CHAPTER 4

COMPONENTS
USED IN THIS
PROJECT
 • COMPONENTS USED IN THIS PROJECT

• Pneumatic Cylinder

• Sheet Bending Die

• Metal Sheet

• Mechanical Stand

• Gases in Pneumatic Cylinder

• Pneumatic Cylinder
Pneumatic cylinder(s) (sometimes known as air cylinders) are mechanical devices which use
the power of compressed gas to produce a force in a reciprocating linear motion.

Like hydraulic cylinders, something forces a piston to move in the desired direction. The piston
is a disc or cylinder, and the piston rod transfers the force it develops to the object to be
moved. Engineers sometimes prefer to use pneumatics because they are quieter, cleaner, and do
not require large amounts of space for fluid storage.
Because the operating fluid is a gas, leakage from a pneumatic cylinder will not drip out and
contaminate the surroundings, making pneumatics more desirable where cleanliness is a
requirement. For example, in the mechanical puppets of the Disney Tiki Room, pneumatics are
used to prevent fluid from dripping onto people below the puppets.

Type of Product Double Acting Mini Cylinder

Bore Size 60 mm

Stroke 80 mm

Material Aluninium

Operating Pressure 1 to 10 bar

Temperature Range 5 to 50ºC

Design

Construction

Depending on the job specification, there are multiple forms of body constructions available:
• Tie rod cylinders: The most common cylinder constructions that can be used in many types
of loads. Has been proven to be the safest form.
• Flanged-type cylinders: Fixed flanges are added to the ends of cylinder, however, this form
of construction is more common in hydraulic cylinder construction.
• One-piece welded cylinders: Ends are welded or crimped to the tube, this form is
inexpensive but makes the cylinder non-serviceable.
• Threaded end cylinders: Ends are screwed onto the tube body. The reduction of material can
weaken the tube and may introduce thread concentricity problems to the system.

Material
Upon job specification, the material may be chosen. Material range from nickel-plated brass to
aluminum, and even steel and stainless steel. Depending on the level of loads, humidity,
temperature, and stroke lengths specified, the appropriate material may be selected.

Mounts

Depending on the location of the application and machinability, there exist different kinds of
mounts for attaching pneumatic cylinders:
Type of Mount Ends

Rod End Cylinder End

Plain Plain

Threaded Foot

Clevis Bracket-single or double

Torque or eye Trunnion

Flanged Flanged

Clevis etc.

Sizes

Air cylinders are available in a variety of sizes and can typically range from a small 2.5 mm
(1⁄10 in) air cylinder, which might be used for picking up a small transistor or other electronic
component, to 400 mm (16 in) diameter air cylinders which would impart enough force to lift a
car. Some pneumatic cylinders reach 1,000 mm (39 in) in diameter, and are used in place of
hydraulic cylinders for special circumstances where leaking hydraulic oil could impose an
extreme hazard.

Pressure, radius, area and force relationships

Rod stresses
Due to the forces acting on the cylinder, the piston rod is the most stressed component and has to
be designed to withstand high amounts of bending, tensile and compressive forces. Depending
on how long the piston rod is, stresses can be calculated differently. If the rods length is less than
10 times the diameter, then it may be treated as a rigid body which has compressive or tensile
forces acting on it. In which case the relationship is:
F = Aϭ
Where:
F is the compressive or tensile force
A is the cross-sectional area of the piston rod
ϭ is the stress

However, if the length of the rod exceeds the 10 times the value of the diameter, then the rod
needs to be treated as a column and buckling needs to be calculated as well.

Instroke and outstroke

Although the diameter of the piston and the force exerted by a cylinder are related, they are
not directly proportional to one another. Additionally, the typical mathematical relationship
between the two assumes that the air supply does not become saturated. Due to the
effective cross sectional area reduced by the area of the piston rod, the instroke force is less than
the outstroke force when both are powered pneumatically and by same supply of compressed
gas.

The relationship between the force, radius, and pressure can derived from simple distributed load
equation:
Fr = P Ae
Where:
Fr is the resultant force
P is the pressure or distributed load on the surface
Ae is the effective cross sectional area the load is acting on

Outstroke

Using the distributed load equation provided the Ae can be replaced with area of the piston
surface where the pressure is acting on.
Fr = P (πr2)
Where:
Fr represents the resultant force
r represents the radius of the piston
π is pi, approximately equal to 3.14159.

Instroke

On instroke, the same relationship between force exerted, pressure and effective cross sectional
area applies as discussed above for outstroke. However, since the cross sectional area is less than
the piston area the relationship between force, pressure and radius is different. The calculation
isn't more complicated though, since the effective cross sectional area is merely that of the piston
surface minus the cross sectional area of the piston rod.

For instroke, therefore, the relationship between force exerted, pressure, radius of the piston, and
radius of the piston rod, is as follows:
Fr = P (πr12–πr22) = P π(r12–r22)
Where:
Fr represents the resultant force
r1 represents the radius of the piston
r2 represents the radius of the piston rod
Π is pi, approximately equal to 3.14159.

• SOLENOID VALVE:
Directional control valves are one of the most fundamental parts in hydraulic
machinery as well as pneumatic machinery. They allow fluid flow into different paths from
one or more sources. They usually consist of a spool inside a cylinder which is mechanically
or electrically controlled. The movement of the spool restricts or permits the flow, thus it
controls the fluid flow.
 Solenoid valves

Port size 1/4 inch

Applicable Temperature -5 to 60ºC

Type of Product Hand Lever Valve

Working Presssure 10 bar

A solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated valve. The valve is controlled by an electric

current through a solenoid: in the case of a two-port valve the flow is switched on or off; in the
case of a three-port valve, the outflow is switched between the two outlet ports. Multiple
solenoid valves can be placed together on a manifold.

Solenoid valves are the most frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their tasks are to shut
off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many application areas. Solenoids
offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long service life, good medium compatibility of the
materials used, low control power and compact design.

Besides the plunger-type actuator which is used most frequently, pivoted-armature actuators and
rocker actuators are also used.

Components
Example core tubes. Non-magnetic core tubes are used to isolate the fluid from the coil. The core
tube encloses the plugnut, the core spring, and the core. The coil slips over the core tube; a
retaining clip engages the depression near the closed end of the core tube and holds the coil on
the core tube.

Solenoid valve designs have many variations and challenges.

Common components of a solenoid valve:

• Solenoid subassembly
• Retaining clip (a.k.a. coil clip)
• Solenoid coil (with magnetic return path)
• Core tube (a.k.a. armature tube, plunger tube, solenoid valve tube, sleeve, guide
assembly)
• Plugnut (a.k.a. fixed core)
• Shading coil (a.k.a. shading ring)
• Core spring (a.k.a. counter spring)
• Core (a.k.a. plunger, armature)
• Core tube–bonnet seal
• Bonnet (a.k.a. cover)
• Bonnet–diaphram–body seal
• Hanger spring
• Backup washer
• Diaphragm
• Bleed hole
• Disk
• Valve body
• Seat
The core or plunger is the magnetic component that moves when the solenoid is energized. The
core is coaxial with the solenoid. The core's movement will make or break the seals that control
the movement of the fluid. When the coil is not energized, springs will hold the core in its
normal position.

The plugnut is also coaxial.

The core tube contains and guides the core. It also retains the plugnut and may seal the fluid. To
optimize the movement of the core, the core tube needs to be nonmagnetic. If the core tube were
magnetic, then it would offer a shunt path for the field lines.[11] In some designs, the core tube is
an enclosed metal shell produced by deep drawing. Such a design simplifies the sealing problems
because the fluid cannot escape from the enclosure, but the design also increases the magnetic
path resistance because the magnetic path must traverse the thickness of the core tube twice:
once near the plugnut and once near the core. In some other designs, the core tube is not closed
but rather an open tube that slips over one end of the plugnut. To retain the plugnut, the tube
might be crimped to the plugnut. An O-ring seal between the tube and the plugnut will prevent
the fluid from escaping.
The solenoid coil consists of many turns of copper wire that surround the core tube and induce
the movement of the core. The coil is often encapsulated in epoxy. The coil also has an iron
frame that provides a low magnetic path resistance.

Materials

The valve body must be compatible with the fluid; common materials are brass, stainless steel,
aluminum, and plastic.

The seals must be compatible with the fluid.

To simplify the sealing issues, the plugnut, core, springs, shading ring, and other components are
often exposed to the fluid, so they must be compatible as well. The requirements present some
special problems. The core tube needs to be non-magnetic to pass the solenoid's field through to
the plugnut and the core. The plugnut and core need a material with good magnetic properties
such as iron, but iron is prone to corrosion. Stainless steels can be used because they come in
both magnetic and non-magnetic varieties. For example, a solenoid valve might use 304 stainless
steel for the body, 305 stainless steel for the core tube, 302 stainless steel for the springs, and 430
F stainless steel (a magnetic stainless steel) for the core and plugnut.

Types
Many variations are possible on the basic, one-way, one-solenoid valve described above:
• one- or two-solenoid valves;
• direct current or alternating current powered;
• different number of ways and positions;

Common uses

Solenoid valves are used in fluid power pneumatic and hydraulic systems, to control cylinders,
fluid power motors or larger industrial valves. Automatic irrigation sprinkler systems also use
solenoid valves with an automatic controller. Domestic washing machines and dishwashers use
solenoid valves to control water entry into the machine. Solenoid valves are used in
the paintball industry, solenoid valves are usually referred to simply as "solenoids." They are
commonly used to control a larger valve used to control the propellant In addition to this, these
valves are now being used in household water purifiers.
Solenoid valves can be used for a wide array of industrial applications, including general on-off
control, calibration and test stands, pilot plant control loops, process control systems, and various
original equipment manufacturer applications.

• AIR COMPRESSOR:
 Air compressor supplies air into a nail gun

An air compressor is a device that converts power (using an electric motor, diesel or gasoline
engine, etc.) into potential energy stored in pressurized air (i.e., compressed air). By one of
several methods, an air compressor forces more and more air into a storage tank, increasing the
pressure. When tank pressure reaches its upper limit the air compressor shuts off. The
compressed air, then, is held in the tank until called into use. The energy contained in the
compressed air can be used for a variety of applications, utilizing the kinetic energy of the air as
it is released and the tank depressurizes. When tank pressure reaches its lower limit, the air
compressor turns on again and re-pressurizes the tank.

According to the design and principle of operation

• Rotary screw compressor
• Turbo compressor

Displacement type
There are numerous methods of air compression, divided into either positive-
displacement or roto-dynamic types.

Positive displacement
Positive-displacement compressors work by forcing air into a chamber whose volume is
decreased to compress the air. Common types of positive displacement compressors are:-
• Piston-type: air compressors use this principle by pumping air into an air chamber through
the use of the constant motion of pistons. They use one-way valves to guide air into a
cylinder chamber, where the air is compressed.
• Rotary screw compressors: use positive-displacement compression by matching two helical
screws that, when turned, guide air into a chamber, whose volume is decreased as the screws
turn.
• Vane compressors: use a slotted rotor with varied blade placement to guide air into a
chamber and compress the volume. A type of compressor that delivers a fixed volume of air
at high pressures.
Dynamic Displacement
Dynamic displacement air compressors include centrifugal compressors and axial compressors.
In these types, a rotating component imparts its kinetic energy to the air which is eventually
converted into pressure energy. These use centrifugal force generated by a spinning impeller to
accelerate and then decelerate captured air, which pressurizes it.

Cooling
Due to adiabatic heating, air compressors require some method of disposing of waste heat.
Generally this is some form of air- or water-cooling, although some (particularly rotary type)
compressors may be cooled by oil (that is then in turn air- or water-cooled)[3] and the
atmospheric changes also considered during cooling of compressors.

Applications

Portable air compressor for powering tools, such as jackhammers

Air compressors have many uses, including: supplying high-pressure clean air to fill gas
cylinders, supplying moderate-pressure clean air to a submerged surface supplied diver,
supplying moderate-pressure clean air for driving some office and school
building pneumaticHVAC control system valves, supplying a large amount of moderate-pressure
air to power pneumatic tools, such as jackhammers, for filling tires, and to produce large
volumes of moderate-pressure air for large-scale industrial processes (such as oxidation for
petroleum coking or cement plant bag house purge systems).

Most air compressors either are reciprocating piston type, rotary vane or rotary
screw. Centrifugal compressors are common in very large applications. There are two main types
of air compressor's pumps: oil-lubed and oil-less. The oil-less system has more technical
development, but is more expensive, louder and lasts for less time than oil-lubed pumps. The oil-
less system also delivers air of better quality.

The most common types of air compressors are: electric or gas/diesel powered compressors. The
power of a compressor is measured in HP (Horsepower) and CFM (cubic feet of air per minute).
The gallon size of the tank tells you how much compressed air "in reserve" is available.
 Gas/diesel powered compressors are widely used in remote areas with problematic access to
electricity. They are noisy and require ventilation for exhaust gases. Electric powered
compressors are widely used in production, workshops and garages with permanent access to
electricity. Common workshop/garage compressors are 110-120 volt or 230-240 volt.
Compressor tank shapes are: "pancake", "twin tank", "horizontal", and "vertical". Depending on
a size and purpose compressors can be stationary or portable.

• Sheet Bending Die

What is bending die?

A bending die is a specialized tool used in manufacturing industriestoshapematerialusing

apress. Products made with bending dies range from simplepaper clipsto complex pieces
used in advanced technology. It is an assembly of number of components, according to
the shape of the part to be produce die type is selected. Figure shows the simple bending
die and its components.

Figure Simple Bending Die

Classification of die components -

According to the function of the die, all components may be classified into two groups:
• The technological components directly participate in forming the work piece, and
they have direct contact with a material; examples are the punches, die block, guide
rails, form block, drawing die, stripper, blank holder, etc.
• The structural components' securely fasten all components to the subset and die set.
They include the punch holder, the die shoe, the shank, the guideposts, the guidepost
bushings, the springs, screws, dowels, etc.

Bending Die components

The main components for Die Tool sets are:

• Die block – A die block is a construction component that houses the opening and
receives punches. These die openings may be machined from a solid block of tool
steel or may be made in sections. .The die block is predrilled, tapped, and reamed,
before being fastened to the die shoe. Die holder is thicker than the punch holder to
compensate for weakening effect of slug and blank holes. Common proportions for
small and medium size dies are Punch holder thickness 1.25 inch, Die holder
thickness 1.5 inch. It is made up of OHNS, high-quality steel, hardened and precision
ground to exact size with hardness of 56HRC.

Figure Die block

• Punch plate – It is mounted to the upper shoe in much the same manner as the die
block. It is made from the hardened tool steel; it may consist of single piece of steel
 or be sectioned. It holds all punches, pilots, spring pad, and other components of die.
It is separated from die shoe by back up plate. Usually punch plate is attached directly
to the press attachment ram and the die holder to the press attachment. This
necessitates the use of the same press attachment each time the job is run. It will also
speed set up time by eliminating the need for aligning the punches to the die
sections.The punch plate is designed, dimensioned, and manufactured similarly to the
die block.

Figure Punch plate

• Stripper plate - This is used to hold the material down on the Blank/ Pierce Die and
strip the material off the punches.Material of the stripper plate must be ground on
both sides and perfectly square. Stripper plates may be made of cold rolled steel if
they are not to be machined except for holes. When machining must be applied to
clear gages. Plates should be made from machine steel with hardness of HRC 35-38.
Figure show two types of stripper plates used. Figure shows the two different types of
stripper plates (a) Stationary Stripper plate (b) Spring stripper plate.
 Figure Stripper plate

• Punch – punch tooling is made from hardened steel or tungsten carbide. A die is
located on the opposite side of the work piece and supports the material around the
perimeter and helps to localize the bending forces. There is a small amount of
clearance between the punch and the die to prevent the punch from sticking in the die
so that less force is needed to make the hole. Depending on the shape of part to be
produce different types of punches are used, like plain punch, pedestal punch, V type
punch, special purposed etc. The main considerations when designing punches are, 1)
they should be design so that they do not buckle. 2) They should be strong enough to
withstand the stripping force.Standard punch material is SKD11. Expected hardness
thru heat treatment is approximately 60HRC

Figure Punch Mounting

• Guide Post - Both die shoes, upper and lower, are aligned via guide pins or guide
posts. These provide for a precise alignment of the two halves during the die
operation. The guide pins are made of ground, carburized, and hardened-tool steel,
and they are firmly embedded in the lower shoe. The upper shoe is equipped with
bushings into which these pin slip-fit. Figure shows guide post.

Figure Die set arrangement

Punch holder - The upper working member of the die set is called the punch holder. The
name is easy to remember because of its relationship with the punches, which are
normally applied above the strip and fastened to the underside of the punch holder.A
punch holder also serves as supporting the rigidity of the top die. It is also a function of
the punch holder to support rigidity of upper dies. In upper die structure which has
springs, we need to adjust the holder thickness according to spring length. If having
difficulty attaching upper die to press machine just by the shank, you may use punch
holder to attach. Punch holder is made up of cast iron or of steel.

Figure Schematic diagram of Punch holder

• Shank – Upper shoe is sometimes provided with shank by which the whole tool is
clamped to the ram of the press. Dies with large in weight are secured to the ram by
clamps or bolts. However, sometimes even large die sets may contain the shank,
which in such a case is used for centring of the tool in the press. It is a pillar-shaped
part; used for attachment of relatively small upper dies (dies used on stamping
machines up to 30t capacity) to the slide of stamping machines.The size of the shank
depends on the mounting dimensions of the press the die is intended for. Standard
shank diameters are 25, 32, 38, and 50mm. Shank length is usually ranging from 50～
65mm. usual choice of materials is SS400 or S50C and its equivalent, FC250 types
[2, 3]. Figure (a) shows the relation between shank and punch holder plate.

Punch Holder

Shank

Figure (a) Shank Position

 Figure (b) Types of shank

• Bolster plate – Bolster plate, sometimes called press table, is positioned on top of the
press bed. It is a heavy plate, ribbed with T slots (to receive T bolts in the assembly of
a die), precision aligned to the frame with dowel pins. Wear occurring on the press
bed is high; the bolster plate is incorporated to take this wear it is attached to the press
bed and die shoe attached to it. Bolster plate thickness varies from 25mm to 75mm.
The material for bolster plate is a good quality steel [2, 3].

• Stop pin

• Stop Pin – Material when first being guided into the die, must stop somewhere for
the sequence of die operations to begin successfully.Advancing the strip too far may
lead to greater than usual wear and tear of the tooling and its subsequent
misalignment and breakage. Two types of stop pins are use 1.Automatic 2.Fixed.
 Figure stop pin

• Cushion Pin – metal pins used in conjunction with a die cushion to transfer pressure
from the cushion to the bottom of a die pad. They are also called as air pins, pressure
pins and transfer pins.

Figure Cushion Pin

Types of bending die

• V-bending die -

In V-bending, the sheet metal blank is bent between a V-shaped punch and die. The
clearance between punch and die is constant (equal to the thickness of sheet blank). In V-
die bending, it is possible for the material to exhibit negative springback. This condition
is caused by the nature of deformation as the punch completes the bending operation.
Negative springback does not occur in air bending (free bending) because of the lack of
constraints in a V-die. The thickness of the sheet ranges from approximately 0.5 mm to
25 mm.
 Figure V-bending die

• U bending die - In U bending, the sheet metal blank is bent between a U shaped
punch and die. Punch of U shape is used for producing the U bend; figure shows U
shape part that is produce by only U bending die.

Figure U shape Part

1. Stripper plate

2. Punch

3. Punch holder

4. Die Segment

5. Cushion pin
6. Pressure pad plate

7. Stop pin

8. Die shoe

9. Work piece

Figure U bending die

• Wiping bending die –

Wiping die bending, also known as edge bending, it is performed by holding the sheet
between a pad and die then sliding the wiping flange across the face pushing and bending
the sheet metal which protrudes from the pad and die. The flange is driven by an upper
shoe and the die is supported by a lower shoe. A spring between the pad and upper shoe
grabs the metal before the flange hits it and holds the work piece down during the
bending process.

If the flange has a feature associated with it, other than just a straight bend then a stronger
spring will help prevent the metal from being pulled from the area between the die and
pad. This will lead to less deformation when the piece comes out of the stamp. In our
example below we are only showing a single section of a feature but in reality there can
be flanges formed on any and all sides of the piece at the same time. This can lead to
significant productivity gains. The Bend Angle is controlled by the stroke of the wiping
punch. It’s necessary that the punch has the proper offset for the thickness of the material
to prevent shearing. This method does not allow for over bending past 90 ° because of
the tooling geometry. This also makes it difficult to work with harder materials which
have a high Spring Back. Below figure shows the wiping die operation.

Figure wiping die

• Air bending –

This bending method forms material by pressing a punch (also called the upper or top
die) into the material, forcing it into a bottom V-die, which is mounted on the press. The
punch forms the bend so that the distance between the punch and the side wall of the V is
greater than the material thickness (T)

Either a V-shaped or square opening may be used in the bottom die (dies are frequently
referred to as tools or tooling). A set of top and bottom dies are made for each product or
part produced on the press. Because it requires less bend force, air bending tends to use
smaller tools than other methods. Some of the newer bottom tools are adjustable, so, by
using a single set of top and bottom tools and varying press-stroke depth, different
profiles and products can be produced. Different materials and thicknesses can be bent in
varying bend angles, adding the advantage of flexibility to air bending. There are also
fewer tool changes, thus, higher productivity. From the below figure difference between
Air bending and V bending die can be easily identified. With 3-point bending the points
of contact are all on the same side of the material. The angle is determined by the height
adjustment in the bottom tool. And with air bending the points of contact are on both
sides of the material. The angle is determined by the depth of entry of the tool into the die
plate.

Figure (a) 3 – Point bending. (b) Air bending

A disadvantage of air bending is that, because the sheet does not stay in full contact with
the dies, it is not as precise as some other methods, and stroke depth must be kept very
accurate. Variations in the thickness of the material and wear on the tools can result in
defects in parts produced.

Air bending's angle accuracy is approximately ±0.5 deg. Angle accuracy is ensured by
applying a value to the width of the V opening, ranging from 6 T (six times material
thickness) for sheets to 3 mm thick to 12 T for sheets more than 10 mm thick. Springback
depends on material properties, influencing the resulting bend angle. Depending on
material properties, the sheet may be over bended to compensate for springback. Air
bending does not require the bottom tool to have the same radius as the punch. Bend
radius is determined by material elasticity rather than tool shape. The flexibility and
relatively low tonnage required by air bending are helping to make it a popular choice.
Quality problems associated with this method are countered by angle-measuring systems,
clamps and crowning systems adjustable along the x and y axes, and wear-resistant tools.

Problems in Traditional Process of Bending Die Design

To check the manufacturability of component, determine the process plan for sheet metal
parts and to design/selection various die components, die designers have to performed
design tasks such as process planning, selection of type of press, bending sequence,
bending force, speed design/selection of various die components. Designers also have to
consider how to obtain optimal number of operation stages to produce parts having
complex shape. To perform all these tasks it require many years of experience on the part
of die designer. A number of problems in traditional process of die design are
summarized as follow.
• It is tedious, time consuming and error prone.
• Knowledge gained by die design experts after long years of experience is often not
available to others even within the same company. It creates a vacuum whenever the
expert retires or leaves company.
• Due to long apprentice period, slow career growth and burden of heavy workload,
young technocrats do not prefer to enter in the challenging field of die design.
• Stamping industries are facing acute shortage of experienced die designers
worldwide.

Number of CAD/CAM software’s like UG, CATIA, PRO-E, IDEAS and SOLID EDGE
etc. are developed. These software’s assist die designers in drafting, visualisation and
storage and retrieval of component geometric data. But the limitations of these
CAD/CAM software’s are
• Commercial CAD software only assists in drafting and simple design calculations and
to operate this software skilled die designers are required.
• Only segments of the die design process are supported.
• Incomplete, imprecise, or inconsistent information cannot be handled.
 • The various phases of design of bending die are not integrated in single software.
• Design technical and logical errors are not detected.
• Costly and hence not affordable by small scale stamping industries.

• Metal Sheet
Sheet metal is metal formed by an industrial process into thin, flat pieces. It is one of the
fundamental forms used in metal working and it can be cut and bent into a variety of
shapes. Countless everyday objects are constructed with sheet metal. Thicknesses can
vary significantly; extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces
thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate.
Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or coiled strips. The coils are formed by running a
continuous sheet of metal through a roll slitter.
The thickness of sheet metal is in the USA commonly specified by a traditional, non-
linear measure known as its gauge. The larger the gauge number, the thinner the metal.
Commonly used steel sheet metal ranges from 30 gauge to about 7 gauge. Gauge differs
between ferrous (iron based) metals and nonferrous metals such as aluminum or copper;
copper thickness, for example is measured in ounces (and represents the thickness of 1
ounce of copper rolled out to an area of 1 square foot). In the rest of the world the sheet
metal thickness is given in millimeters.
There are many different metals that can be made into sheet metal, such
as aluminum, brass, copper, steel, tin, nickel and titanium. For decorative uses, important
sheet metals include silver, gold, and platinum (platinum sheet metal is also utilized as
a catalyst.)
Sheet metal is used for car bodies, airplane wings, medical tables, roofs for buildings
(architecture) and many other applications. Sheet metal of iron and other materials with
high magnetic permeability, also known as laminated steel cores, has applications
in transformers and electric machines. Historically, an important use of sheet metal was
in plate armor worn by cavalry, and sheet metal continues to have many decorative uses,
including in horse tack. Sheet metal workers are also known as "tin bashers" (or "tin
knockers"), a name derived from the hammering of panel seams when installing tin roofs.
Materials
Stainless steel
Grade 304 is the most common of the three grades. It offers good corrosion resistance
while maintaining formability and weldability. Available finishes are #2B, #3, and #4.
Grade 303 is not available in sheet form.
Grade 316 possesses more corrosion resistance and strength at elevated temperatures than
304. It is commonly used for pumps, valves, chemical equipment, and marine
applications. Available finishes are #2B, #3, and #4.
 Grade 410 is a heat treatable stainless steel, but it has a lower corrosion resistance than
the other grades. It is commonly used in cutlery. The only available finish is dull.

Grade 430 is popular grade, low cost alternative to serie 300's grades. Used when high
corrosion resistance is not a primary criteria. Common grade for appliance products,
often with a brushed finish.

Aluminium
Aluminum is also a popular metal used in sheet metal due to its flexibility, wide range of
options, cost effectiveness, and other properties. The four most common aluminium
grades available as sheet metal are 1100-H14, 3003-H14, 5052-H32, and 6061-T6.
Grade 1100-H14 is commercially pure aluminium, highly chemical and weather resistant.
It is ductile enough for deep drawing and weldable, but has low strength. It is commonly
used in chemical processing equipment, light reflectors, and jewelry.
Grade 3003-H14 is stronger than 1100, while maintaining the same formability and low
cost. It is corrosion resistant and weldable. It is often used in stampings, spun and drawn
parts, mail boxes, cabinets, tanks, and fan blades.
Grade 5052-H32 is much stronger than 3003 while still maintaining good formability. It
maintains high corrosion resistance and weldability. Common applications include
electronic chassis, tanks, and pressure vessels.
Grade 6061-T6 is a common heat-treated structural aluminium alloy. It is weldable,
corrosion resistant, and stronger than 5052, but not as formable. It loses some of its
strength when welded. It is used in modern aircraft structures.

• Mechanical Stand
 Fig. Mechanical Stand

• It uses for the support of all mechanism of sheet bending machine.

• Gases used in Pneumatic Cylinder

Pneumatic systems in fixed installations, such as factories, use compressed air

because a sustainable supply can be made by compressing atmospheric air. The air
usually has moisture removed, and a small quantity of oil is added at the
compressor to prevent corrosion and lubricate mechanical components.

Factory-plumbed pneumatic-power users need not worry about poisonous leakage,

as the gas is usually just air. Smaller or stand-alone systems can use other
compressed gases that present an asphyxiation hazard, such as nitrogen—often
referred to as OFN (oxygen-free nitrogen) when supplied in cylinders.

Any compressed gas other than air is an asphyxiation hazard—including nitrogen,

which makes up 78% of air. Compressed oxygen (approx. 21% of air) would not
asphyxiate, but is not used in pneumatically-powered devices because it is a fire
hazard, more expensive, and offers no performance advantage over air.

Portable pneumatic tools and small vehicles, such as Robot Wars machines and
other hobbyist applications are often powered by compressed carbon dioxide,
because containers designed to hold it such as soda stream canisters and fire
extinguishers are readily available, and the phase change between liquid and gas
makes it possible to obtain a larger volume of compressed gas from a lighter
container than compressed air requires. Carbon dioxide is an asphyxiant and can be
a freezing hazard if vented improperly.