other type
of vibration transducer.
I It has very wide frequency and dynamic ranges with good
linearity throughout the ranges.
I Additionally, the piezoelectric accelerometer is self- generating,
so that it doesn’t need a power supply.

Vibration Pickup- Laser Doppler vibrometer
I A laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) is used to make non-contact

vibration measurements of a surface.
I The laser beam from the LDV is directed at the surface of
interest, and the vibration amplitude and frequency are
extracted from the Doppler shift of the reflected laser beam
frequency due to the motion of the surface.
I Some advantages of an LDV over similar measurement devices
are that the LDV can be directed at targets that are difficult
to access, or that may be too small or too hot to attach a
physical transducer.

Vibration Pickup- Laser Doppler vibrometer
Figure: Basic components of a laser Doppler vibrometer

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Introduction to Mechatronics

Sensors & Transducers

Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

September 22, 2019

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

Sensors & Transducers

Temperature, flow, pressure sensors

Displacement, position and proximity sensing

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

I The term mechatronics was ‘invented’ by a Japanese engineer

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

Figure: The basic elements of a mechatronic system.

Modules of a Mechatronics System.

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

Evolution of automated systems:

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

I A mechatronic system has at its core a mechanical system

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

Open loop & Closed loop control

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

Examples of Mechatronic Systems

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

Sensors & Transducers

I The term sensor is used for an element which produces a

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

I Static Characteristics : The static characteristics are the

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

Sensors - Static Characteristics

I Range and span : The range of a transducer defines the

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

Sensors - Static Characteristics

I Non-linearity error : Errors due to assumption of

Sensors - Static Characteristics

I Stability : The stability of a transducer is its ability to give

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

Sensors - Dynamic Characteristics

I Response time : This is the time which elapses after a

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

Sensors - Dynamic Characteristics

Figure: Response to a step input.

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

Sensors - Dynamic Characteristics

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

Sensors can be classified into various groups according to the

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

Temperature and Light Sensors

I Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

Temperature and Light Sensors

Few examples of Temperature/Light Sensors are

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

I Used as thermal switch in

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

I Figure shows a typical arrangement

ME407 Mechatronics Module I - Introduction to Mechatronics & Sensors

Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

I RTDs work on the principle that