*

LISTOFCONTENTS*
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Hi
stor
y
St
udi
oCent
re
 Br
oadcastst
udi
o
 Mi
xi
ng
 Announcerconsol
e
 Cont
rol
Room
 Recor
dingr
oom
 Dubbi
ngr
oom
Mi
crophone
 Ty
pesofMi
crophone
I
mpedanceMat
chi
ng
Har
dDi
skbasedr
ecor
dingsy
stem
 Det
ail
sofsof
twar
epr
ovi
dedwi
tht
hesy
stem
 Br
oadcastdet
ail
sofsoundcar
d
 PCMCI
Acar
d
 Soundf
orgest
udi
o6.
0
Wav
epr
opogat
ion
 Gr
oundwav
e
 Skywav
e
 Spacewav
e
 Ampl
i
tudemodul
ati
on
 Medi
um wav
e
 Shor
twav
e

1
  Fr
equencyModul
ati
on
Radi
oTr
ansmi
tt
er
 Ant
ennaSy
stem
 MW Ant
ennaSy
stem
 SW Ant
ennaSy
stem
 FM Ant
ennaSy
stem

Recei
verr
adi
osy
stem
 C-Band
 Cr
yst
alRadi
oRecei
ver
 Regener
ati
veRecei
ver
 SuperHet
erody
neRecei
ver
Ai
rcondi
ti
oni
ngSy
stem
 Ai
rcondi
ti
oni
ngsy
stem
 Ref
ri
ger
antpr
ocesscy
cle
 Ai
rcy
cle
 Condenser
 Compr
essor
 Ev
apor
ator
 Expansi
onv
alv
e
 Cool
i
ngt
ower
 Wat
ert
reat
ment
PowerSuppl
ySy
stem
 ACpowersuppl
y
 DCpowerSuppl
y
 Swi
tchmodepowersuppl
y
2
Ear
thi
ng

I
ntr
oduct
ion
All
IndiaRadio( AI
R) ,
offi
ciall
yknownsi nce1956asĀkāshaVānī( "Voicefrom the
Sky"
),isthenationalpubli
cr adiobroadcasterofIndiaandi sadivisionofPr asar
Bharati
.Itwasest abl
ishedin1930.I tisthesisterservi
ceofPr asarBhar ati'
s
Doordarshan,anIndiantelevisi
onbr oadcaster.HeadquarteredintheAkashv ani
Bhavanbui l
dinginNewDel hi,i
thousest heDr amaSect i
on,theFM Sect i
on,the
Nati
onal Servi
ce,andisalsohomet otheIndiantelev
isi
onst ati
onDoor darshan
Kendra,(Del
hi).

AllI
ndiaRadioi
st helargestradionetwor kintheworld,andoneoft helargest
broadcasti
ngorganizationsi
nt hewor ldinter
msoft henumberofl anguages
broadcastandthespect rum ofsocio-economicandcul tur
aldiv
ersi
tyitserves.AI
R’s
homeser vi
cecompr ises420st ationslocatedacrossthecountry,r
eachingnearly
92%oft hecountr
y ’
sar eaand99. 19%oft hetotalpopulati
on.AIRori
ginates
programmingin23l anguagesand179di al
ects.

Hi
stor
y
Broadcast i
ngbegani nJune1923dur ingtheBrit
ishRaj wit
hprogramsbyt he
BombayPr esidencyRadi oClubandot herradi
oclubs.Accordingtoanagr eementon
23Jul y1927, thepri
v ateI
ndianBr oadcastingCompanyLt d(I
BC)wasaut horizedto
operatet wor adiost
at i
ons:theBombayst ati
onwhi chbeganon23Jul y1927, and
theCal cutt
ast ati
onwhi chfoll
owedon26August1927.Thecompanywenti nto
l
iquidationon1Mar ch1930.Thegov ernmenttookov erthebroadcasti
ngfacilit
ies
andbegant heI ndi
anSt at
eBr oadcastingServi
ce( ISBS)on1Apr i
l1930onan
experiment albasisfortwoy ears,
andper manentlyinMay1932i tthenwentont o
becomeAl lIndiaRadioon8June1936.

3
On1Oct ober1939, t
heExt ernalServ i
cebeganwi thabr oadcasti nPusht u.Itwas
i
nt endedt ocount err adiopr opagandaf r
om Germanydi rectedatAf ghanistan, Persi
a
andAr abnat ions.1939al sosawt heopeni ngoft heDhakast ati
onofEast ernI ndia,i
n
whati snowBangl adesh.Thi sstati
oncat eredandnur turedt hepioneersofBengal i
i
nt el
lectuals.Thef oremostamongt hem,NatyaguruNur ul Momen, becamet het rai
l-
blazeroft het alk-
showi n1939.Hewr ot
eanddirect edt hef ir
stmoder nradi o-playfor
thisstationin1942.WhenI ndiabecamei ndependenti n1947, theAIRnet wor khad
onlysixst ations( Del hi,Bombay ,Cal cutt
a,Madras, Lucknow, andTiruchi
rappal li)
.
Thet hreer adiost ationsatLahor e, PeshawarandDhakar emai nedinwhatbecame
Pakistanaf t
ert hedi vision.Thet otal numberofradioset sinI ndiaatthattimewas
about275, 000.On3Oct ober1957, theVividhBharat iSer vi
cewasl aunched, to
compet ewi t
hRadi oCey l
on.Televisionbroadcastingbegani nDel hii
n1959aspar t
ofAI R,butwasspl itof ffrom theradi onetworkasDoor darshanon1Apr i
l 1976.FM
broadcast ingbeganon23Jul y1977i nChennai
,andexpandeddur i
ngthe1990s.

DeccanRadio(Ni zam Radi

o1932) ,t
hef i
rstradiostationi
nHy derabadSt
ate(now
Hyderabad,I
ndia),wentli
veonai ron3Febr uary1935.I twaslaunchedbyMirOsman
Al
iKhant he7thNi zam ofHyderabadwi t
hat ransmi tt
ingpowerof200Wat t
s.On1
Apri
l1950,DeccanRadi owast akenov erbytheI ndianGovernment,andi
n1956it
wasmer gedwithAl lI
ndiaRadio(AIR).Sincethen,ithasbeenknownasAI R-
Hyderabad(100 kW) .

St
udi
oCent
re
I
nAI Rthestudiocentresarecategor
izedasTy peI,I
I,I
IIandIV.Thenumberofst
udiosand
faci
l
iti
esprovidedineacht ypearedi
ffer
ent.Butbasicall
y,astudi
ocentr
ecompri
sesofa
numberofst udiosl
iketransmissi
onstudio,Tal
kstudio,Musicstudi
o,Dramast
udioetc.
Contr
olroom istheheartofanystudiocent reasal l
st udi
osar econnectedtoitfor
contr
ol/
select
ionofprogramsf orfurtherrouti
ngtot ransmi t
terandotherdestinat
ion.
ThesizeofsuchaCent reandt henumberofst udiospr ovi
deddependsont he
progr
ammeact i
vit
iesofthestati
on.Forexampl e,atypeIst udiocentr
ehasa
tr
ansmissionstudi
o,musi cst
udiowi thannouncerboot h,atalkstudi
owi t
h
announcerbooth,onerecordi
ng/dubbi ngroom andaReadOv erRoom.Ty peIIhas
oneadditi
onaldramastudio.Theot hertypeshav emor estudiosprogr
essivel
y.

Br
oadcastSt
udi
o
Abroadcaststudi
oisanacoust
ical
lyt
reat
edr
oom,iti
snecessar
ythatt
hepl
ace
whereaprogrammef orbr
oadcastpur
posesi
sbei
ngproducedshoul
dbefr
eeof
ext
ernalnoi
ses.
Thisispossi
bleonlyi
ftheareaofroom isinsulatedfr
om outsidesound.Fur ther
,the
microphonewhichisthefir
stequi
pmentt hatpicksupt hesound, i
snot ableto
di
stingui
shbetweenwant edandunwantedsi gnalsandwi l
lpi
ckupt hesoundnot
fr
om arti
stsandinstr
umentbutfrom soundr ef
lectedbythewal ls.Theref
ore,the
studioi
sproperl
yconstruct
edwithsoundpr oofingandperforatedwal l
swal l
satan
anglesothatsondrever
berati
onisnotthere.

4
thestudiosaret obespeci all
ytreatedtogiveanoptimum r everberati
ontimeandmi ni
mum
noiselevel
.RTi smeasur edi nsecondsandi tisdif
ferentfordiffer
enttypesofstudi
o.It
normallyvari
esf rom 0. 5to1sec.
Theent r
ytot hest udiosisgener all
yt hr
oughsoundi sol
ati
ngl obbycal l
edsoundlock.
Outsideofev erystudioent rance,thereisawarninglamp, whichgl ows‘Red’whenthestudi
o
i
s‘ON- AIR’orrecor di
ngi nprogress.Thest udi
oshav esepar at
eannouncer sboothsatt
ached
tothem wher efir
stl evelfading,mixingandcueingfacili
ti
esar eprovided.

Mi
xi
ng
Asal
readyment
ionedvari
ousequi
pment
sar
eav
ail
abl
einast
udi
otogener
ate
pr
ogr
ammeasgi venbelow
Mi
crophonepr
ovi
desgai
nof-
70dBm
Tur
ntabl
epr
ovi
desO/
P0dBm
Tapedeckspr
ovi
des0dBm
CDandR-
DAT0dBm
Thef i
rstandf oremostrequir
ementisthatwemustselectt
heO/P.thelevelof
microphonei slowsoi tneedstoamplif
iedtobri
ngitt
othelev
eloftaperecorderso
apreampl if
ierisusedf orthi
spurposerequi
redequi
pmentsareusedforlowlevel
mic=xingbutt hisisnotcommonlyusednowaday s.
Lowlev
elO/
Pfr
om eachi
nst
rumenti
sampl
i
fiedandmi
xedt
hisi
scal
l
edhi
ghl
evel
mixi
ng.

AnnouncerConsol
e
Mostoft hestudioshav eattachedboot hswhi charecal
ledTransmi ssi
onBoothor
AnnouncerBoot horpl aybackst udi
o.TheAnnouncerConsol ei susedf ormixi
ngand
control
li
ngthepr ogrammest hatarebeingpr oducedinthest
udiousi ngart
ist
microphones,DAW andCD/ DVDpl ayers.Thisisusedfortr
ansmi ssionof
programmesei therliv
eorr ecorded.
Thetechnical
f acil
i
tiesprovidedinat ypical
announcerbooth,besidesanAnnouncer
Consoleareoneort womi crophonesf ormaki ngannouncements,twoDAWsand
twoCD/ DVDPl ayersandonet apeplaybackf orrecor
dedprogrammesont apes
(sel
dom usednow) .
Recent
ly,
CdandRot
aryHeadAudi
oTapeRecor
derar
eal
soi
ncl
udedi
ntr
ansmi
ssi
on.

Cont
rol
Room
Controlroom isthehear tofanyst
udiocentr
easallstudi
osareconnectedtoitfor
contr
ol/selecti
onofpr ogramsforfur
therr
outingt
otransmit
terandotherdest
inati
on.The
si
zeofsuchaCent r
eandt henumberofstudi
osprovi
deddependsont heprogramme
acti
vi
tiesoft hestat
ion.

Fort
woormor
est
udi
ossetup,
ther
ewoul
dbeapr
ovi
sionf
orf
urt
hermi
xi
ngwhi
chi
s

5
providedbyacont rol consolemannedbyengi neer s.Suchcont rolconsoleisknown
asswi tchingconsol e.
Besidest heswi t chingconsol e,t
her earetwospeechr ackshousi ngjackfiel
dwi ring
tofacilit
atei nput sandout putstoandf r
om t hecont rolroom.
Facili
tyofhi ghqual itymoni tori
ngi sprovidedsot hataudi oquali
tyiscontinuously
moni tored.Ital sor eceivesthepr ogramsf r
om RNTer mi nalr
oom f orfur
therrelay
(broadcast )suchasNews.Oneort woAM/ FM r eceiversar ealsotherefor
moni tori
ngoft r
ansmi tt
edpr ograms.Si gnalingandcommuni cationfacil
i
tiesare
readil
yav ailabl ei nt heconsol eitself
.Broadf unctionsofswi t
chingconsolei ncont r
ol
room ar easf ollows:
 Swi tchi ngofdi ff
erentsour cesfortransmi ssionlikeNews, O.
Bs.othersat ell
i
te
basedr elay s, l
ivebroadcastf rom recor di
ngst udi
o.
 Lev
elcont
rol
.
 Qual
i
tymoni
tor
ing.
 Si
gnal
i
ngtot
hesour
cel
ocat
ion.
 Communi
cat
ionl
i
nkbet
weencontr
olr
oom anddi
ff
erentst
udi
os

Faci
l
iti
esi
nst
udi
ocent
re
a)DI
( STRI
BUTI
ON&MONI
TORI
NGAMPLI
FIERS

(
b)HI
GHQUALI
TYSPEAKERS

(
c)HEADPHONES

(
d)PATCHCHORDSANDJACKFI
ELDS

(
e)AM/
FM/DRM RECEI
VERS

(
f)SERVI
CEROOM

(
g)EMERGENCYLI
GHTI
NG

Recor
dingr
oom
Recordi
ngroom i
saspeci alroom whereal
ltheacti
vi
ti
esofrecordi
ngi
stobedone
wheredif
fer
entart
istrecordsther
evoicesei
therfort
headvert
isement
sorforhel
l
o
Kanpurorgyanv
ani show.

Dubbi
ngRoom
Dubbi
ngr
oom i
sar
oom wher
eedi
ti
ngofal
lther
ecor
dingf
rom di
ff
erentst
udi
osi
s
done.

6
Mi
crophone

Mi cr
ophoneplaysav eryi
mpor tantr
oleint
heartofsoundbr oadcasti
ng.Iti
sa
transducerwhichconvert
sacoust i
calener
gyint
oelectr
icalenergy.I
nthe
professi
onalbroadcasti
ngf i
eldmicr
ophoneshaveprimaril
ytobecapabl eofgi
vi
ng
thehighestfi
deli
tyofreproducti
onoveraudiobandwidt
h.

Tabl
e

Dif
feren Ty
pe Pat
ter
n Fr
eq. I
mp Sensi
ti
vi
t Appl
i
cat
ion Remar
ks
y
tTypes
of
Microph
onesS.N.
1. AKG-190E Car
dioi
d 30Hz-16000Hz 280 1.
6mV/Pa Report
er’sMi c.
2. D-
202 -
do- 20Hz- 300 1.
6 St
udi
ouse Swit
chablebass
Dynamic 20000 mV/Pa cut(
0, -
7,-12
Hz dB)
3. D-
222 -
do- 20Hz- 320 1.
5 I
nstrumental Swit
chablebass
Dy
namic 18000 mV/Pa Mic. cut(
0, -
7,-12
Hz dB)
4. D-
330BT Hyper- 50Hz- 370 1.
2 Fl
ute, Swit
chablebass
Dy
namic Cardi
oid 20000 mV/Pa Harmonica, cut(0, -
15,-25
Hz Acousti
c dB)
Guit
ar
5. CK5 Cardi
oid 20Hz- 100 9.
5 Pi
ano,Guitar
, Boost0,+2, +4
Condenser 20kHz mV/Pa Horns dBat4kHz
6. D-900 Uni- 60Hz- 200 +at 3mV/Pa Di
stantPick- MinloadImp.
Dynamic di
recti
on 12kHz 1000Hz up 500
al
7. Lapel(
E/ Omni 30Hz- 100 +20% 2.
5 Announcer
s Suppl
yInt
/Ext
.
condenser
) 18kHz mV/Paat News
1kHz Reader
s
8. D-109C Omni 120Hz-
12000Hz 220 1.
0mV/ Pa OBCov
erage
Laval
ier
e

7
9. D-
130 Omni 50Hz-
13000Hz 220 + 1.
7mV/
Pa Minloadi
mp.
Dy
namic 20%at 600
1000Hz

Basedont
hiswewi
l
ldi
scusssomeher
e

 DYNAMI
CORMOVI
NGCOI
LMI
CROPHONE
Thisiscommonbr oadcastquali
tymicrophonewhi chi sruggedandcanbecar r
iedt o
outsidebroadcast/recor
dingetc.Itconsist
sofast rongper manentmagnetwhose
poleextensionsform ar adi
alf
iel
dwi thi
nar oundnar rowgap.Amov ingcoili
s
suppor t
edwi t
hinthisgapandadomeshapeddi aphragm usuallyofalumini
um f oil
is
attachedtothecoi l
.
Withsoundpr essur evari
ati
ons,thediaphragm andcoi lmov einthemagnet i
cfield,
therefor
e,emfi si
nducedi nthevoicecoil,whi
chi spropor t
ionalt
othei ncoming
sound.

 RI
BBON/VELOCI
TYMI
CROPHONE
Corrugat
edal umini
um foilofabout0. 1mm thi
ckformsar ibbonwhi chissuspended
wit
hintwoi nsul
atedsuppor ts.Theribboni
splacedwithintheextendedpol esofa
str
onghor seshoemagnet .Ther i
bbonmov esduetothedi f
ferenceinpressure(at
ri
ghtanglestoitssurface)i.
e.from thefr
ontorrearofthemi ke.Thereexistst
he
maximum pr essurediff
erencebet weenthefr
ontandr earofribbonbecauseof
maximum pat hdiff
erence.

 ELECTROSTATI
CORCONDENSERMI
CROPHONE
Thisconsistsofat hi
ckmet alli
cplateinsulatedfrom thebodyofthemicrophoneand
connectedt opolarisingvolt
aget hroughar esist
ance.Anotherthi
nfoili
sfit
tedclose
totheabov eplatef ormingacondenser .
Thesoundpr essurev ari
ati
onsont hef oilchanget hecapaci
tanceduetoincrease
anddecr easeofdi stancebetweenf oi
landt heplate.Withfi
xedDCv ol
tagesacross
thetwo,thequant ityofchargechangesduet othev ari
ati
onofcapacit
y.The
changesi nelectr
ical char
gef ormthesoundsi gnalsandarepickedupt hr
ougha
coupli
ngcapaci tor.

 ELECTRETMI
CROPHONE
Itisamodi f
iedform ofcondensermi crophoneinwhichthepol ari
singv olt
ageisavoided.I
n
factaplasti
cpolymercont aini
ngmet all
icdustkeepsthemet alparticlespermanentl
y
chargedwi t
hintheplast
icinsulat
ionandsuchapol ymerwi t
hinthedi aphragm f
oilorfi
xed
platedel
iverstheel
ectri
cal si
gnalont hepri
ncipl
eofthecondensermi ke.Thehissi
ngnoise
getsavoidedsincethereisnoext ernalpol
ari
singresi
storasal oad.Themi cr
ophonehas
highimpedanceandi sgener al
lyhav i
ngFETpr e-
amplif
ier.Themi cr
ophonecost sveryli
tt
le
butdevelopsexcell
entqualitydesignsinmanyf orms.

I
mpedancemat
chi
ngi
nmi
crophone

8
(
TERMI
NATI
ONI
MPEDANCE)

Themi crophonemusthav eproperimpedanceandabal ancedorunbalancedout put

suit
edt othepre-amplif
ier.Inthebr
oadcastchainthemicrophoneli
nescov erlong
dist
ances, t
heref
ore,thei mpedanceischosenintherangeof50ohmst o60ohmsat
themicrophonet er
minal s.Thecommer ci
almicrophonesinpubli
caddresssy stem
donotr equir
elengthymi kecablesandpreferhi
ghelectr
icalout
putacrosshigh
i
mpedancewhi chisgener all
yabove5kohms.

Moreov er
,br
oadcasti
ngmi crophonesusebalancedoutputwit
hMi kecabl
e
containi
ngtwoli
veconduct orsandeart
hshield.Commercialmicr
ophoneshav e
unbalancedanoutputconnect edt
osingl
ecoreofmi kecablewhichisshi
elded.

Theabov ear r
angementusedi ncommer ci
alpracticeisnotsuit
ableforbroadcasting
set-
upmai nlybecause,thenoisepickuponunbal ancedlinesandhighimpedanceof
ci
rcuitbecomeobj ecti
onableandpr onetolossofhi ghfrequenci
eswhent hecableis
l
ong.Ther efore,
theterminat
ionofbr oadcasttypeofmi crophonewillhav
ebal anced
outputwithimpedancei ntherangeof50, 70,100, 200,300or600ohmst osui t
ably
mat chtheinputimpedanceoft hepre-amplif
ier
.

I
nsomemodernmicr
ophones,
thepre-
ampl
i
fieri
sani
ntegr
alpar
tofmi
crophone
andhi
ghl
evel
out
putisbr
oughtout
.

HDBRSSYSTEM (
har
ddi
skbasedr
ecor
dingsy
stem)

MostoftheAIRstudioshavealr
eadycompletedtheprocessofmi
grati
onfr
om
anal
oguet odi
git
al.Theold‘Taperecordi
ngsyst
em’ hasbeencompl
etel
yrepl
acedby
HardDiscBasedSy st
em, ateachstati
onint
heAIRnet work.
Ahar ddiskrecor
der( HDR)i sasy st
em thatusesahi gh-capacityharddi
sktor ecor
d
digi
talaudioordigital
video.Harddiskrecordingsy st
emsr epr
esentanalternati
veto
reel
-to-
reelaudi
ot aperecordingandv i
deot aperecorders,andpr ovi
deediti
ng
capabil
iti
esunavailabl
et otaperecorders.AudioHDRsy stems,whichcanbe
standaloneorcomput er-based,ty
pical
lyincl
udepr ovi
sionsf ordigi
talmi
xi
ngand
processingoftheaudi osignal.

Onemaj oradv antageofrecordi

ngaudiotoahar ddiskisthati
tal
lowsfornon-
li
near
edi
ti
ng.Audi odatacanbeaccessedr andomlyandthereforecanbeedit
ednon-
dest
ructi
vely,thatis,theor
igi
nalmateri
alisnotchangedinanyway .Non-l
i
near
edi
ti
ngisnoti nher enttoev
eryhard-
diskrecordi
ngsy st
em, howev
er.Di
ffer
ent
manufacturersimpl ementdif
fer
entdegreesofthisfaci
li
ty.

Har
ddi
skr
ecor
der
sar
eof
tencombi
nedwi
thadi
git
almi
xi
ngconsol
eandar
ean

9
i
ntegral
partofadigi
tal
audi
oworkstat
ion(DAW) .I
nthisf
orm,compl
extaskscanbe
automated,
freei
ngtheaudi
oengi
neerfrom per
formingafi
nal
mi xi
nrealt
ime.

Aper sonalcomput ercanbeusedasahar ddiskrecorderwithappropriatesoftware;

nowaday sthissoluti
onisoft
enpr eferred,
asitprovidesamor efl
exibleinter
faceto
thestudioengineer.Manystudio-
gradesy stemspr ovideexternal
har dware,
part
icular
lyfortheanalogtodigit
al conversi
onstages, whi
lelessexpensi vesoftware
syst
emscanuset hesoundcardi ncludedwithanymoder ncomput er.

Themaj orconstrai
ntsonanyhar ddiskrecor
dingsy
stem arethestoragecapacit
y,
transf
err ate,
andpr ocessorspeed.Somesy st
emsuselossyaudiocompr essionto
mi ni
mi zethefir
sttwof actor
s.Thissol
utioni
sbecomingincreasi
nglyrar
e,thanksto
rapidincreasesinharddi skcapaci
ty.

Det
ail
sofsof
t.Used
OS:
win7pr
ofessi
onal
St
udi
o:soundf
orgev
er6.
0
Edi
ti
ng:
soundf
orgev
er6.
0;cr
eat
ivewav
est
udi
o4.
2.6
Pl
ayback:
winmedi
apl
ayer

Soundcar
d
Asoundcar d(alsoknownasanaudi ocard)i
saninter
nalexpansi
oncardthat
prov
idesinputandout putofaudiosignal
stoandfrom acomputerundercont
rolof
computerprograms.Thet erm soundcardisal
soappli
edtoexternal
audioint
erf
aces
usedforprofessional
audioapplicat
ions.

Soundf uncti
onal
it
ycanalsobei nt
egratedont ot hemotherboard,usi
ngcomponent s
simil
artothosefoundonplug-incards.Thei ntegrat
edsoundsy st
em i
sof t
ensti
ll
refer
redtoasasoundcar d.Soundpr ocessinghar dwareisalsopresentonmodern
videocardswithHDMItoout putsoundalongwi ththevideousingthatconnect
or;
previ
ouslytheyusedaS/PDIFconnect i
ont ot hemot her
boardorsoundcar d.

Typi
calusesofsoundcardsorsoundcardfuncti
onal
i
tyi
ncludeprovi
dingtheaudio
componentformulti
mediaappli
cat
ionssuchasmusiccompositi
on,edit
ingv i
deoor
audi
o,present
ati
on,educat
ionandenter
tai
nment(games)andvideoprojecti
on.
Soundcardsarealsousedforcomputer
-basedcommunicat
ionsuchasv oiceoverI
P
andtel
econfer
encing.

Soundcardsuseadi git
al-t
o-analogconverter(DAC),whichconvertsrecordedor
gener
ateddigi
talsi
gnal dataintoananalogf ormat.Theoutputsignal i
sconnect ed
toanamplif
ier
,headphones, orext
ernaldeviceusingstandar
dinterconnects,such
asaTRSphoneconnect or.Ifthenumberandsi zeofconnect
orsist oolar
gef ort he
spaceonthebackplate,theconnect or
swi l
lbeof f-
boar
d, t
ypi
cal
lyusi ngabr eakout

10
box,anauxi
li
arybackplat
e,orapanelmountedatthefront.Somecar
dsincl
udea
soundchiptosupportproduct
ionofsynt
hesizedsounds,usual
lyf
orr
eal-
ti
me
generat
ionofmusicandsoundef f
ectsusingminimaldataandCPUtime.

Acommonext ernal connectoristhemi crophoneconnect or

,forsignalsfrom a
microphoneorot herl ow-l
evelinputdev i
ce.I nputt
hroughami crophonej ackcanbe
used,forexample, byspeechr ecogniti
onorv oi
ceov erIPapplicati
ons.Mostsound
cardshav eali
nei nconnect orforananal ogi nputfrom acasset tetapeorot her
soundsour cethathashi gherv ol
tagelev elsthanami crophone.Ineithercase,t
he
soundcar dusesananal og-t
o-digi
talconv ertertodigiti
zethissignal.Thecardmay
usedirectmemor yaccesst otransferthesampl estot hemai nmemor y,f
rom wher
e
arecordingsoftwar emaywr i
teittothehar ddiskforst or
age,editi
ng, orf
urther
processing.Overher eweusesoundcar dPCM 2902.

PCMCI
ACar
ds
APCMCI Acar
disacredi
tcar
d-si
zememor yorI/
Odevicethatconnectstoa
per
sonalcomput
er,
usual
lyanotebookorlaptopcomputer
.Probablythemost
commonexampleofaPCMCI Acardisthe28.8Kbpsmodem f ornotebook
computer
s.

ThePersonal
Comput erMemor yCardInt
ernati
onalAssociati
onwasor ganizedin
1989topromotestandardsforbot
hmemor yandI/
Oi nt
egr at
edcir
cuitcards.The
PCMCIA2.1Standardwaspubl i
shedin1993.Asar esul
t,PCuserscanbeassur ed
ofst
andardatt
achment sforanyper
ipher
aldevicet
hatfoll
owst hestandard.

APCMCIAcardhasa68-pi
nconnect
orthatconnect
sint
oasl
oti
nthePC.Ther
ear
e
t
hreesi
zes(
or"Types"
)ofPCMCIAcards:

Thi
ckness
Ty
pe Typicaluse
(
mm)
I 3.3 Memor y
Modems, LANs.SCSI
,
I
I 5.0
sound
I
II 10.5 ATAharddr i
ve

TheTypeIandIIcar
dsworki
naTy peI
IIsl
otandaTypeIcar
dwi l
lwor
kinaTypeII
sl
ot.(
Ontheotherhand,
thet
hickercar
dscan'tbef
it
tedi
ntothesl
otsf
orthet
hinner
car
ds.)

ThePCMCI Astandardismostcommonlyappl
iedtoport
abl
ePCsbutitcanalsobe
usedondesktopcomput er
s.ThePCMCIAcardisnottobeconf
usedwithanother
credi
t-
sizeel
ect
roniccard,
thesmartcar
d.

SoundFor
geSt
udi
o
11
SoundFor ge(for
mer l
yknownasSoni cFoundrySoundFor geandl aterasSony
SoundFor geisadigit
al audi
oediti
ngsui
tebyMagi xSoftwareGmbHwhi chi
saimed
attheprofessi
onalandsemi -pr
ofessi
onalmarket
s.Therearetwov ersionsofSound
Forge:
SoundFor gePr o12r el
easedinApri
l2018andSoundFor geAudi oStudi
o13
(f
ormerlyknownasSoni cFoundry'
sSoundForgeLE)releasedinJanuar y2019Both
arewellknowndi gi
talaudioedi
torandoff
errecor
ding,audioediti
ng, audio
masteri
ngandpr ocessingaudio.

In2003,Soni
cFoundry,t
heformerparentcompanyofSoundFor ge, f
acedl osses
andtoughcompetit
ionfr
om muchl ar
gercompanies;and,asaresult,agreedt osel
l
i
tsdesktopaudioandmusicproducti
onproductf
amilytoSonyPi ctur
esDi gitalf
or
$18mi l
li
on.
Thesoftwar
eini
tial
lyhadWindows3.xsupport,butafterversi
on3. 0all
supportf
or16-bi
tWindowswasdr opped.Addi
ti
onall
y,Windows95suppor twas
droppedaft
erSoundForge5.0.

OnMay20, 2016Sonyannouncedt hattheywoul

dbeselli
ngthebul
kofthei
rcreat
ive
sof
twaresuit
e,i
ncludi
ngSoundFor gePr o,
toMagixGmbH&Co.Magi xannounced
vi
afacebookthatt
heirfi
rstnewv er
sionofSoundForgeAudi
oStudi
o(SoundForge
Audi
oSt udi
o12)issettober el
easedinAugof2017.

Wav
ePr
opagat
ion
Elect
romagnet ic Wav es ar
e gener
ated bythe radi
ated powerf r
om the curr
ent
carry
ing conductor.Inconduct or
s,apar toft hegenerated powerescapesand
propagat
esi ntof r
eespacei ntheform ofEl
ectr
omagneticwav e,whichhasatime-
varyi
ngel ectr
icalfi
eld,magneticfi
eld,anddir
ecti
onofpr opagati
onor t
hogonalto
eachother .

Radiat
edfr
om anisotropi
ctr
ansmitt
er,
thesewavetr
avel
sthroughdi
ff
erentpathst
o
reachtherecei
ver
.Thepat htakenbythewav etotr
avelf
rom thetr
ansmitt
erand
reachther
eceiv
erisknownasWav ePropagat
ion.

12
Ty
pesofWav
ePr
opagat
ion

The el ect
romagnetic wav es orradio waves propagati
on,passing t
hrough t
he
envi
r onmentoft heear t
hdependnotonl yont heproperti
esofthemselv
esbutalso
ont hepr opert
iesoft heenv i
ronment.Ther
ear ediff
erentpathsofpropagati
onby
whicht hetransmitt
edwav escanreachthereceiv
er.Al
lthesemodesdependont he
fr
equencyofoper at
ion,thedist
ancebetweentransmit
terandrecei
veret
c…

Wav
e
Pr
opagat
ion

 The wav es thatpropagate neart he earth’s sur face are call

ed GROUND
WAVES.Thi st y
peofpr opagation ispossi blewhen t het ransmit
t i
ng and
receivi
ngant ennabothareclosedt ot heear t
h’ ssurface.
 Thegr oundwav eswhicht r
avelwi t
houtanyr ef l
ectionar ecall
edDi r
ectwav es
orSpacewav es.
 Thegr oundwav eswhichpr opagat et ot her eceivingantennat hrought he
refl
ectionf rom theearth’ssur f
acear ecal ledGr oundRef lectedwav esor
Surfacewav es.
 Thewav eswhi chreachthereceiv i
ngant ennaduet oscat t
eri
ngandr efl
ecti
on
bythei onizati
onintheupperat mospher ear ecal ledSky waves.
 The wav es which arer efl
ected orscat tered i nt he t
roposphere before
reachingant ennaarecal
ledt r
opospher ewav es.

 Gr
oundWav
eorSur
faceWav
ePr
opagat
ion

Agroundwav etr
av el
salongt hesurfaceoft heear
th.Thesewavesarever
ti
call
y
pol
ari
zed.So,vert
icalant
ennasareusef ulforthesewaves.I
fahori
zont
all
ypol
ari
zed
waveispr opagat
edasagr oundwav e,duet otheconducti
vi
tyoftheeart
h,the
el
ectr
icfi
eldofthewav egetsshort
-ci
rcuited.

13
Asthegroundwav etravelsawayf r
om thet r
ansmit
ti
ngant ennaitgetsattenuated.
Tomi ni
mizet hi
slosst het r
ansmissi
onpat hmustbeov ert hegroundwi thhigh
conduct
ivi
ty.Withr
especttot hi
scondit
ion,seawatershouldbet hebestconduct or
butitwasobservedthatlargestor
ageofwat erinponds,sandyorr ockysoilshows
maximum losses.

 SkyWav
ePr
opagat
ion

Everylongradi
ocommuni cat
ionofmedium andhi ghfrequenci
esareconducted
usingskywavepropagati
on.Inthismoder ef
lect
ionofEM wav esfr
om thei
onized
regioni
ntheupperpar toftheatmospher
eoft heeart
hisusedf ort
ransmi
ssi
onof
wav estol
ongerdi
stances.

Thi
spartoft
heatmospher
eiscal
l
edi
onospher
ewhichisatabout70-
400km hei
ght.
I
onospher
erefl
ect
sbacktheEM wavesi
fthefr
equencyisbetween2to30MHz’ s.
Hence,
thi
smodeofpropagat
ioni
sal
socal
ledasShortwavepr
opagati
on.

 SpaceWav
ePr
opagat
ion

Whenwearedeali
ngwithEM wav
esoffr
equencybet
ween30MHzt o300MHz,
then
spacewav
epr opagat
ionisusef
ul.Her
epropert
iesofTr
opospherear
eusedfor
tr
ansmi
ssi
on.

Whenoper atinginspacewav epropagat

ionmode,t hewav er
eachesthereceiv
ing
antennadirectl
yfrom t
het r
ansmit
terorafterref
lect
ionfr
om tr
opospher
ewhi chis
presentatabout16km abovetheeart
hsurface.Hencespacewavemodeconsistsof
twocomponent s.i
.e.di
rectwaveandindi
rectwave.

Ampl
i
tudeModul
ati
on
I
ftheampli
tudeoft hecarr
ieri
svari
edi
naccordancewiththeampl i
tudeofthe
modul
ati
ngsignal
,itiscal
l
edampli
tudemodul
ati
on.Thismodulati
oni sshownin
fi
gure1.Wecanseet hi
sonthe
screenofosci
l
loscope.

Thet r
ansmi ssionofawav e
signalbymodul ati
ngthe
ampl i
tudeoft hesignalis 
Ampl i
tudeModul ati
on.What
thismeanst hatweonl y
modul atethatisincreasingor
decreasingtheampl i
tudeofthe
wav etobet ransmi t
tedasa
signalsoast onotaf fectit
s

14
cont
entbutst
rengt
hent
hesi
gnal
andsendi
tov
erl
ongdi
stances.

Atthesour
ce,
thesignali
smodulat
edandsentandatther
ecei
ver
,iti
srecei
ved,
demodulat
edandfi
lter
edtoremoveanyobst
ruct
iont
hatmayhaveoccurr
edduri
ng
tr
ansmissi
ontopr
ov i
dethecont
ent.

Wedoampl i
tudemodulat
ionofasi
gnalwavebysuper
imposingi
twithacar
ri
er
gener
atedsi
gnalandthi
scausesachangei
nitsampli
tude.I
tist
hismodi
fi
edsignal
andissentv
iaatransmi
ssion.

Onr ecei
vi
ngthesignalbytherecei
vert
hesignal
isdemodul
atedbyremovingthe
carri
ersi
gnalandtheorigi
naldatai
sseenagainatther
ecei
verend.Thi
ssystem i
s
verysimpleandstr
aightf
orward.I
nfact
,thi
swast hemai
nmet hodusedi
niniti
al
radi
oapplicat
ions.

Medi
um wav
e
Medi um wav e(MW)i sthepartofthemedium fr
equency(MF)r adiobandusedmai nlyf
or
AM r adiobroadcast
ing.ForEuropetheMW bandr angesfrom 526.5 kHzto1606.5 kHz,
usingchannel sspacedev er
y9 kHz,andi
nNor t
hAmer icaanext endedMW br oadcastband
rangesf rom 525 
kHzt o1705 kHz,usi
ng10 kHzspacedchannel s.Thetermisahi stori
cone,
datingf r
om theearl
y20t hcentur
y,whentheradiospectr
um wasdi videdonthebasi softhe
wav elengthofthewav esint
olongwav e(
LW) ,medium wav e,
andshor twave(SW)r adio
bands.

medium waveormediumwav e(
MW)i sapar
toftheMedium f
requency(
MF)r adi
oband
usedforAM br
oadcasti
ng.Thebandi
ssometimesref
err
edtoast heAM band,event
hough
i
tisnottheonl
yfr
equencyrangetouseampli
tudemodul
ati
on.

Medium-waveradi
oisgeneral
l
yusedf orlocalbr
oadcast
sandisperfectf
orrural
communiti
es.Withamedium transmissionrange,i
tcanreachi
solat
edareaswi t
hastr
ong,
rel
i
ablesi
gnal.Medi
um-wavetransmi ssi
onscanbebr oadcastt
hroughestabl
ishedr
adi
o
networ
ks-wherethesenetworksexist. 

Innor thernIndia,l
ocalcult
uralbel
iefsleav ewomenmar gi
nali
sedandmanyar econf i
nedto
theirhomes.Towomeni nthisposit
ion, t
ransmissionsf
rom FebaNor t
hI ndia(usingan
establ i
shedr adionetwork)areacrucial l
inkwit
ht heoutsi
dewor l
d.I
tsv alues-
based
progr ammi ngpr ovi
deseducat i
on,healthcareguidanceandinputonwomen’ srights,
prompt i
ngconv ersati
onsaroundspi r
itualit
ywit
hwomenwhocont actthest at
ion.Inthi
s
cont ext,r
adioisbr i
ngingamessageofhopeandempower menttowomenl i
steningathome.

Shor
twav
e
Shor
twav
eradi
oisr
adi
otr
ansmi
ssi
onusi
ngshor
twav
eradi
ofr
equenci
es.Ther
eis

15
nooffi
cial
defi
nit
ionoftheband,buttherangealwaysincl
udesal
loft
hehi
gh
fr
equencyband(HF),andgeneral
lyextendsfrom 30–3MHz( 10t
o100metres)
;
abovethemedium fr
equencyband( MF),totheendoftheHFband.

Radi owav esi ntheshor twav ebandcanber eflectedorr ef r

actedf r
om al ay erof
elect r
ical
lychar gedatomsi ntheat mospher ecal ledt heionospher e.Ther efore, short
wav esdirect edatanangl eintotheskycanber eflectedbackt oEar thatgr eat
distances, beyondt hehor izon.Thisiscal l
edsky wav eor" ski
p"pr opagation.Thus
shor twaver adiocanbeusedf orv erylongdi stancecommuni cati
on, incont rastt o
radiowav esofhi gherfrequencywhi cht r
av elinst raightli
nes( l
ine-of-si
ght
propagat ion)andar elimi t
edbyt hev i
sual horizon, about64km ( 40mi l
es) .
Shor t
waver adioisusedf orbroadcast ingofv oi ceandmusi ctoshor twav elistener s
ov erv er
yl argear eas;somet i
mesent i
recont i
nent sorbey ond.Itisalsousedf or
mi li
taryov er-the-hori
zonr adar,diplomat i
ccommuni cat
ion,andt wo-wayi nter nat i
onal
communi cat i
onbyamat eurradioent husiastsf orhobby ,educational andemer gency
pur poses, aswel lasforlongdi stanceav iationandmar inecommuni cati
ons.

Shortwaver adi
ohasahuger ange–itcanberecei
vedthousandsofmi l
esfrom t
he
tr
ansmi t
ter,andtransmissionscancrossoceansandmount ainranges.Thismakes
i
tidealforreachingnat i
onswi t
houtaradi
onetworkorwher eChrist
ianbroadcast
ing
i
spr ohi
bited.Putsimpl y
,shortwaveradi
oovercomesboundaries,whether
geographicalorpolit
ical
.SW t r
ansmi
ssionsareeasyt
or ecei
ve,too:evencheap,
si
mpl eradiosareablet opickupasignal.

Thest r
engt hsofshort
wav eradi
omakei twellsuit
edforFeba'
skeyfocusar eaofthe
PersecutedChur ch. 
Forexampl e,i
nareasofNor thEastAfri
cawhererel
igious
broadcast i
ngisbannedinsidethecountry,ourlocalpar
tner
scancreate 
audi o
content,senditoutofthecountr yandhaveitbeamedbacki nviaaSW transmi ssi
on
withoutriskofprosecut
ion. 

Yemeni scurrentl
yexper i
encingasev er
eandv iolentcrisi
swi t
ht heconfl
ictcausing
amassiv ehumani tar
ianemer gency . 
Aswel laspr ovi
dingspi r
it
ualencouragement ,
ourpart
ner sbroadcastmat erial
addr essi
ngcurr entsocial,
healthandwel lbei
ng
i
ssuesfrom aChr isti
anper specti
ve. Inacountrywher eChr isti
ansmakeupj ust
0.
08%oft hepopulati
onandexper iencepersecut i
onbecauseoft hei
rfai
th, Real
i
ty
Churchisaweekl y30mi nuteshortwav eradi
of eaturethatsuppor t
sYemeni
bel
iever
si nlocaldial
ect. Li
stenerscanaccesssuppor tiveradiobroadcastsin
pri
vateandanony mousl y. 

Apower f
ulwaytoreachmargi
nali
sedcommunit
iesacrossbor
der
s,short
waveis
highlyeff
ecti
veatreachi
ngaremoteaudi
encewitht
heGospeland,i
nareaswhere
Christi
ansarepersecut
ed,l
eavesl
ist
ener
sandbroadcaster
sfr
eefr
om fearof
repri
sal.
 

Fr
equencyModul
ati
on
I
ntel
ecommuni
cat
ionsandsi
gnal
processi
ng,
frequencymodul
ati
on(
FM)i
sthe

16
encodi
ngofi
nfor
mat
ioni
nacar
ri
erwav
ebyv
ary
ingt
hei
nst
ant
aneousf
requencyof
thewave.

I
nanalogf r
equencymodulati
on,
suchasFM r adi
obroadcast
ingofanaudiosignal
repr
esenti
ngv oi
ceormusic,t
heinstant
aneousfr
equencydeviat
ion,
thedi
ffer
ence
betweenthefrequencyoft
hecarri
erandit
scenterf
requency,i
spropor
ti
onaltothe
modulati
ngsignal.

Digi
taldatacanbeencodedandt r
ansmitt
edv i
aFM byshifti
ngt hecarr
ier's
fr
equencyamongapr edefi
nedsetoffr
equenci
esr epr
esenti
ngdi gi
ts–f orexample
onef r
equencycanr epresentabi
nary1andasecondcanr epresentbi
nar y0.This
modul at
iontechni
quei sknownasf r
equency-
shif
tkeying(FSK).FSKiswi delyused
i
nmodemssuchasf axmodems, andcanalsobeusedt osendMor secode.
Radiotel
etypealsousesFSK.

Frequencymodul at
ioniswi
delyusedf orFM radiobroadcasti
ng.Itisalsousedin
telemetry
, r
adar ,seismi
cprospecti
ng,andmoni t
oringnewbornsf orseizur
esv i
aEEG
two-wayr adi
osy stems,musicsynthesis,magnetictape-r
ecordi
ngsy stemsand
somev i
deo-transmi ssi
onsystems.Inradiotransmission,anadvantageoff r
equency
modul at
ionist hatithasalargersi
gnal-to-
noiseratioandtheref
orer ej
ectsradi
o
frequencyinterferencebett
erthananequal powerampl i
tudemodul ati
on(AM)si gnal
.
Forthisreason, mostmusi cisbroadcastov erFM radio.

Frequencymodulati
onandphasemodul ati
onarethetwocompl ementarypri
ncipal
met hodsofangl
emodul ati
on;
phasemodul at
ioni
softenusedasani ntermediate
steptoachievef
requencymodulat
ion.Thesemethodscontrastwit
hampl it
ude
modul at
ion,i
nwhichtheampli
tudeofthecarr
ierwavevar
ies,whil
ethef r
equency
andphaser emai
nconst ant
.

Foracommuni ty-
basedr adiostati
on,FM isking!RadioUmoj aFM intheDRC
recentl
ylaunched,aimingt ogivethecommuni t
yav oice. FM provi
desashor t-
range
signal-general
l
yt oany wherewi t
hinsightofthetransmi t
ter,wit
hexcell
entsound
quali
ty.Itcanty
picall
ycov ertheareaofasmal lci
tyorlarget own-maki ngitperf
ect
foraradiostati
onf ocusingonal imit
edgeogr aphicalarea speaki
ngintolocali
ssues.
Whi l
eshor t
waveandmedi um- wavestationscanbeexpensi vetooperate,ali
cense
foracommuni t
y-basedFM st ati
onismuchcheaper . 

17
Radi
oAnt
ennaSy
stem

Radiowav estr
avelfr
om atransmittert
oar ecei
vingant
ennabydiff
erentmodesof
propagat
ion.Thesearemai nl
ygroundwav es,skywavesandspacewav es.Medium wav
e
si
gnalstr
av el
throughgroundwav es.Shor
twav esignal
str
avelt
hroughskywav esandFM
si
gnalstr
av el
throughspacewav es.

Launchi ngofmodul atedelectr

icalsignali
ntot
hespaceisdonebyt heantenna.Thepurpose
ofant ennaistoconv ertthecarri
ersignali
ntoanelect
ro-
magneticwave.Thismeanst heEM
wav ehasgotoneel ect ri
candonemagnet i
ccomponent,
orfi
elds.Theorientat
ionofel
ectr
ic
fi
eldiscal l
edpolari
zation.Ifel
ectri
cf i
eldi
shori
zontal
,wecal
lithori
zontall
ypolari
zedandif
i
tisv erti
cal,i
tiscal
ledv ert
ical
l
ypol ari
zed.AnEM wavecanbe

-Hori
zontall
ypolarized
-Vert
icall
ypolari
zed
-Ci
rcularl
ypolari
zed
-El
li
ptical
lypolar
ized

Pol
ari
zati
onofthewav eisdependi
ngont hetypeofantennaanditsor
ient
ati
on.Hori
zont
all
y
pol
ari
zedwav eisusedforSW &TVt r
ansmissi
on.Verti
call
ypolar
izedwaveisemployedf
or
MW andcircul
arl
ypolar
izedforFM t
ransmissi
on.

MEDI
UM WAVEANTENNA
Whent heel
ect
romagneticwavesi
nthemedi
um wave(MW)rangear
edi
rectedtowardst
he
I
onosphere,
theyareabsorbedbyt
heD-r
egi
onduri
ngthedayti
meandar
er efl
ectedf
rom t
he
EInducti
onCourse(Sound)
156

18
l
ay erduringthenightt i
me, whichmayt r
av el
longerdi
stancest ocausei nterfer
ences.The
wav elengthofMW si gnal
sar ev eryl
arge,oftheorderoff ewhundr edmet res,andtheref
ore
theant ennacannotbemount edaf ewwav el
engthsabov etheeart
ht oradiateasspace
wav es.MW ant enna, t
herefore,shouldexistclosetot
hesur faceoft heear thsothatRadio
wav esf r
om them travelclosetot heearthasgr oundwav es.I
ftheel ect
ricv ect
orofsuch
MW r adiati
onishorizontal,theywi l
lbeattenuatedver
yf astwithdistanceduet othe
proximityoftheeart h.

MW ant enna,t
herefor e,shouldexistclosetothesur faceoft heearthsot hatRadiowav es
from them travelcloset otheear t
hasgr oundwav es.Iftheelectri
cv ectorofsuchMW
radiati
oni shori
zont al,t
heywi llbeattenuatedveryfastwi t
hdi stanceduet othepr oximityof
theear t
h.MW ant ennaeshoul dbepl acedv ert
icall
y,sothatt heyradiateverti
call
ypolar i
sed
signals.MW t r
ansmi ssi
onempl oysgroundwav epropagation.Itisforthisreason;alltheMW
antennaear einstalledv ert
ical
lycloset otheground.Howev er,vert
icalwireantenna,invert
ed
'
L' t
ypeant enna,topl oadedant ennaandumbr ellaantennaar einoper ati
onataf ewAl lI
ndia
Radi ostati
ons.Direct i
onal ant
ennasy st
emsal soex i
stinmanyAl lIndiaRadiostations.

TOPLOADEDANTENNA
Iti
spossi bl
etosi
mulatehi
gherel ect
ri
call
engthoftheMW ant ennaforanyphysi
cal
ly
smallerMW antennabytoploading.Alar
gecapacitancedisc(
insulat
edfrom t
hemast,and
seri
esr esonat
edbyaninductanceconnectedacrosstheinsul
atoratthetopofshor
tmast)
eff
ectivelyi
ncr
easestheel
ectri
cal l
engt
hofthemast .

Anotheralt
ernat
iveistouseanumberofwiresint
hefor
m ofumbrell
aemanati
ngfrom the
topoftheradiat
orandsecuredvi
ainsul
atedropet
othegroundasshowninfi
g.5.Thisis
part
icul
arl
yv al
uablefort
hinmast
s.Onesuchumbr el
l
aantennai
sinstal
l
edinNagarcoil
;and
someot herstat
ionsofAIR.

'
T'AND' L' ANTENNA
'
T'and'L' antennaf indappl icat i
oni nbr oadcasting.AIRhasusedsucht ypesofMW ant ennae
i
nt henet wor k.Thismayper hapsbev eryhandyt origuponef oremer gencyar r
angement s.
Theantennai ssecur edont wohi gh( 100t o250m)mast s(woodormet al),spaced100-250
m apart.Asshowni nFi g.6&7.
Theantennaconsi stsoft wot osixteenwi r
esspaced1t o1.5m apar t.Thecopperwi r
esar e
usuall
y5t o8mm i ndi amet er .Thesuppor ti
ngt owersmaybesecur edbysev er
alti
ersof
guysinwhi chi nsul
atorsar ei nserted.Theant ennadownl eadsdirectl
yconnect stheradio
tr
ansmi tt
er .Ther emaynotbeanyneedf orfeederli
nesifsuit
ablystruct ured.
Thedisadv antagesar e:
 Ne edf ortwoormor emast s
 Di stortionofradi at
ionpat terncausedbyt heinfl
uenceofsuppor tingcables.
 Thev oltageatt hebaseandatt heendofwi r
eantennaisv eryhi ghcompar edtothe
mastant enna,
SHORTWAVEANTENNA
Theshortwav es(3to30MHz)getat t
enuatedv er
yrapi
dlywit
hdistanceiftheytravelcl
ose
totheearth.Ontheotherhandiftheyaredirect
edtowardstheionosphere,theycouldbe
refl
ect
edundercer t
aincondit
ionsbacktotheear t
h.Shortwaves,t
herefore,useskywav ef
or
propagat
ion.TheSW antennaar eusual
lyformedbywi r
esandt heyaresuspended

19
horizontallybetweent wospacedt ower swhi chhel ptokeept heSW ant ennai nposi ti
onev en
againstt hewi ndpr essures,
Themostel ement aryoft hem usedinbr oadcast ingi sthedi pol ewhosephy sicallengthis
halfitswav el
engthandi scentrefed.I
tsi mpedancei sabout73ohmsati tscent re.The
dipole,ifkeptinf r
eespacef arawayf rom t hesur faceoft heear th, t
hedi r
ect ionalpatter
ni s
descr i
bedbyaf igur eofeight.Theradiationpat t
er ninthreedi mensi onal spacei sthef i
gur e
ofeightr otati
onabouti tscentre(aboutthel engthoft hedi pol e).Ther adiationpat ter
nf or
thedi poleismodi fiedf r
om thef r
eespacecondi tionsdependi ngoni tshei ghtabov ethe
earth.Itmaybeseent hatthereisnoradi ational ongt heplaneper pendi culart othedipol e
andpassi ngthroughi tscentreasshowni nf igur
e- 9.Radiationangl e“ α”isdependi ngont he
heightofdi poleabov egroundwhi chintur nwi l
lalsodet ermi necov eragedi stance.Radiation
angle“ α”issomet imesal socall
edf i
ri
ngangl e.

FM ANTENNA
FM broadcastingtakesplaceinVHFBand- II(
87.5to108MHz) .Inthi
sband, theradi
osignal
prorogatesintheli
ne-of
-sightasspacewav e.Spacewav epropagat i
onisessentiali
nVHF
bandsbecausesi gnalfr
equenciesgetattenuatedrapi
dlywit
hdi stance,i
ftheytravelcl
oseto
theearth,ontheotherhand, t
heionosphereisnotabletoreflectanyenergybackt othe
earthinVHFr ange.
Thecov erageareaofFM Tr ansmit
terdependsonmanyf actors.Buttherearetwomai n
factor
swhi chinfl
uencethecov er
agemost .Theyaretheeffectiveradiat
edpowerandt he
heightofantenna

Radi
orecei
versy
stem
Inr adiocommuni cat i
ons,aradiorecei ver
, al
soknownasar ecei
ver,
wirelessor
simpl yradi oisanel ectr
onicdev i
cet hatreceivesradiowav esandconv ertsthe
i
nf ormat i
oncar ri
edbyt hem toausabl eform.Itisusedwi thanantenna.The
ant ennai nterceptsr adiowav es(elect r
omagnet i
cwav es)andconvert
st hem totiny
alternati
ngcur rentswhi chareappl iedt othereceiver,andtherecei
verextractsthe
desi r
edi nformat ion.Ther eceiverusesel ectr
onicfilt
erstoseparatethedesi r
edr adi
o
frequencysi gnal from allt
heot hersi gnal
spickedupbyt heantenna,anel ectr
onic
ampl ifi
ert oincreaset hepoweroft hesignalforfurtherprocessi
ng,andf i
nally
recov erst hedesi redinformationthr oughdemodul at i
on.

Thei nfor
mat ionproducedbyt her eceivermaybei nthef or
m ofsound, mov i
ng
i
mages( televi
sion),ordat a.Ar adior ecei
vermaybeasepar at
epi eceofel ectronic
equipment ,oranel ectroniccircuitwi thi
nanot herdevice.Radi
or eceiversarev ery
widelyusedi nmoder nt echnology ,ascomponent sofcommuni cations,broadcasting,
remot econt r
ol,andwi relessnet wor kingsystems.Inconsumerel ectronics,t
he
termsr adioandr adiorecei verareof tenusedspeci fi
callyforr
ecei v
ersdesi gnedt o
reproducesoundt ransmi ttedbyr adiobr oadcastingstati
ons,hi
st ori
call
yt hefirst
mass- mar ketcommer cialradioappl icati
on.

C-
BAND

20
C-band(Compr i
se)isapor
ti
onoft
hemicrowav
ebandr
angi
ngfr
om 4-8GHz,
anda
wav el
engthofaround5cm.TheC-
bandiscommonl
yusedf
orsat
ell
i
te
communi cat
ions.

Thebandsav ail
ableforsatel
l
itecommuni cati
onsare3.4-4.2GHz( space-to-Ear
th)
and5. 925-6.725GHz( Ear
th-t
o-space).Morespecifi
call
y,thebands3. 7-
4.2GHz
(space-to-Earth)and5.925-6.
425GHz( Ear
th-t
o-space)areusuallyref
erredt oas
"Standard"C- bandandt hebands3. 4-
3.7GHz( space-t
o-Earth)and6.425-6.725GHz
(Earth-
to-space)ar eusuall
yreferr
edtoas" Ext
ended"C- band.

Thebandisfur
therusedf
orr
adar
,incl
udi
ngweat
herr
adar
,andRadi
oLANi
nthe5
GHzrange.

Thedownl
i
nkandupl
i
nkher
ear
e:3.
7-4.
2Ghzand5.
9-6.
4Ghzr
espect
ivel
y.

Cr
yst
alRadi
oRecei
ver
Acr y
stalr
adioreceiv
er ,
alsocal
l
edacr yst
alset
,isasimpler adioreceiv
er,
populari
n
theearl
yday sofradi
o.Itusesonlythepowerofthereceivedradiosignalt
oproduce
sound,needingnoext er
nalpower.I
tisnamedforit
smosti mpor t
antcomponent,a
cryst
aldetector
,ori
ginall
ymadefrom apieceofcry
stall
inemi neralsuchasgal
ena
Thiscomponenti snowcal l
edadiode.

Crystalradiosarethesimplesttypeofr adi
or ecei
verandcanbemadewi thafew
i
nexpensi veparts,suchasawi reforanant enna,acoilofwire,acapaci
tor
,acrystal
detector,andearphones.Howev er,theyarepassivereceiv
ers,whil
eotherradi
osuse
anampl ifi
erpower edbycurrentfrom abat t
eryorwal l
outl
ett omaketheradiosi
gnal
l
ouder .Thus, cr
ystalset
sproducer atherweaksoundandmustbel i
stenedtowith
sensiti
veear phones,andcanonl yreceivestati
onswithinali
mi t
edrange.

Ther ecti
fyi
ngpr opertyofacont actbet weenami neralandamet alwasdi scovered
i
n1874byKar lFerdinandBraun.Cr ystalswer ef i
rstusedasadet ectorofr adi
o
wav esin1894byJagadi shChandr aBose, inhi smi cr
owav eopti
csexper i
ment s.
Theywer efirstusedasademodul atorforr adiocommuni cati
onreceptionin1902by
G.W.Pi ckard.Cr y
stalradi
oswer et hef i
rstwi delyusedt ypeofr adi
or ecei
ver,andthe
maint ypeuseddur i
ngthewirelesst el
egr aphyer a.Soldandhomemadebyt he
mil
lions,theinexpensiveandr el
iablecr ystalradiowasamaj ordriv
ingf or
cei nthe
i
ntroductionofr adiotothepublic,cont r
ibutingt othedev elopmentofr adi
oasan
ent
er tai
nmentmedi um withthebegi nningofr adiobroadcast i
ngaround1920.

Around1920, cryst
alsetsweresupersededbyt hefir
stamplif
yingrecei
vers,which
usedv acuum t ubes.Theybecameobsol eteforcommer ci
alusebutcontinuedtobe
buil
tbyhobby i
sts,youthgr
oups, andtheBoyScout smainl
yasawayofl earning
aboutthet echnologyofradio.Theyarestil
lsoldaseducati
onal devi
ces,
andt here
aregroupsofent husi
astsdevotedtotheirconstr
ucti
on.

Cryst
alr
adiosr
ecei
veampli
tudemodulat
ed( AM)si
gnals,andcanbedesignedto
recei
veal
mostanyradi
ofr
equencyband,butmostrecei
vet heAM br
oadcastband.A

21
f
ewr ecei
veshortwavebands,
butstrongsignalsar
erequir
ed.Thefi
rstcry
stal
set
s
r
eceivedwir
elesstel
egr
aphysignal
sbr oadcastbyspar
k-gaptr
ansmitt
ersat
f
requenci
esasl owas20 kHz.

Regener
ati
veCi
rcui
t
Ar egenerati
vecircuiti
sanampl i
fi
ercircui
tthatemploysposi ti
vefeedback( al
so
knownasr egenerationorreacti
on).Someoft heoutputoftheampl i
fyi
ngdev i
cei s
appliedbackt oi
tsi nputsoast oaddtot heinputsignal
,increasingtheampl if
icati
on.
Oneexampl eistheSchmi tttr
igger(whichisalsoknownasar egenerati
ve
compar ator)
,butthemostcommonuseoft hetermisinRFampl i
fi
ers,and
especiall
yregener ati
verecei
vers,t
ogr eatl
yincreasethegainofasi ngl
eampl ifi
er
stage.

Ther egenerativereceiverwasi nventedin1912andpat ent

edin1914byAmer i
can
electricalengineerEdwi nAr mst r
ongwhenhewasanunder graduat eatColumbi a
Univ ersit
y.Itwaswi del
yusedbet ween1915andWor l
dWarI I.Adv antagesof
regener ati
ver eceiversincl
udei ncreasedsensi t
ivi
tywi t
hmodesthar dwar e
requi rements, andincreasedsel ecti
vitybecauset heQoft hetunedci rcuitwil
lbe
i
ncr easedwhent heampl i
fyi
ngv acuum t ubeortransistorhasit
sf eedbackl oop
aroundt hetunedci rcuit(vi
aa" ti
ckler"windingorat appingont hecoil)becausei t
i
nt r
oducessomenegat i
veresistance.

Duepar tl
ytoi tstendencyt oradi
ateinterferencewhenosci l
l
at i
ng,bythe1930sthe
regenerati
ver eceiv erwasl ar
gelysuper sededbyot herTRFreceiverdesigns(f
or
example" r
ef l
ex"r eceivers)andespeci all
ybyanot herArmstronginventi
on-
superheterody ner eceiversandislargelyconsideredobsolete.Regenerati
on(now
call
edposi ti
vef eedback)i sstil
lwidelyusedi notherareasofelectroni
cs,suchasin
oscil
lat
ors, activ
ef i
lt
ers,andbootstrappedampl i
fier
s.

Ar eceivercircuitthatusedl ar
geramount sofr egenerati
oninamor ecompl icated
wayt oachi ev eevenhi gherampl if
icati
on,thesuperr egenerati
vereceiver,wasal so
i
nv entedbyAr mst rongin1922.I twasnev erwi delyusedingener alcommer ci al
receivers,butduet oit
ssmal l
par t
scounti twasusedi nspecial
izedappl i
cations.
Onewi despreadusedur ingWWI IwasI FFtransceivers,
wher esingletunedci rcui
t
compl etedt heent ir
eelectronicssy st
em.Itisst i
llusedinaf ewspecializedlowdat a
rateappl i
cations,suchasgar agedooropener s,wirel
essnet workingdev i
ces,wal ki
e-
tal
kiesandt oy s.

Super
het
erody
neRecei
ver
Asuperhet
erodyner
ecei
ver
,oft
enshort
enedtosuper
het,i
satypeofradi
or ecei
ver
t
hatusesfr
equencymixi
ngtoconv
ertarecei
vedsi
gnalt
oaf i
xedint
ermediate

22
f
requency(IF)whi
chcanbemoreconvenient
lyprocessedt
hantheori
ginalcar
ri
er
f
requency.Itwasi
nvent
edbyUSengineerEdwinAr mstr
ongin1918duringWorld
WarI.Vir
tuall
yal
lmodernr
adi
orecei
versuset hesuperhet
erodynepr
incipl
e.

Signal
senterther
eceiv
erfr
om theant
ennaandareappli
edtotheRFamplif
ierwher
e
theyaret
unedt oremovet
heimagesignalandal
soreducethegener
all
evelof
unwantedsignal
sonotherfr
equenci
esthatar
enotr
equired.

Bl
ockdi
agr
am ofabasi
csuperhet
erody
ner
ecei
ver

Thesi gnalsaret henappl i

edtot hemi xeralongwi ththel ocal osci
ll
atorwheret he
want edsignal i
sconv erteddownt ot heintermedi at
ef requency .Heresignif
icant
l
ev elsofampl if
icationareappl i
edandt hesi gnalsaref il
tered.Thisfil
ter
ingselects
signalsononechannel againstthoseont henext .Iti
smuchl argerthanthat
empl oyedint hef r
ontend.Theadv antageoft heIFfi
lterasopposedt oRFfil
teringi
s
thatthef i
lt
ercanbedesi gnedf oraf i
xedfrequency .Thi sallowsf ormuchbet ter
tuning.Variablefil
tersarenev erabletoprov idethesamel ev elofselect
ivi
tythatcan
bepr ovidedbyf ixedfrequencyones.

Oncef i
l
teredt
henextblockinthesuperheterody
nereceiv
eristhedemodulator.Thi
s
couldbeforampli
tudemodul ati
on,si
nglesi
deband,f
requencymodulati
on,orindeed
anyform ofmodul
ation.I
tisalsopossibl
etoswitchdi
ffer
entdemodulator
sin
accordi
ngt ot
hemodebei ngreceiv
ed.

Thefi
nal
elementinthesuperhet
erody
nerecei
verbl
ockdiagram i
sshownasan
audi
oamplif
ier
,al
thoughthi
scouldbeanyfor
m ofci
rcui
tblockthati
susedt
o

23
pr
ocessorampl
i
fiedt
hedemodul
atedsi
gnal
.

Ai
rCondi
ti
oni
ngSy
stem

Thepr imaryf uncti

onofanai r-conditioningsy stem istomai nt
ainconduciv
e
condi
tionsf orhumancomf or t.Comf or tair
-conditi
oning,i
sdefinedastheprocessby
whicht hetemper at
ure,
moi sturecont ent ,
mov ementandqual i
tyofairar
e
maintainedwi thi
nrequi
redlimi ts.
Anair-conditi
oningsyst
em hast operf ormt hefollowingfuncti
ons:
 Co ol
inganddehumi difi
cat ionf orsummercondi ti
oni
ng.
 He at
ingandhumi dif
icat i
onf orwi nterconditi
oning.
 Ai rfi
ltr
at i
onandproperv enti
lationr oundt heyear.

Necessar
il
y,t
hesefunct
ionsi
nvol
vecont
rol
oft
emper
atur
e,humi
dit
y,pur
it
yand
movementofair.

Thecapaci tyofanai r
-conditi
oningpl antisalwaysexpressedassomanyTonsof
Ref ri
gerat
ion(TR).Onet onofr efri
gerationisdefinedastheamountofcool ing
yieldedbymel ti
ngonet onofi ce( assumedas2, 000lbs)at32ºFt owaterat32ºF
ov era24-hourperiod.Whenonepoundofi ceat32ºFmel ts,i
tabsor
bs144BTU
(Briti
shThermal Unit
s).So, whenonet onofi ceat32ºFmel t
s,i
tabsorbs2,000X
144=288, 000BTU.Ther efore,onet onofr efri
gerati
on(TR)isequalt
o288, 000BTU
ov era24-hourperiodor12, 000BTUov eranhouror200BTUov eraminute.The
met ricequival
enti
s3,000kCal /hour.

Ther
ear
etwocy
clesi
nai
rcondi
ti
oni
ng

1)Ref
ri
ger
ati
oncy
cle
2)Ai
rcy
cle

Ref
ri
ger
ati
oncy
cle
Therefr
iger
ati
oncycleli
nedi
agram i
sshowninFig.1.Mechani
calref
ri
gerat
ionis
achi
evedbyalter
natel
ycompressi
ngandexpandi
ngt her
efri
ger
antwiththehelpofa
compressorandpressur
ereduci
ngdevi
ce(suchasexpansionval
ve).
Compr essorservest
wopur poses:f
ir
st,i
tdr
awst her
efri
gerantfrom theevaporator
(cool
ingcoil)andfor
cesitint
othecondenserandsecondly,i
tincreasesthepressur
e
oftherefri
gerant
.Bysuckingtheref
riger
ant
,thecompressorreducest hepressurei
n
thecooling
coi
landmaintai
nsitatalevell
owenought oper
mittheref
ri
gerantt
oboilorvapor
ize
andconsequent
lyabsor
bheati nt
heprocess.
Thecompressedgashotv apourf
lowstothecondenser
,whereiti
scondensedint
o
24
l
iqui
dathi ghpr essuregivingupheatt oatmosphericairorwaterdependingupon
whetherthecondenseri saircooledorwatercooled.
Theliquidrefr
igerantthenpassest hroughapressurereducingdeviceli
kean
expansionv al
ve( orcapil
larytube),
whereitspressureisreducedenabli
ngittost
art
boil
i
ngatt heev aporator,result
inginref
ri
gerat
ingeffect.

Ai
rcy
cle
Indoorai rmaybet oocol d,toohot ,t
oodr y,toowet ,t
oodraft
yortoost i
l
l.These
condi tionsar echangedbyci r
culati
ngt heairandt hesetr
eatmentsareprovidedin
theai r-condi ti
oningai rcycle.
Ai rdistribut i
onsy stem directsthet r
eatedairfrom theair
-condi
ti
oningequipmentto
thespacet obecondi ti
onedandt henbackt ot heequipment.
Themai ncomponent sintheai rcycleare:
(i)Fan( i
i)Suppl yduct
(ii
i)Suppl yOut l
ets( iv
)Ret urnout l
ets
(v)Ret urnduct( vi)Filt
er
(vii)Cool ingcoi l(
orheat ingcoi l
).
Thet otal resist
anceoft hesecomponent stotheflowoftheairplusthefri
ction
resi st
ancecausedbyt heairpassingt hroughtheductr unaremajorfactor
si n
det ermi ningt hesizeoft hef anandf anmot orandt heamountofairpressurethati
s
requi red.ForaBr oadcastSt udiosetup, t
hisresist
anceisoftheorderof25mm t o50
mm ofwat ergauge.
Centri
fugalfani
smostcommonl yusedincommer cialandresident
ialinstal
l
ations.It
consist
sofascr ol
l,
ashaftandawheel.Thescrollisactual
lyhousingf ortheshaf t
andwheel andtheshaf
tservesasanaxleforthewheel .Thewheel i
scy l
indri
calin
shapeandhasmanybl ades.Cent
ri
fugalfansareav ail
ablewithforwardorbackwar d
curvedblades.Afor
wardcurvedf
ancandel i
verrequiredquantityofairatlowf an

25
speeds.
Theairv elocityandspeedoft hefanwheel (ti
pspeed)notonl yplayamaj orparti
n
determiningt heefficiencyoft hefan, butalsoaf f
ectthelevelofnoisegener at
edby
thefan.Hi ght i
pspeedandhi ghv eloci t
yusual l
yresultinmor enoise.
Remot elocat i
onoft hef anreducest henoi sebutt hesystem becomesmor e
expensive.Duct smaybeci rcular
,rect angul arorsquar einshape.Fr om the
appearanceandpr acticalpointofv iew, rectangul arductsaregener all
yadopted.
Ductsar ef abri
catedf rom awi dev ar i
etyofmat eri
als.Ductsmadeofsheetmet al
are
verycommon.Theduct sarel i
nedwi thglasswool ormineralwool slabsof25mm
thi
cknesswr appedi ncoppernapht hanat et reatedcloth.
Outl
etsarei
mpor t
antfrom thepointofviewofappearance,f
uncti
onsand
perf
ormance.Theprimaryfuncti
onoft heoutlet
sistoprovi
deproperl
ycontr
oll
ed
di
stri
but
ionofairt
ot heroom andr emovingtheairf
rom theroom.Cei
li
ngdiff
users,
gri
l
lesandregi
stersareusedassuppl youtletandgri
ll
esareusedasretur
noutlet
s.

Condenser
I
nsy stemsi nvol
vingheattransfer,acondenserisadev i
ceorunitusedtocondense
asubst ancefrom it
sgaseoust oi tsli
quidst
ate,bycooli
ngit.I
nsodoing,thel
atent
heatisgivenupbyt hesubstanceandt r
ansfer
redtothesurroundi
ngenvir
onment .
Condenser scanbemadeaccor dingtonumer ousdesigns,
andcomei nmanysi zes
rangingfrom rat
hersmal l(
hand- held)t
ov er
ylarge(i
ndustr
ial-
scal
eunit
susedin
plantprocesses).
Forexample,arefr
igerat
orusesacondensert ogetridofheatextr
actedfr
om t he
i
nteri
oroftheunittotheoutsideai
r.Condensersareusedinairconditi
oni
ng,
i
ndustri
alchemicalprocessessuchasdisti
llat
ion,
steam powerplantsandother
heat
-exchangesystems.Useofcool i
ngwat erorsurr
oundingairasthecoolantis
commoni nmanycondenser s.

Compr
essor
26
Acompressori
samechani
caldevi
cethati
ncr
easest
hepressur
eofagasby
r
educi
ngitsvol
ume.Anai
rcompressori
saspecif
ict
ypeofgascompr
essor
.

Compressor
sar esimi l
artopumps:bothincr
easethepressureonaf luidandbot h
cantr
ansportthefluidthr
oughapipe.Asgasesarecompr essibl
e,thecompr essor
al
soreducesthev olumeofagas.Liquidsarerel
ati
vel
yincompr essi
ble;whil
esome
canbecompr essed, t
hemainacti
onofapumpi stopressuri
zeandt ranspor
tliquids.

Ty
pesofcompr
essor
s

 Reciprocati
ngcompr essors.
 I
onicliquidpist
oncompr essor.
 Rotaryscrewcompr essors.
 Rotaryvanecompr essors.
 Roll
ingpiston.
 Scroll
compr essors.
 Diaphragm compr essors.
 Airbubblecompr essor

Ev
apor
ator
Anevaporat
orisadeviceinaprocessusedtoturnthel
iqui
dform ofachemi
cal subst
ance
suchaswaterint
oitsgaseous-f
orm/vapor
.Theliqui
disevapor
ated,orv
apor
ized,int
oagas
for
m ofthetar
getedsubstanceint
hatprocess.

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofev
ap.
:

 ForcedConvecti
onTy
pe 
usesaf
anorpumpt
ofor
cet
hel
i
qui
dbei
ngcool
ed
overtheevap.

 NaturalConv
ecti
onType hasthel
iqui
dbeingcool
edfl
owsnat
ural
lyt
othe
evap.duetothedensi
tydif
fer
encesofthechi
ll
edandwar
ml i
qui
d.

Ev
apor
atorConst
ruct
ionTy
pes

Therearet
hreet
ypesofev
ap.const
ruct
iont
hatar
ecommonl
ybei
ng
usedtoday
:

 Bare-
TubeandPlateSurf
ace constr
uct
ionhav
etheent
ir
esur
facei
ncont
act
wit
htheevapor
atingref
ri
gerantinsi
de.

 Fi
nned 
constr
ucti
onar
ebar e-
tubecoi
l
suponwhichfins(
metal
platesusual
ly
Alumi
nium)arebei
nginst
all
ed.Amoredet
ail
eddiscussi
ononthistypeof
desi
gnwill
beprovi
dedhere.

Ev
apor
atorDesi
gnFact
ors

27
Ther
ear
e3mai
nfact
orst
oconsi
deri
ndesi
gni
nganev
ap.

 PressureDr
op Theevap.musthavesuff
ici
entspacef
ort
hecircul
ati
onofthe
ref
riger
antwit
houttoomuchpressuredropbetweent
heout
letandthei
nlet.

 Temper
ature 
Theevap.musthaveenoughsurfacet
oabsorbtherequir
edheat
l
oadinordert
oensurethetemperat
uredi
ffer
encebetweenthesubstance
bei
ngcooledandt
her ef
ri
geranti
snotexcessi
ve.

 LiquidandRefri
ger
antVapor 
Theevap.musthaveenoughspacef
ort
hel
i
qui
d
refr
igerantandt
hevaportosepar
atefr
om thel
iqui
d.

Cool
i
ngTower&spr
ayponds
Cool ingt ower smaybecl assifi
edasat mospher icdr aughtornat ural andmechani cal
draught .
Nat uraldr aughtcool ingt ower sar eei t
heri nstalledawayf rom bui l
dingsoratt hetop
ofthebui ldingst oenabl efreef l
owofat mospher icai rt hrought hel ouv ersfi
tted
i
nsi de.Nat ural dr aughtcool ingt ower sar ei nstalledi npl aceswher er easonabl eflow
ofai rmov ementi st heret hroughoutt hey earf orbet teref ficiency .Nat uraldraught
cool i
ngt owerr equi resmor espacef ori nstall
at i
oncompar edt omechani calone.
Mechani cal draughtcool ingt ower scanbecl assi fiedasf ollows:
a.For ceddr aught
b.Induceddr aught
Infor ceddr aughtt ower ,wat erfrom t hecondenserout puti spumpedt ocool ing
towerandi sal lowedt or eacht hesumpt hroughheader s,spr eader sandl ouver s
throughgr av ity.Ai rf rom at mospher ei sforciblyf lowni nsi det het owerwi ththehel p
ofaf anandescapesbackt oat mospher et hrought het opoft het oweraf ter
absor bingt heheatf rom t hewat er.For ceddr aughtcool ingt ower sar enor mal l
yused
forlowert onnagecapaci typl ants.
Ininduceddr aught ,at mospher icai rissuckedbyaf anf itt
edont het opt hrought he
airinletopeni ngpr ov i
dedi nt hetower .Airpassi ngt hr ought helouv erst akesaway
theheatf rom t hewat er.Essent ially,heati sgivenawaybyev apor ationofwat er
dropl etsand, consequent ly,t
hequant i
t yofwat erinci rculationisr educed.Thi sis
compensat edbydr awi ngwat erf rom t hemake- upt ank.
Whenai risusedt ocool wat er,t
her oleofheatt ransf erdependsupon
 Th edi fferencebet weenwetbul btemper at ureofai randt hewat er
temper at ure.
 Th ear eaoft hewat ersurf aceexposedt ot heai r.
 Th er el ativev elocityofai randwat er.

Wat
erTr
eat
ment
Algae/sl
i
mescaleandcorr
osi
onont hewatersi
deoftheheattransf
erequi
pment
retar
dsheatt
ransf
ercausi
nggener
al l
ossofeff
ici
encyandbreakdowns.

28
Oxygen,CarbonDioxide, Sul
phurDioxideabsor
bedf rom t
heai randdissol
vedin
watercausecorrosion,reducingthecapacit
yoflines,i
ncr
easingf ri
cti
onall
ossesand
pumpingcost.Har dwat ercausesscalingpr
oblem.Whenheat ed, t
hemineral
sare
l
eftbehind,whi
chf orm adeposi tontheheatexchangersurface.Theheatt r
ansf
er
rat
ingofthescaleisv erymuchl owerthanmetal.Retar
dedheatt r
ansf
erresul
tsi
n
i
ncreaseddischargepr essurecausinglossi
ncapaci t
yandincr easedpower
consumpt i
on.

Scal
ingofcondensert ubesi
nar e-cir
culat
edwat ersy st
em i
sunavoidable.Descal
ing
hastobecar r
iedoutasapr eventi
vemai ntenanceonceev ery12mont hsorearli
er
dependingonthehardnessoft hewat er
.Descal i
ngcanbecar ri
edoutqui t
e
conveni
entl
ybyci r
culati
ngmildinhibi
tedaci dsoluti
onwiththehel
pofasmal lpump
connectedacrossthecondenserinletandt hewat erval
vesarecl
osedt oconfi
nethe
ci
rculat
iontothecondenseronly.

Chemi calcompoundsareavailabl
e,whichsuspendmi neral
sofdissol
vedscale.
Algaeat t
achthemsel
vestot hesurfaces,andsincetheyar el
ivi
ngplant
s,t
heygrow
unti
l t
heyclogthepassagesoft hesystem.Bacteriaformsslimeandclosethe
system inmuchthesamewayasal gae.Algae/
Slimei scontr
oll
edbyuseoft oxi
c.A
speciali
stshoul
dbeconsultedt odeterminethealgae/sli
me.

Powersuppl
ysy
stem

Asy stematicplanni
ngofpowersuppl yrequir
ementofanyparti
cul
arbr
oadcasti
ng
stati
onofAI R/ DDiscarri
edouti nt
hebegi nning.Loadstobeaddedi
nfuture,
asper
extensionofpr ogram ofstat
ionarealsot akenintoconsi
der
ati
on.Maj
orstati
onsof
AIR/DDhav ethefoll
owingt y
pesofl oads:
1)Equi pmentloads
2)Aircondi t
ioningandassoci at
edloads
3)Light i
ngandf ansload
4)Wor kshopload
5)Loadsr el
ati
ngt omastlightandaer i
alhut
6)Fut ureprovisi
on

Thetot
aldemandofthestat
ionisworkedoutandt
hendeci
sioni
stakenwhet
herHT
orLTsuppl
ywouldmeetther equi
rement
.HTsuppl
yisr
equi
redincasethe
maximum demandofstat
ionexceeds30kVA.
ACPOWERSUPPLY
Theelectr
icpowerat11kVi sr
ecei
vedintheHTsubst ati
ont hr
oughunder gr
oundf eeder
s
from t
hepowersuppl yoft heP/Sauthori
ty.TheHTsubst ati
onislocatednear
bythe
studi
o/tr
ansmitterandgener al
l
yhousesmet eri
ngfaci
lit
iesforreadingmaximum demand,
powerfactorandt heenergyconsumed.Italsohousest heHTOCB.Separ atefeederis
provi
dedf r
om theP/ Sstationt
oourcentreswhoset otal demandexceeds50kVA.St andby
feederfr
om thesameorot herP/Sstati
onisi nv
ari
ablyprov i
ded.

29
Theincomingpowert hroughmet er i
ngsy stem andHTOCBi sfedtot hest ep-down
tr
ansformerwher ev olt
agei sreducedf r
om 11kVt o400V, 3phase4- wir esystem.This
suppl
yisnowcal l
edLTsuppl y
.Thest epdownt ransformeri shousednor mallyinaseparat
e
encl
osureatasui tabledistancef rom t hebusbarandswi tchgearroom.I nsomest ati
ons
twonos.ofLTt ransfor mersar epr ovidedasshowni nf i
g.2.Onei susedwi thnor malf
eeder
andtheotheronewi ththest andby .InsuchcasesI solat
ors, ACB,mechani calandelect
ri
cal
i
nterl
ocksareprov idedt opreventear t hi
ngandbackf eed.Powerf r
om t hesecondar yofthe
tr
ansformerisfedt othebusbar( somet i
mest hroughLTOCB)f ordistr
ibut i
ont hr
ough
swit
chgears.Thisbusbari scal l
edt hemai nbusbar .Themai nbusbarf eedspowert othe
auxi
li
arybusbar ,l
ocat edinthev icinit
yoft hest udio/t
ransmi tt
ers.

AVR( Automat icv oltager egul at or

)
Aut omat i
cv oltager egulatori sav eryv i
talpartoft hepowersuppl ysystem.Powert omostof
thel oadsinst udio/ t
ransmi tterequi pmenti ssuppl iedthr
oughAVR, astheyr equireconstant
voltageal lthet i
me.Not abl eexcept ionsarethel oadsr el
at i
ngtoA/ Cpl antsandl ighti
ngetc.
Inputt otheAVRi spr ov
idedt hroughACB/ MCB, dependingupont heloadr atingofAVRf r
om
theswi t
chgeari ncor poratingHRCf use.Theout putofAVRi sbroughttoadi str
ibutionpanel
from wher et hepoweri sdi st ributedt odif
ferentloadst hroughr espectiveACBs.The
principleandwor kingofanAVRi sdescr i
bedbel ow:
Elect r
icalequipment saredesi gnedt ooper ateatcer tai
nsuppl yv ol
tage.Ifthesuppl yvolt
age
i
sf luctuatingfrom t herat edv oltage, t
heper f
or manceoft heequi pmenti sboundt osuff
er.
Bot hunderandov erv oltagesar edet r
imentaltot heloadandef fect
ivenessoft heequi pment.
Presentst at eofar ttocont rol thefluctuati
oni swi t
ht hehelpofser vost abi
lizers.Aservo
stabi l
i
zerhasf ourbasi ccomponent s.

1)Stepl
esstori
odallywoundautotr
ansformer
.
2)I
nstantaneousstart
-st
opreversi
blesyncmotor
.
3)Soli
dstatesensingcir
cui
t.
4)Seri
estransfor
mer .

Thesecondar yoft heseriestransformerisconnect edinseriest othei nputandt heprimary

i
sf edt hrought hestep-l
esst ori
odallywoundaut otransformer .Thet appingoft his
transformer ,whichiscoupledwi t
htheshaf toftheser v
omot or,isaut omat i
cal l
yadjustedby
i
tsmov ement .Themov ementoft hemot oriscontrol
ledbyt hesol idstatecompar ator,
whi chcont i
nuouslycompar estheout putvolt
agewi thaf i
xedr eferencev oltage.Incaseof
error,mot ormov esinsuchadi recti
onsoast ocorrecttheerror.Wi ththemov ementoft he
mot or,thev ol
tagesuppl i
edt othepr i
mar yoftheser i
estransformerchanges.Thust he
voltageoft heser i
estransformeri saddedorsubt ractedtothei nputv oltage.Theci rcuiti
s
arrangedi nsuchawayt hatiftheout puti
smor ethant hesetv oltaget hemot ortendsto
reducet hev olt
ageappl i
edt othepr i
mar yoftheser i
est r
ansformerandv icev ersa.

HRCFUSE
Inlowandmedi um volt
ager angeHRC( hi
ghr upt
uringcapaci t
y)fuseisthemostcommonl y
usedi nterr
uptingdevice.Itisrelativelycheapandoccupi esl essspace.Iti
susedasa
compl ement arytotheot hercircuitbr eaker.Thefusehasadi sadvant
agethatitrequiresto
ber eplacedaftereachoper ati
on.
Basically,t
heHRCf usehasacer ami cbodyt hatcontainsspeciall
ydesignedfuseel ement.
Fuseel ementi sconnectedt omet al caps.Thecapsal soser vethepurposeofsealingt he
bodyaf t
erithasbeenf il
ledupwi thpur egr anul
atedquartz.Vapor i
zat
ionofthemet al
l
ic
element soccur sonmel tingandt hent hereisafusionwhi chleadstorapidexti
nction.

30
CIRCUITBREAKERS
Thedevicesusedformakingandbreaki
nganel ectr
ical
cir
cui
tundersomepre-det
ermi
ned
condi
ti
onar ecal
ledci
rcui
tbreaker
s.Thefunct
ionsofaci r
cui
tbreakerar
easfoll
ows:
 Itmustcloseonandcar ryf
ulll
oadcurr
ent sforl
ongperi
od.
 I
tmustopenaut
omat
ical
l
ytodi
sconnectt
hel
oad,
onov
erl
oadunderpr
e-det
ermi
ned
condi
ti
on.
 I
tmustr
api
dlyi
nter
ruptt
heheav
ycur
rent
,whi
chmayf
lowunderashor
tci
rcui
t
condi
ti
oni
nanypar
toft
hesy
stem.
 Theci
rcui
tbr
eakermustbecapabl
eofwi
thst
andi
ngt
heef
fectofar
cingati
ts
contactandthether
malcondi
ti
ons,
whichar
iseduetofl
owofcur r
ent
.Br
eaki
ng
curr
entcapacit
yismoreimport
antt
hanmakingcur
rentcapaci
ty.

DCPOWERSUPPLY
Everyelectronicequi
pmentandoper at
ingsystem needregulatedpowersuppl yespeci
all
yat
l
owerv oltages.Theseconstantvol
tageswereearlierpr
ovidedbythelinearregulat
edpower
suppli
esandr ecentl
ybyswitchmodepowersuppl ies(SMPS) .Wit
houtdoubtt heSMPShas
becomev erypopularwit
htheequipmentmanuf acturer
sanduser sbecauseofi tsvari
ous
advantages.Itisalsobei
ngsaidthatatlastt
hepowersuppl yi sal
socatchingupwi ththe
techni
cal advancementoftheotherdevices.

Themerit
sanddemerit
soft
hissy
stem ar
easf
oll
ows
MERITS
1.Ver
ylowoutputnoi
se.
2.Ver
ylowr
ippl
e.

DEMERI TS
1.Becauseoft hebulkytransfor
merthepowersuppl
yuni
tisusual
l
ybul
ky.
2.Rel
ativel
ynar r
owi nputvolt
agerange.Nor
mal l
y+10%.
3.Veryl
owout puthold-
upt i
meabout1mi ll
isec.
4.Lowef fi
ciencyabout40t o50%.
5.Heatdissipati
onismor e.

THESWI
TCHMODEPOWERSUPPLYSYSTEM (
SMPS)
Weknowf
rom t
het
ransf
ormert
heor
ythat

E=4.44xfxBxAxN
OrEαfxBxA
WhereE=Vol tage
f=Frequency
BxA=Fl uxdensit
y
N=No.oft urns.

Becauseoftheinher
entl
imi
tat
ions,thef
luxdensi
tycannotbeincr
easedi
npower
tr
ansformerabove0.97wb/
m,soi fthef
requencyi
sincreased,
thetr
ansf
ormersi
zecanbe
broughtdownandhencetheweight.Thi
siswhathasbeendonei nSMPS.

The230VACi sf
eddi r
ectl
ytotherectif
ierandfi
lt
erthroughRadioFr
equency
i
nter
fer
ence/el
ectromagneti
cinter
ferencefil
ter
.Thisdcv ol
taget
henchoppedbyaswi t
chi
ng
tr
ansi
stororFET.ThischoppedhighfrequencyACi sthenappli
edtoapowertransf
ormerf
or

31
st
eppi
ngi
tdown.Thi
sst
eppeddownv
olt
agei
sfur
therr
ect
if
iedandf
il
ter
edandgi
vent
othe
l
oad.

Asampl eoftheout
putv
olt
agei
stakenandcomparedwitharef
erencev ol
tage.Theer
ror
vol
tageisthengi
ventot
hebaseoftheswi
tchi
ngt
ransi
storf
orincreasedordecreased
swi
tchingacti
on.
Becauseofhigherfrequenci esandt oreducet hecorelossfer
rit
eisnormall
yusedast
he
core.I
tcanalsobeseent hatt heswi tchi
ngel ementisactingl
ikeswitch(
ONandOFF)and
hencetheheatdissi
pat i
onwi l
l below.
Themer i
tsanddemer i
tsofaSMPSar easfollows:
MERI TS
 Be causeoflesst ransfor merwei ghtthepowersuppl yi
sl i
ghtandcompact.
 Ve rywideinputv olt
ager ange-90t o260VAC.
 Ve rygoodhol d-
upt ime, t
ypicall
y25-mi l
lisec.
 Ef f
ici
encyisquitehi gh70t o80%.

DEMERI
TS
 Higheroutputnoi
se.
 Higherri
pplecontent
.
 EMI/RFIgenerati
on.
 Higherdesigncomplexi
ty.

Ear
thi
ng
Earthi
ngmeansconnect i
ngt hatpartofelectri
cal appar at
us,whichdoesnotcarrycurr
ent
undernor malcondi
ti
on( deadpar t),
tothegener al massofear thinsuchamannert hat
al
l t
hetimesani mmedi atedischargeofelectri
cal energyt akesplace,f
orexample,
connectingel
ectri
calequipment ’sfr
ames, enclosures, support
set c.t
otheground.
Groundingmeansconnect i
ngt heliv
epart( i
tmeanst hepar twhichcarri
escurr
entunder
normal condi
ti
on)totheear t
h, forexampleneut ralofpowert r
ansformer.However
,in
practi
ce,thet
ermsear thi
ngandgr oundareusedi nterchangeably.

PURPOSEOFEARTHING
 Tosavehumanlif
efrom dangerofel
ectr
icalshockordeat
hbyblowingafusei.
e.t
o
prov
ideanal
ter
nati
vepathforthefaul
tcurrentt
oflowsothati
twil
lnotendangert
he
user
.

 Topr
otectbui
l
dings,
machi
ner
y&appl
i
ancesunderf
aul
tcondi
ti
onsi
.e.t
oensur
e
t
hatal
lexposedconduct
ivepar
tsdonotr
eachadanger
ouspot
ent
ial
.
 Topr
ovi
desafepat
htodi
ssi
pateli
ght
ningandshor
tci
rcui
tcurr
ents.
 Topr
ovi
destabl
epl
atf
ormforoper
ati
onofsensi
ti
veel
ectr
onicequipmenti
.e.t
o
maint
aint
hev ol
tageatanypartofanelect
ri
cal
system ataknownval
uesoast
o
pr
eventovercur
rentorexcessi
vevol
tageontheappli
ancesorequi
pment
.

 Topr
ovi
depr
otect
ionagai
nstst
ati
cel
ect
ri
cit
ygener
atedbyf
ri
cti
on.

HOW TOMI
NIMI
ZETHEEARTHRESI
STANCE

 El
ect
rodeshoul
dbemadeofmet
alhav
inghi
ghconduct
ivi
ty.

32
  El
ect
rodeshoul
dhav
ehi
ghr
esi
stancet
ocor
rosi
onsot
hati
tsr
esi
stancedoesnot
i
ncr easewi t
htime.
 El ect rodesi zeshoul dbesucht hati tisabletoconductexpect edcur rentforexpected
dur at i
onoft ime.Fur ther ,mor et hesur facear eaoft heelect r
odei ncont actwi t
hsoil,
l
esserwi llbeitsresi st ance.
 El ect rodeshoul dbebur iedatsuchadept hwher esoilhassuf f i
cientmoi stureand
hencebet terconduct iv i
ty.
 Al ocat ionov erwhi chornear byofwhi chwat erflowscont i
nuousl yshoul dnotbe
chosenf ormaki ngear thpi tbecausef lowingwat ernormal l
ywashawayal lthesal
ts
andi ncreaset her esist ivit
yofsoi l
.
 Re sistivit
yofsoi li
ncr easesi nthef oll
owi ngor der
i. Mar shyl ands, landscont ainingashes, ci
ndersorbr i
newast e
ii. Clay, l
oamysoi l
iii. Clay, l
oamysoi lwithv aryingpr opor t
ionofgrav elandsands.
iv . Dampandwetsands
v . Drysand
v i. Grav elandst ones
Eart
hconduct i
v i
tycanbei ncr easedbypour i
ngami xtureofchar coal andsalt sli
kesodi um
chl
or i
deandmagnesi um chl or i
dear oundt heel ectr
ode.Thet r
eat menti seffectivebutnot
permanentbecausesal tisdr ainedoutov eraper i
odoft i
me.Soil resi
stancecanal sobe
decreasedbymi xinglowr esi stivi
tymat erial(backfil
l compounds)wi ththesoi laround
el
ectrode.Someoft hebackf illcompoundsar easunder
 Be nt onite
 Ma r coni t
e
 Gy psum

METHODSOFEARTHI
NG

Ther
ear
etwopopul
armet
hodsofear
thi
ng:

i
)Pi
peEart
hing
i
i
)Pl
ateEart
hing

Contactsur
faceareaofpipeismor eascompar edt opl atebecauseofitsci
rcularcross
sect
ionandhencei tcantakeheavyleakagecurrentf orthesameel ect
rodesize.Mor eover
,
eart
hwi r
econnecti
onwi t
hpipebeingabov ethegr oundl evelcanbecheckedphy sicall
yfor
conti
nuit
y.Pl
ateEarthgiv
esbettersurfacepotenti
al distr
ibut
ionandgiveshigherdegr eeof
prot
ecti
onagainstshock.

33
34