STRUCTURALLY CONTROLLED LANDFORMS: FOLDS, JOINTS, AND

FAULTS
Danny M. Vaughn, Ph.D., CMS

Factors Contributing to Surface (topographic) Morphology

 Rates of crustal deformation.

 Geometric expression of rock structure.
 Differential weathering of varied lithology.
 Climate dependent.
 Shale tends to weather easily.
 Limestone can be both resistant (arid climate) and lower resistant (humid climate).
 Sandstone tends to be fairly resistant. Dependent upon the elemental composition of
cement which binds the grains together.

Geomorphic (Surface) Expressions

Flat-lying, Homogeneous Rocks

 Drainage pattern tends to be dendritic.

 Slopes tend to be irregular and dependent upon varied lithology and differential weathering and
erosion.

Cliff and Bench Topography

 A reflection of rock types with varied resistance to weathering and erosion.

 Thin beds can become lost in more massive bedding.
 In dry climates, the benches are often sharply defined.
 Sapping processes form esplanades (broad benches).
 Over time these benches extend to form stripped structural surfaces.
 In humid climates, the benches are more subdued and rounded.
 Head ward-eroding streams along a retreating escarpment form detached outliers as mesas.
 Continued sapping of the cap rock of a mesa or esplanade results in smaller features termed
buttes.

Tilted Strata

 Strike – a line formed by the intersection of inclined strata with a horizontal plane. Strike is a
bi-directional vector.
 Dip – a plane that is inclined at an angle greater than the horizontal datum and at right angle to
the strike.
 In sedimentary beds that are inclined <30º, topographic expressions are termed questas.
 When the beds are inclined >30 - 40º, termed homoclinal ridges or hogbacks.
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 Up to about 40º, and when slopes are asymmetric the obsequent slope is generally the steeper
scarp face, while the dip slope is less steep.
 Erosion is generally more vigorous on the steeper, scarp slope. Divides thus tend to migrate in
the direction of dip (homoclinal shifting).
 When streams cut across the structure (down dip), they form a V-shaped notch termed a water
gap.
 The apex of the ‘V’ points in the direction to which the beds dip (rule of structure V).
 Monoclines are a predominant structure of the Colorado Plateau Physiographic Province
displaying ‘V-shaped’ profiles where streams have cut down dip.

Folded Strata

 Anticline – folded rocks with opposing slopes (limbs) dipping in directions opposite the
longitudinal axial plane. A positive folded feature due to compressional forces that can become
topographically reversed (see anticlinal valley) with erosion of beds of varied resistance.
 Anticlinal ridge – structurally and topographically high expression, with the resistant beds
maintaining the surface expression.
 Anticlinal valley – topographic inversion of the original relief form resulting in a valley formed
along the axis of the fold, and cutting into less resistant beds.
 Syncline – the limbs dip inward toward the longitudinal axis of the fold. Synclines can become
topographically reversed through differential erosion forming a synclinal ridge as weathering
and erosion progresses through more resistant rock types and they ultimately emerge at the
surface.
 When the longitudinal axes of folds are horizontal, anticlines and synclines will form parallel
ridges and valleys.
 When the longitudinal axes are inclined relative to the horizontal plane, the folds are said to be
plunging.
 A zig-zag pattern of ridges and valleys will form when viewed from above the earth’s
surface.
 The limbs will converge in the direction of plunge for anticlines, and diverge in the
direction of plunge in synclines.
 Generally, the dip along the flanks of a fold are steeper than at the nose.
 Beds will often be expressed as hogbacks along the flanks of a fold, to cuestas around
the nose.
 Plunging anticlines will have a plunging syncline adjacent to them.
 The nose of the anticline is generally topographically expressed as a long, tapering dip
slope, while the nose of the syncline is typically blunt.
 Plunging anticlines tend to be more cigar-shaped in body.
 The steeper escarpment faces to the outside of the structure in a syncline.
 The steeper escarpment faces the inside of the structure in an anticline.
 The oldest beds will be exposed within the core and along the axis of an anticline.
 The youngest beds will be exposed within the core and along the axis of a syncline.
 Topographic contours will reflect the steep (scarp) side by their closeness in spacing.
 Anticlines and synclines may be asymmetric in structure and topographic expression.
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 Anticlines and synclines may also be overturned with both limbs dipping in the same direction
relative to the longitudinal axial plane.
 Drainage patterns are typically trellis in anticlines and synclines.

Structurally Controlled Domes

 Often formed by intrusion of igneous rocks, thus the core may actually be younger than the
overlying surrounding rocks.
 Sedimentary rocks may also be deposited over an existing (older) crystalline mass, followed by
structural uplifting.
 As weathering and erosion ensues and a sequence of sedimentary rocks overlying the core of a
structural dome are exposed to the surface as topographic expressions, they will be progressively
younger toward the outside of the structure regardless of whether the core rocks are intrusive
(younger) or older pre-existing rocks.
 The folded sequence of sedimentary rocks overlying the core rocks are progressively younger
from their contact with the core rocks to the surface since they obey the principle of
superposition unless they are overturned.
 Drainage begins as consequent and radial. When the structure (dome) becomes breached due
to differential weathering and erosion, the drainage pattern is annular and in a circular to ovate
pattern following the geometry of the structure.
 Steeper escarpments will generally face toward the inside of the structure.

Structurally Controlled Basins

 Oldest sedimentary rocks will be expressed to the outside of the structure (similar to synclines).
 Drainage is often centripetal.
 Steeper escarpments will generally face to the outside of the structure.

Unconformities – An erosional surface that separates older from younger rocks.

Angular unconformity
 When older strata dip at a different angle (usually steeper) than the overlying younger strata.
 Differential weathering and erosion reveals striking differences in the drainage and bedrock
structure.
 If the rocks of the cover mass strike into the contact with underlying rocks, suspect that the
upper mass is the upper plate of a low angle thrust fault.

Nonconformity – occur when stratified rocks overlie un-stratified (igneous or metamorphic)

rocks.
 Note the erosional contact between the different rock types.
 A dike would indicate an intrusion, not an erosional surface between the two varied rock types.
 If the cover rock is conspicuously less consolidated than the underlying rock and forms a
recognizable landform:
 Examples may include: alluvial fan, sand dune, moraine, alluvial terrace, or other
depositional feature.
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Disconformity – occur when an erosion surface separates two rock bodies.

 The strata below does not dip at an angle as the strata above.
 A local contact plane in a dike where the flow structures are discordant.

Relationships of Streams to Geologic Structures

Antecedent stream
 A preexisting stream that forms prior to local uplift (folding), with the course not altered during
the deformation of underlying beds and subsequent development of the structure.
 Yakima River, Washington.
 Venture River, California.

Superposed stream
 A stream forms over a cover of earth materials that initially bury an older structure (typically
folds).
 The stream cuts down through both the cover and across the underlying rocks of an earlier
episode of folding.
 Bighorn, Green, Yampa, and Sweetwater Rivers.

TOPOGRAPHIC EXPRESSION OF JOINTS AND FAULTS

 Fracture – a break in rock.

 Joint – local to regional fractures in rocks along which no significant movement/displacement
(to the unaided eye) has taken place.
 Fault – a break in the rocks with measurable displacement.
 Stress (force) induced causing fractures and/or displacement, or by shrinkage upon cooling
magma.
 Shear stress (sliding force)
 Tensional (pulling apart force)
 Compressional (pushing inward) stress.
 A rock's tensile strength is the lowest, followed by shear strength, and finally compressive
strength.
 Joint patterns represent a brittle response to stress that exceeds the resisting forces within
rocks.
 Tensional joints form at right angles to the stress vector (opposing directions (pulling apart) of
force).
 Weathering is enhanced along joints with ionic exchange (chemical) common.

Compressional forces yield folded rocks.

 Elongation (deformation) of the top strata.
 Results in tension followed by fracturing along (parallel) the axis plane and at right angles to
the directions of compressional force
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 Joints trend parallel and in line with the strike (longitudinal axis) of the fold (Fiery Furnace in
Arches National Park, Utah).
 In sandstone, joints can form slab-like vertical walls, fins, spires.

Shearing forces (strike/slip faults)

 Displacement is typically lateral.
 A stream appears to trend along a transform fault trace at the surface before crossing with its
course offset by the shear force creating displacement.
 Sag ponds often occur along the fault trace.
 Result in joints trending 35-45º with the maximum and minimum stress axes.
 Shale, because of clay minerals ability to interlock, have more plasticity, thus joint systems are
not common.
 In igneous and metamorphic rocks, joints are less regular, more widely spaced, and lack a
linear trend.

Faults are breaks in rocks that result in displacement along the fracture plane.
 Displacement can be vertical or lateral in rocks resulting from compressional, tensional, or
sheer stress.
 Louderback – Dislocated lava flows due to block faulting.
 Triangular facets – Topographic expressions expressed when "V" shaped valleys cut through a
fault scarp of a block (normal/tensional) fault.
 Determining the direction of displacement along a fault by the down dip method of viewing
structures.
 View the topographic or geologic map oriented so that the up dip side is closest to the
viewer (looking down dip).
 Beds to the top of the page are displaced up (Old rocks are adjacent to younger rocks).
 Beds are often bent in the vicinity of a fault through fault drag forming drag folds.
 Linear traces of springs are often indicative of faulting or a linear fracture zone.
 Fault scarp – Develops from direct offset of the land surface. Height of the scarp equals the
vertical displacement along the fault before weathering and erosion. While possibly dissected,
the linear trend of the scarp is preserved.
 Fault-line scarp – Topographic relief is due to differential erosion of rocks of contrasting
resistance which are on opposite sides of the fault. Height of the scarp is due to differences in
rock resistance, rather than direct displacement.
 Obsequent fault-line scarp – Scarp faces in the opposite direction from which it was created
due to differential erosion.
 Resequent fault-line scarp – Scarp faces in the original direction from which it was created
due to differential erosion, but at a lower level due to continued erosional processes.
 Superposition of streams across a fault indicate a fault-line scarp.
 If sedimentary rocks, lava flows, or other unconsolidated deposits uncomformably overlie any
part of the fault (the scarp was formed after the deposit without further movement), it is also a
fault-line scarp.
 If a fault is buried by later deposits, the thickness will increase on the downthrown side.
 Composite fault scarp. – The height of an escarpment is due partially to differential erosion,
and partly to direct movement along a fault.
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 A fault line scarp that developed renewed offset in which part of the height is due to
additional fault displacement, and part to erosion.
 Offsets are generally an expression of episodic events with a single displacement from
5-10 m.
 Some faults splinter or splay creating scarps lower in displacement along the fault.
 While erosional scarps may form along joint trends, shorelines, or along resistant beds, a splay
is good evidence for faulting.
 When a stream crosses a fault scarp in the direction of the down thrown side, it forms a
hanging valley with a fan forming at the base. The expression is termed ‘wineglass structure’
 When a stream flows toward the up thrown side of the scarp, ponding can occur at the base of
the scarp.
 In humid and tropical environments, streams can spill over creating a new drainage channel
transverse to the fault, sometimes undercutting the scarp.
 Erosional surfaces are formed across the fault on the up thrown block and often preserved as
terraces exhibiting recurrent fault episodes.
 Linear scarps in alluvium are good indicators of faulting, e.g. on alluvial fans.
 Since fault line scarps owe their existence to differential erosion, if there is no difference in
the erosional surfaces on opposite sides of the fault, it is probably a fault scarp.

Fault blocks (dip/slip, normal, or tensional faults)

 Tilted fault block mountains through tensional forces (Basin and Range topography).
 Asymmetric expressions due to tilting.
 Block faulting along the east side base of the Teton Range in Jackson Hole, Wyoming.
 Horst and Graben structures in the Basin and Range Physiographic Province throughout
Nevada.
 Death Valley (Graben) is a down-dropped block due to tensional forces and is 282
ft./86 m below sea level.
 The Panamint Mountains to the west and the Black Mountains to the east of Death
Valley are structural Horsts.

Strike-Slip Faults
 Lateral displacement with streams often offset.
 San Andreas fault system.
 1906 San Francisco earthquake yielded displacement of up to 21 ft.
 Today offsets are 0.5 - 2.0 inches per year.
 Steeply dipping fault planes.

Thrust Faults (compressional force)

 Low angle reverse faults.
 Characterized by very irregular outcrop patterns.
 Isolated remnants of the over thrust sheet are termed klippes (outlier).