Data Book On Hydrocarbons PDF

DATA BOOK ON
HYDROCARBONS
APPLICA TION TO PROCESS ENGINEERING
•
by
J. B. MAXWELL
NINTH PRINTING
ROBERT E. KRIEGER PUBLISHING COMPANY

MALABAR, FLORIDA
ORIGINAL EDITION 1960
REPRINTED 1977 FROM NINTH PRINTING 1968
Printed and Published by

ROBERT E. KRIEGER PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC.
KRIEGER DRIVE
MALABAR, FLORIDA 32950
© Copyright 1950 by
STANDARD OIL DEVELOPMENT COMPANY
Reprinted by Arrangement with
VAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD CoMPANY
All rights reserved. No reproduction in any form

of this book, in while or in part (except for brief
quotation in critical articles or reviews), may be
made without written authorization frOm the
publisher.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Maxwell, J B 1902-
Data book on hydrocarbons.
Reprint of the 9th printing published in 1968 by Van

Nostrand, Princeton, N. J., in The Esso series.
Includes bibliographies.
1. Hydrocarbons. I. Title.
TP690.M35 1975 661'.81 74-30163
ISBN 0-88275-257-X
PREFACE
The primary purpose of this book is to provide (1) basic data on hydro-
carbons and petroleum fractions, (2) methods of applying these data to process
engineering, including illustrative examples and some fundamental theory, and
(3) applications of a few of the unit operations of chemical engineering uscd
extensively in the petroleum industry.
Earlier editions of the present volume have been used in the Standard Oil •
Development Company and other affiliates of the Standard Oil Company (New
.Jersey). Because this book has proved to be quite valuable to technical personnel,
the Standard Oil Development Company has decided to make it available for
practicing engineers and students of petroleum technology.
The author is very much indebted to many associates in the preparation of
thi s book and, in particular, to W. H. Hatch for invaluable assistance in editing
the text and preparing the charts for publication, to C. O. Rbys, Sr., for the
derivation of the .Mollier diagrams and other charts, to C. J. Robrecht (or
constructive criticism and advice during the preparation of the manuscript. Fur-
thermore, any list of acknowledgments would be incomplete without mentioning
R. S. Piroomov who was responsible for the early development of a company
data book.
J. B. MAXWELL
Standard Oil Development Company
Linden, New Jersey
CONTENTS
PHYSICAL DATA
SElCTIOl\ PAGE
1. PHYSICAL CONSTANTS....................................... 1
Hydrocarbons, 2-Miscellaneous Organic Compounds, 6--MisceIla-
neous Gases, 9
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF PETROLEUM FRACTIONS... . . . . . . . .. 10

Average Boiling Point, 14-Characterization Factor, Hi-Gravity, 18
3. MOLECULAR WEIGHT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. ... ... . . . . . . . . . 19

Paraffins, 20-Petroleum Fractions, 21
4. VAPOH PRESSURE . 24
Paraffins and Olefins, 27-Diolefins and Acetylenes, 35-Aromatics, 37
-Cycloparaffins, 39-Hydrocarbons, 40-Gasolines, 44
5. FUGACITY . 45
Fugacity Function of Individual Hydrocarbons, 49-Fugacity Func-
tion of Hydrogen, Ol-Fugacity of Hydrocarbon Vapors, 62-Relative
Volatility of LigM Hydrocarbons, 6~-Fugacity Correction Factor for
Light Hydrocarbons in Absorber Oib, 67
6. CRITICAL PROPERTIES....................................... 68
Critical Temperature of Pure Hydrocarbons, 69-Critical Temperature
of Light Hydrocarbon Mixtures, 'i'O-Critical Pressure of K ormal Par-
affins, 71-Critical Temperature and Pressure of Petroleum Fractions,
72
7. THEHMAL PHOPERTlES . 75
Specific Heats of Gases and Vapors, 88-Enlhalpy-Presoure Rela-
tionship for Hydrocarbon Vapors, 92-Bpecifjr Heats of Liquid Hydro-
carbons and Petroleum Fractions, 93-Latenl Ileat of Vaporization of
Light Hydrocarbons and Normal Paraffins, 94-Enthalpy of Individual
Hydrocarbons, 98-Enthalpy of Petroleum Fractions, 114-Mollier
Diagrams for Light Hydrocarbons, 128
VII
viii CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
8. DENSITy........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Conversion Charts for 0 API Gravity, 138-Specific Gravity of Satu-
rated Hydrocarbon Liquids, 14o-Thermal Expamlion of Liquid
Petroleum Fractions, 143-P-V-T Relations of Hydrocarbon Vapors,
148
9. VISCOSITY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Conversion Charts, 158-Viscosity of Hydrocarbons and Crude Frac-
tions, 161-Viscosity-Temperature Charts, 166--Viscosity Index of
Lubricating Oils, 168-Viscosity Blending Index, 173-Viscosity of
Hydrocarbon Vapors and Miscellaneous Gases, 174
10. COMBUSTION. . . 178
Heat of Combustion of Petroleum Fractions and Hydrocarbon Gases,
18o-Enthalpy of Flue Gas Components, 182-Heat Available from
the Combustion of Refinery Gases and Fuel Oils, 184-Properties of
Flue Gases, 189
UNIT OPERATIONS
11. FLOW OF FLUIDS............................................. 193
Friction Factor for Fluid Flow, 19B-Pressure Drop in Commercial
Pipes, 199-Equivalent Length of Fittings, 202-Friction Loss Due
to Contraction and Enlargement, 204-Discharge Characteristics of
Weirs, 205-Pressure Drop Across Tube Banks, 206
12. FLOW OF HEAT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . 207
Heat Loss by Radiation and Natural Convection, 209-Heat Transfer
to Fluids Inside Tubes, 211-Heat Transfcr to Fluids Outside Tubes,
212-Thermal Conductivity of Petroleum Fractions, Water, and
Gases, 213-Logarithmic Mean Temperatme Difference, 217
13. EQUILIBRIUM FLASH VAPORIZATION.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 222
14. FRACTIONATING TOWERS.. .. 230
Minimum Reflux Ratio and Theoretical Steps, 23O-Correlation of
Theoretical Steps with Reflux Ratio, 244-0verall Plate Efficiency,
245-Packed Towcrs, 246
CONVERSIOX FACTORS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 249

INDEX............................................................ 253
Section I
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
In the following tables the more common physical constants are given for
hydrocarbons, certain other organic series, and miscellaneous gases. While these
constants, in general, are based upon reliable data, estimated "alues were included
in a few instances where available data were considered questionable. Where no
reasonably good basis was available for either estimating or calculating the con-
stants, they are omitted.
The density, boiling point, melting point, and heat of eo'mbustion for most
of the hydrocarbons are those given in the Burea1t of Standards Circular C461. 1
GENERAL REFERENCES
Annual Tables of Physical Constants, Nat. Research Council (19-11, 1942).
Beattie, Poffenberger and Hadlock, J. Chem. Phys. 3, 96 (1935).
Beattie, Simard and Su, J. Alii. Chem. Soc. 61, 24 (1939); 61,924 (1939).
Cole and Cole, J. Chem. Phys. 9, 341 (1941).
Doss, "Physical ~nstants of the Principal Hydrocarbons," 4th Edition, The Texas Co.,
New York, N.Y. (1943).
Ginnings, J. Am. Cltell/. Soc. 62, 1923 (1940).
Ginnings and Baum, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 59, 1111 (1937).
Ingersoll, Thesis, ~Iass. Inst. Tech. (1930).
International Critical Tables, Vols. I and III.
Kay, Ind. Eng. Chem. 30, 459 (1938).
Kharasch, J. Research Nat. Bur. Standards 2,359 (1929).
Krase and Goodman, Ind. Eng. Chelll. 22, 13 (1930).
Meyers, Scott, Brickwede and RAnds, Unpublished Data, Nat. Bur. Standards.
Pickering, Bur. Standards Sci. Paper 511 (1926).
Rintelen, Gross and Saylor, J. Am. Chelll. Soc. 62, 1923 (19-10).
Tables anntlelles de wnstantes et dunnee nUllteriqlte, Vols. VII to XIII (1925-1939).
I' "Sclcdcd Values of Propertips of Hydrocarbons," Nal. Bur. ~lalldards Circular Cl,61
(947).
1
~
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF HYDROCARBONS
. MOLEC.
BOILING :.fELTING
DENSITY CRITICAL CONSTANTS
HEAT OF COMBUSTION
@ 60°F-BTU /Ib
FOR~tULA POINT POINT
WT. of of
°API Sp Gr t P D
60°/60° Lb/gal of Atm G/ml
Gross Net
NORMAL PARAFFINS
Methane ................... CH, 16.0 -258.9 -296.5 340 0.30 2.50 -116.3 45.8 0.162 23,860" 21,500"
Ethane .................... C,H. 30.1 -128.0 -297.8 247 .374 3.11 + 90.1 48.2 .203 22,300" 20,420-
d
Propane ................... C,H, 44.1 - 43.8 -305.7 147 .508 4.23 206.3 42.0 .226 21,650" 19,930"
Bu~no .................... C,H,o 58.1 +
31.1 -216.9 111 .584 4.86 306 37.4 .225 21,290' 19,670"
;.:-
>-3
Pentane ................... C,H 12 72.1 96.9 -201. 5 92.7 .631 5.25 386.5 32.6 .232 21,070" 19,500" ;.:-
Hexane .................... C,H" 86.2 155.7 -139.5 81.6 .664 5.53 455.0 29.4 .234 20,780 19,240 tp
Heptane ................... C,H 16 100.2 209.2 -131. 1 74.2 .688 5.73 512.5 26.8 .234 20,670 19,160
C,H,s 114.2 258.2 - 70.3 6ti,{j .707 5.89
o
Octane ...... '" ........... 565 24.6 .233 20,590 19,100 o
Nonane .................... C,H,o 128.2 303.4 - 64.5 64.5 ,- ...
. -.).) 6.01 612' 23" - 20,530 19,050 ~
Decane .................... 142.3 345.2 - 21.5 61.3 .734 6.11 -
Undecane ..................
C1oH"
C"H,. 156.3 384 .4 - 14.1 58.7 .744 6.19
654'
695'
22"
20" -
20,480
20,450
19,020
19,000
o
170.3 + - Z
Dodecane .... , ............. C12 H " 421.3 14.7 56.4 , 753 6.27 731" lb' 20,420 18,980
ISO-PARAFFINS :I:
Isobutane .................. C,H 1o 58.1 10.9 -255.0 120 .563 4.69 275 36 .234 21,240' 19,610" ><
d
72.1 82.2 -255.5
2-Methylbutane (Isopentane),
2,2-Dimeth:dpropane (~eo-
pentane). . ..............
C,H 12
C,H" 72.1 49.0 + 2.1

94.9
105
.625
.597
5.20
4.97
369.5
329"
32.4
35'
.234
-
21,030"
20,960'
19,450"
19,330"
S
o;.:-
2-Methylpentanc (Isohexane) , C,H" 86.2 140.5 -245 83.5 .658 5.48 437' 31' - 20,750 19,210 ~
3-Methylpcnt,ane, ........ C,H" 86.2 145.9 -180 80.0 , 669 5.57 443' 30" - 20,760 19,220 tp
2,2-Dimethylbutane ();eo- o
hexane) . ' .. , ......... , ... C,H" 86.2 121.5 -147 6 84.9 .654 5.44 415' 31' - 20,700 19,160 z00
2,3-Dimethylbutane (Di-
isopropyl) ............... C.H" 86.2 136.4 -198.8 81.0 .666 5.54 441 31 . 241 20,740 19,200
2-Met,hylhexane (Isoheptane) . C,H I6 100.2 194.1 -180.8 75.i . 68:l 5.68 496 28" - 20,650 19,140
3-Methylhexanc ............ C,H" 100.2 197.5 -182.9 73.0 .692 5.76 504 28.5" - 20,660 19,150
3-Ethylpentane .... ...... (',H" 100.2 200.2 -181.5 69.ti .703 5.85 508' 28.5 - 20.670 19,160
2,2-Dimethylpentane ....... ' (',H" 100.2 174.6 -190.8 77.'2 .678 5.64 475' 28.5 - 20,600 19,090
2,3·Dimethylpentane ........ C,H" 100.2 193.6 - 70.6 .700 5.83 498' 29 - 20,540 19,130
--
2,4-Dimethylpentane ........ C,H" 100.2 176.9 -183.1 ')
, I ._ .678 5.54 477 28.5' - 20,620 19,110
3,3-Dimethylpentane ....... , C,H" 100.2 186.9 -211.0 71.2 .698 5.81 487' 28' - 20,620 19,110
..
2,2,3-Trimethylbutane (Trip-
tane) .................... C 7 H 1S 100.2 177.6 - 13.0 72.1 0.695 5.78 480~ 29.5 - 20,620 19,110
2-Methylheptane (lsooctane) . C SH 18 114.2 243.8 -165.1 70.1 .702 5.84 549< 25~ - 20,570 19,080
3-Ethylhexane .............. C sH 18 114.2 245.4 - 65.6 .718 5.98 551 c 25" - 20,570 19,080
2,5-Dimethylhexane (Di-
isobutyl) ................. CSHl~ 114.2 228.4 -130 71.2 .698 5.81 530 25 0.237 20,550 19,060
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane ("lso-
octane") ................. C S H 18 114.2 210.6 -161. 2 71.8 .69u 5.79 515' 27" - 20,540 19.050
OLEFINS
Ethylene ........••......... C 2H. 28.0 -154.7 -272.5 2n . ;J;j 2.91 50 51 .22 21,640" 20,290Q
Propylene .......•.......... C 3H s 42.1 - 53.9 -301.4 140 .522 4.35 196.5 45.4 .2:~3 21,040Q 19,690Q
Butene-I ............. C,Hs 56.1 20.7 - 104 .601 5.00 293' 39" - 20,840" 19,490Q
Cis-Butene-2 ......•...... C.Hs 56.1 38.6 -218.0 94.2 .627 5.22 316' 37" - 20,780" 19,430Q
Trans-Butene-2 ............. C.H s 56.1 33.6 -157.7 100 .610 5.08 310' 37" - 20,750" 19,400" ~
Isobutene ........ , ...... C.H s 56.1 19.6 -220.5 104 .600 4.99 292.5 39.5 .234 20,720" 19,370" =:r:
Pentene-1 (Amylene). CbH lO 70.1 86.2 -216.4 87.2 .647 5.38 385" 36" - 20,710Q 19,360" -<
Cis-Pentene-2 ............ C;H1o 70.1 98.6 -290.2 82.6 .661 5.50 398' 35"
35~
- 20 ,660Q 19,310" ....
lfJ
(1
Trans-Pentene-2 ............ CbH lO 70.1 96.8 -211.0 84.9 .654 5.44 396' - ~O,640Q 19,290Q
;>
2-Methylbutene-1 ........... C;H 1o 70.1 88.0 - 84.5 .655 5.45 387" 36" - 20,610 Q 19,260" t"'i
3-Methylbutene-1 (lso-
(1
amylene) .......... " ..... C;H lO 70.1 , 68.4 -292.0 92.0 . 6:~3 5.27 363' 37" - 20,660Q 19,310"
2-Methylbutene-2 ........... C;H lO 70.1 101.2 -207.0 80.6 .667 5.55 401" 35" - 20,570" 19,220" o
Z
Hexene-1 ............. C 6H 12 84.2 146.4 -218.0 77.2 .678 5.64 463' 34" - 20,450 19,100 lfJ
~
Cis-Hexene-2 ............. C 6 H 12 84.2 155.4 -231.0 73.9 .689 5.73 473' 34" - 20,420 19,070 ;>
Trans-Hexene-2 ............. C 6H 12 84.2 154.2 -207.0 75.7 .683 5.68 472' 34" - 20,400 19,050
Z
Cis-Hexene-3 ............. C SH l2 84.2 153.7 -211.0 75.4 .684 5.69 4i2' 34" - 20,420 19,070 ~
Trans-Hexene-3 ......•...... C aH 12 84.2 154.6 -171 76.0 .682 5.68 473' 34" - 20,400 19,050 lfJ
DIOLEFINS
Propadiene .....•........... C 3H. 40.1 - 30.1 -213.0 106 .595 4.95 249 70 - 20,880 Q 19,930"
Butadiene-l ,2 .............. C.H s 54.1 + 50.5 - 83.5 .658 5.48 343' - - - -
Butad.iene-1,3 .............. C.H s 54.1 24.1 -1.64.0 94.2 .627 5.22 308 45 - 20,230" 19,180Q
Pentadiene-1.2 ..... : .. C;H s 68.1 112.8 - 85.0 71.5 .697 5.80 420" - - - -
Cis-Pentadiene- L3 ........ C;H s 68.1 111.6 - 71.8 .696 5.79 420C - - 20,150" 19,040"
Trans-Pentadiene-l,3 ........ C;Hs 68.1 108.1 - 76.0 .682 5.68 415' - - 20,150 Q 19,04QQ
Pentadiene-I,4 ....... CsH s 68.1 78.9 -234.0 81. 3 .665 5.53 350C - - 20,320Q 19,210Q
3-Methylbutadiene-l,2 ....... CsH s 68.1 104 -184.0 82.9 .685 5.70 410" - - - -
2-Methylbutadiene-l,3 (Iso-
prene) ................... C6 H S 68.1 93.3 -231.0 74.8 .686 5.71 395' - - 20,060" 18,950Q
(J,j
Q Heat of combustion as a gas-otherwise as a liquid. cCritical temperature-boiling point correlation. * Mixture of cis- and trans-isomers.
• Estimated. " Vapor pressure curve or correlation. ** Sublimes.
...
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF HYDROCARBONS (Cont.)
HEAT OF COMBUSTION ~
BOILING MELTING @ 60°F-BTU lib
MOLEC.
FORMULA POINT POINT
WT. OF OF Sp Gr t P D Gross Net
°API Lb Igal OF
60 0 /60 0 Atm G/rol
DIOLEFINS (Cont.)
Hexadiene-1,2 .... : ..•.•....
Hexadiene-1,3* ..•.••.......
CSH lO
CsH lO
82.1
82.1
172
163
-
-
64.5
67.8
0.722
.710
6.01
5.91
495"
485"
-
-
-
-
-
-
--
Hexadiene-l,4* ......•...•.. CaRlO 82.1 149 - 70.6 .700 5.83 470" - - - -
Hexadiene-l.5 ...•.•••...... CSH lO 82.1 139.3 -221.4 71.8 .696 5.79 454 - - 20,130 18,980
Hexadiene-2,3 ..... : .•......
Hexadiene-2,4* .............
CSH lO
CsH lo
82.1
82.1
154.4
176
-
-
75.1
63.7
.685
.725
5.70
6.03
475'
500"
-
-
-
-
-
-
-- tj
>
3-Methylpentadiene-1,2 ...... CSH lO 82.1 158 - 65.0 .720 5.99 4W' - - - - ~
4-Methylpentadiene-l,2 ...... CSH lO 82.1 158.0 - 67.0 .713 5.93 480" - - - - c;
2-Methylpentadie:le-1,3* ..... CSH lO 82.1 169 - 63.9 .724 6.03 490" - - - - o
3-Methylpentadiene-l.3* ..... CSH 10 82.1 171 - 59.7 .740 6.16 495' - - - - o
4-Methylpentadiene-1,3 ...... CsH lo 82.1 169.3 - 94.0 63.9 .724 6.03 490" - - - - ~
2-Methylpentadiene-1.4 ...... CSH IO 82.1 133 - 70.9 .699 5.82 445' - - - - o
2-Methylpentadiene-2,3 ...... ~HIO 82.1 162.0 - 66.1 .716 5.96 485' - - - - Z
2,3-Diroethylbutadiene-1,3 ... CSH lO 82.1 155.7 -105 62.1 .731 6.08 475' - - 19,880 18.730
2-Ethylbutadiene-1,3 ........ CaRlO 82.1 167 - 61.0 .735 6.12 490' - - - - ::t:
ACETYLENES ~
Acetylene .................. CzH z 26.0 -119** -114 209 .416 3.46 103.5 62.0 0.231 tj
21,47(}l1 20,74~
~
Methylacetylene ............ CaH. 40.1 - 9.8 -153 94.9 .625 5.20 275' 65~ - 20.810" 19.8W o
+ o
Butyne-1 (Ethylacetylene) ... C.H s 54.1 47.7 -188.5 86.2 .650 5.41 375 65~ -
-
20.65QQ 19,6oog >
Butyne-2 (Dimethylacetylene) C.H s 54.1 80.4 - 26.0 71.2 .698 5.81 420 60~ 20.51QQ 19,46()Q ~
c;
Pentyne-1 (Propylacetylene). CsH s 68.1 104.4 -159 71.8 .696 5.79 429 - - 20,550 g
19,440g C
Pentyne-2 .................. CsH s 68.1 132.8 -148 66.1 .716 5.96 460" - - 20,45QQ 19,340g Z
3-Methylbutyne-1 (Isopropyl- en
acetylene) ................ CsHs 68.1 82 - 79.7 .670 5.58 410" - - 20.5W 19,390"
Hexyne-1 (Butylacetylene) ... CsH lo 82.1 160.9 -205.6 65.0 .720 5.99 - - - - -
Hexyne-2 .................. CSH lO 82.1 184.1 -126.4 60.8 .736 6.13 - - - - -
Hexyne-3 ...............•.. CsH lO 82.1 179.2 -149.8 63.1 .727 6.05 - - - - -
4-Methylpentyne-1 .......... CSH lO 82.1 142.1 -157.1 67.5 .711 5.92 - - - - -
4-Methylpentyne-2 .......... CSH lO 82.1 162 - 65.3 .719 5.98 - - - - -
3,3-Diroethylbutyne-1 ....... CaRlO 82.1 100.0 -114.2 78.7 .673 5.60 - - - - -
OLEFINS-ACETYLENES
Buten-3-yne-1 (VinylAcety-
lene) .................•.. C.H. 52.1 42 - 73.9 .689 5.73 365" 75.; - - -
Penten-l-yne-3 . ............ C.He 66.1 138.6 - 58.7 0.744 6.19 - - - - -
Penten-l-yne-4 (Allylacety-
lene) . ...................
2-Methylbuten·l-yne·3 . .....
C,H e
CoHo
66.1
66.1
107
90
-
-
49.4
-
.782
-
6.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
--
Hexen-l-yne-3 . .............
Hexen-l-yne-5 .. ............
C.H.
CoHo
80.1
80.1
185
158
-
-
56.4
32.8
.753
.861
6,27
7.17
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
--
- - --
--
2-Methylpenten-l-yne-3 ..... CoHo 80.1 169 - - - - -
3--Methylpenten-3-yne-l* ..... CoHo 80.1 156 - - - - - - -
AROMATICS
Benzene ... ................. CoHo 78,1 176.2 41.9 28.6 .884 7.36 551.3 47.9 0.304 17,990 17.270
Toluene ..... ............... C,H. 92.1 231.1 -139.0 30.8 .872 7.26 609.1 41.6 .292 18,270 17,450
o-Xylene .... ............... C.H IO 106.2 292.0 - 13.3 28.4 .885 7,37 675 37 .288· 18.500 17,610
m-Xylene .........•....... . CaHlo 106.2 282,4 - 54.2 31.3 .869 7.24 655· 36' .288· 18,500 17,610
;p-Xylene . .............. , ... CaHlo 106.2 281.0 +
55.9 31.9 .866 7.21 652 35' .270' 18,430 17,540
Ethylbenzene .... ........... CaH lo 106.2 277 .1 -138.9 30.8 .872 7.26 655 38 - 18,490 17.600 "'d
1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene . .....
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene (Pseu·
documene) . ..............
C,Hu
C,Hu
120.2
120.2
349.0 -
336.5 -
13.8
47.3
25.7
29.1
.900
.881
7.49
7.34
72C/'
708'
32'
33
-
-
-
18,570
-
17.620
~
......
1,3,5·Trimethyl benzene (Me-
sitylene) . ................ C,H" 120.2 328.3 - 48.6 31.1 .870 7.24 700' 33
/'
- 18,620 17,670 ~
Propylbenzene . ............. C9H l2 120.2 318.6 -147,1 31.9 .866 7,21 690 34' - 18,660 17,710 o
lsopropylbenzene (Cumene) .. C9Hn 120.2 306.3 -140.8 31.9 .866 7.21 68C/' 35' - 18.670 17,720 o
- - -
~
I-Methyl-2-Ethylbenzene .... C,H" 120.2 329.2 -126,6 28.7 .883 7.35 702< 34'
I-Methyl-3-Ethylbenzene .... C,H" 120.2 322.7 - 31.1 .870 7.24 695' 34' - - -
I-Methyl-4-Ethylbenzene .... C,R" 120.2 324.5 - 82.7 31.5 .868 7.23 696' 34' - - -
CYCLOPARAFFINS
Cyclopropane ... ............ C,H. 42.1 - 27.0 -196.6 98.6 .615 5.12 256 54 - - - cB
Cyclobutane . ............... C.H. 56.1 + 54.7 - 58.0 74.8 .686 5.71 385' 50' - - -
Cyclopentane . ...•.......... CeHlo 70.1 120,7 -136.7 56,9 .751 6.25 470' 46' - 20,350' 19.‫סס‬OO
Methylcyc1opentane . ........ CtHn 84.2 161.3 -224.4 56.2 .754 6.28 520' 42' - 20,110 18.760
1, I-Dimethylcyclopentane .... C,H u 98.2 189.5 -105 54.7 .760 6.33 550' 42' - - -
l,2··)imethylcyc1opentane-cis. C7H u 98.2 210.7 - 62 50.4 .778 6.48 570' 40' - 20,020 18,670
1,2-Dimethylcyclopentane-
trans . ................... C,H u 98.2 197.4 -182 65.4 .757 6.30 560' 41' - 20.020 18,670
1,3-Dimethylcyclopentane-
trans . ................... C 7H 14 98.2 195.4 -213 57.2 .750 6.24 555' 41' - - -
Ethylcyclopentane .......... C 7H u 98.2 218.2 -217 52.0 .771 6.42 580' 40' - 20,110 18.760
Cyclohexane ................ CeRn 84.2 177.3 44+ 49.0 .784 6,53 538 40.4 .273 20.030 18.680
Methylcyclohexane . ......... C 7H 14 98.2 213.6 -195.6 61.3 .774 6.44 575 40' - 20.000 18.650
o:n
, Heat of combustion &8 a gas-otherwise &8 a liquid. C Critical temperature-boiling point correlatioil. • Mixture of cis- and trans' isomers.
• Estimated. ., Vapor pressure curve or correlation. •• Sublimes.
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
0:.
CRITICAL HEAT OF COMBUSTION
MELT- DENSITY HEAT OF
BOILING CONSTANTS @ 60°F-BTU /lb
MOLEC. ING VAPORIZ.
FORMULA POINT
WT. of POINT
Sp Gr t P D @B.P.
of Gross Net
600 j600 Lb jgal of Atm Gjml BTU lib
-- --
ALCOHOLS
Methanol (Methyl Alcohol) .. CHaOH 32.0 148.1 -143.7 0.796 6.63 464.0 78.7 0.272 474 9760 8580
Ethanol (Ethyl Alcohol) ..... CH aCH20H 46.1 173.0 -174 .794 6.61 469.6 63.1 .275 361 12,780 11,550
tj
Propanol-1 (Normal Propyl
Alcohol) ................. CH aCH2CH20H 60.1 207.0 -195 .808 6.73 506.7 50.0 .273 296 14,450 13,190 >
Propanol-2 (Isopropyl Alco-
hoi) ........ , ............ (CHa),CHOH 60.1 180.2 -129 .789 6.57 - - - 289 14.350 13.090
~
to
Butanol-1 (Normal Butyl o
Alcohol) ................. CH a(CH 2hCH2OH 74.1 243.9 -129.6 .814 6.78 549 48 - 254 15.500 14,220 o
Butanol-2 (Sec. Butyl Alcohol) CH aCH 2CH(OH)CH a 74.1 211.1 - .811 6.75 - - - 242 - - ~
,
2-Methylpropanol-l (Isobutyl
Alcohol) ................. (CH ahCHCH 2OH 74.1 226.4 -162 .806 6.71 - - - 249 15.450 14.170
o
2-Methylpropanol-2 (Tert.
Z
Butyl Alcohol) ........... (CHa)aCOH 74.1 180.7 77.9 (.793) (6.60) - - - 235 15,290 14,010 :I:
Pentanol-1 (Normal Amyl
CH a(CH 2) aCH 20H 88.1 280.4 -109.8 .819 6.82 - - - 223* 16,220 14,930
~
Alcohol) ................. ~
Pentanol-2 (Sec. Amyl Alco-
- .814 - - - -
o
§o
hoi) ..................... CH a(CH2hCH(OH)CH a 88.1 247.1 6.78 213*
Pentanol-3 (Diethyl Carbinol) (CH.CH 2hCHOH 88.1 240 - .826 6.88 - - - 211* - ...
2-Methylbutanol-l (Sec. Butyl
Carbinol) ................ CH aCH2CH(CH a)CHIOH 88.1 264 - .820 6.83 - - - 218* - -
- .825 -6.87
Z
00
2-Methylbutanol-2 (Tert.
Amyl Alcohol) ........... CH aCH 2C(OH) (CHah 88.1 215.8 15 .815 6.79 - - - 203* 16,030 14,740
3-Methylbutanol-1 (Isoamyl
Alcohol) ........ , ........ (CHahCHCH2CH t OH 88.1 269.2 -179 .814 6.78 - - - 216 16.150 14,860
3-Methylbutanol-2 (Methyl
Isopropyl Carbinol) ....... (CHahCHCH(OmCH. 88.1 233 - .825 6.87 - - - 209* - -
2.2-Dimethylpropanol-l (Tert.
Butyl Carbinol) .......... (CH a)aCCH20H 88.1 236 120-125 - - - - - 210* - -
GLYCOLS AND GLYCEROL
Ethanediol-l,2 (Ethylene Gly-
col) ..................... CH2(OH)CH 2OH 62.1 387.5 9 1.118 9.31 - - - 344 8250 7340
-
..
Propanediol-1,2 (Propylene
Glycol) ................. CH3CH(OH)CH 2OH 76.1 371 - 1.042 8.68 - - - 273* 10,350 9350
Propanediol-1,3 (Trimethy- CH 2 (OH)CH2CH 2(OH) 76.1 850 - - - - - - 266* 10,450 9450
lene Glycol) (appr .)
Propanetriol-1,2,3 (Glycerol). CH2(OH)CH(OH)CH 2OH 92.1 554 65.0 1.265 10.53 - - - - 7760 6940
ETHERS
Methyl Ether .............. CH,OCH 3 46.1 -11.5 -217 - - 260 52 0.271 187 13,570u 12,340u
Ethyl Ether ............... CH,CH 2OCH 2CH, 74.1 94.1 -177 .3 0.719 5.99 381 35 .262 151 15,840 14,560
Propyl Ether .............. CH 3(CH 2)20(CH 2)2CH 3 102.2 194.2 -188 .752 6.26 - - - 129 16,930 15,630
Isopropyl Ether ........ '.' .. (CH')2CHOCH(CH,)2 102.2 155.3 -122 .729 6.07 - - - 120 16,870 15,570
Butyl Ether ............... CH 3(CH 2)30(CH2)3CH 3 130.2 288.0 -144 .773 6.44 - - - 115* 17,560 16,250 ~
Sec. Butyl Ether ........... [CH3CH 2CH (CH,) 120 130.2 250 - .760 6.33 - - - 109* - - P::
~
00
ALDEHYDES ......
Methanal (Formaldehyde) ... HCHO 30.0 - 3 -180 - - - - - 320* 8050U 7420U (1
>
Ethanal (Acetaldehyde) ..... CHaCHO 44.0 68.5 -190.3 .786 6.54 - - - 257* 11,400 10,540 ~
(1
Propanal lPropionaldehyde) CH,CH2CHO 58.1 120 -114 .812 6.76 - - - 215*' 13,400 12,420
o
~
Butanal (Butyraldehyde) .... CH 3CH 2CH2CHO 72.1 167.2 -144 .809 6.74 - - - 189* 14,640 13,590 00
2-Methylpropanal (Isobuty- ~
raldehyde) ............... (CH 3)2CHCHO 72.1 142 - 87 .799 6.65 - - - 180* 14,600 13,550 >
Z
KETONES
Propanone (Acetone) ....... CH 3COCH a 58.1 133.0 -138.8 .795 6.62 - - - 220 13,260 12,280
;1
Butanone (Methyl Ethyl
Ketone) ................. CH 3COCH 2CH, 72.1 175.5 -123.5 .810 6.74 - - - 190 14,540 13,490
Pentanone-2 (Methyl Propyl

Ketone) ................. CH 3COCH 2CH 2CH, 86.1 216.1 -108.0 .812 6.76 - - - 168* 15,430 14,330
Pentanone-3 (Diethyl Ketone) (CH 3CH 2hCO 86.1 215.2 - 40 .820 6.83 - - - 168* 15,380 14,280
3-Methylbutanone-2 (Methyl
Isopropyl Ketone) ........ CH 3COCH (CH a) 2 86.1 200.7 -134 .820 6.83 - - - 165* 15,350 14,250
4-Methyl Pentanone-2
(Methyl Isobutyl Ketone) . CH,COCH~H(CH,h 100.2 240.6 -119 .806 6.71 - - - 152* 15,980 14,840
* Calculated or estimated with a probable accuracy of ±2%. "'-J

u Heat of combustion as a gas-otherwise as a liquid.
..
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF GASES
HEAT OF COMBUSTION
MOLEC.
BOILING MELTING @ 60°F-BTU j1b
FOn~ULA POINT POINT
,~~
WT. of of Sp Gr t P D
°API Lb/gal of Gross
60°/60° Atm G /ml
Ammonia ............ NH 3 17.0 - 28.1 -107.9 97.5 0.617 5.15 270.3 111.5 0.235 9670 8000
"'tl
Carbon Dioxirle ...... COz 44.0 -109.3* - 69.9 '42.0 .815 6.78 88.0 73.0 .460 - - ~
Carbon Monoxirle .... CO 28.0 -312.7 -::137.0 - - - -220.4 34.5 .301 4345
~
~
4345
o
Chlorine ............. Ch 70.9 - 30 -151 - - - 291 76 .57 - - >
~
Ethyl Chloride ....... CzH~CI 64.5 54.1 -214 25.5 .901 7.51 369 51.6 .33 - - o
o
Hydrogen ........... Hz 2.0 -423.0 -434.5 - - - -400 12.8 .031 61,100 51,600 z
U1
Hydrogen Chloride ... HCl 36.5 -121.0 -173.6 - - - 124.5 81.6 .42 - - "-3
>
Hydrogen Sulfide ..... H 2S 34.1 - 76.5 -122.0 46.0 .797 6.64 212.7 88.9 - 7100 6550
Z
"-3
U1
Methyl Chloride ..... CH 3Cl 50.5 - 11.6 -143.8 20.3 .931 7.76 289.6 65.8 .37 - -
Nitrogen ............ N2 28.0 -320.5 -346.0 - - - -232.8 33.5 .31 - -
Oxygen ............. Oz 32.0 -297.4 -362.0 - - - -181. 9 49.7 .43 - -

Sulfur Dioxide ....... S02 64.1 14.0 - 98.9 - 1.394 11.62 315.0 77.7 .52 - -
*.Sublimes.
..
Section 2
CHARACTERISTICS OF PETROLEUM
FRACTIONS
Average Boiling Point of Petroleum Fractions
,.
Many physical properties of pure hydrocarbons can be correlated with specific
gravity and normal boiling point as independent variables. However, for use in the
petroleum industry, these correlations must also be applicable to petroleum frac-
tions which are mixtures of a large number of components, usually having a wide
variation in boiling points.
While the average specific gravity is a property of the petroleum fraction
which can be measured directly, just as in the case of pure compounds, there is not
an analogous average normal boiling point for a mixture. By integrating or averag-
ing its distiUation curve (temperature vs. liquid volume percent distilled), a
volume average boiling point can be determined for the mixture. However, as
Watson and Nelson! and Smith and Watson 2 have pointed out, this has no special
significance as a true average boiling point and many physical properties can be
better correlated by the use of some other average boiling point, i.e., weight
average, molal average, etc. Consequently, in all correlations involving boiling
points of petroleum fractions, the proper average should be used. For the follow-
ing physical properties, these are:
Average Boiling Point Physical Property
Volume average Viscosity
Liquid specific heat
Weight average True critical temperature
Molal average Pseudo-critical temperature

Thermal expansion of liquids
Mean average Molecular weight

Characterization factor
Specific gravity
Pseudo-critical pressure
Heat of combustion
1 Watson and Nelson, Ind. Eng. Chem. 26, 880 (1933).
2 Smith and Watson, Ind. Eng. Chem. 29,1408 (1937).
10
CHARACTERISTICS OF PE'l'ROLEUM FRACTIONS 11
Since a distillation curve is usually available and a volume average boiling

point is readily obtained therefrom, the other average boiling points are given as
a function of these data. The chart on page 14 is based on an assay (True Boiling
Point) distillation 3 of the whole crude, while the chart on page 15 refers to the
1070 (or ASTM) distillation of the fraction itself.
The chart on page 14 was derived empirically from crude assay fractions of a
number of crudes. For narrow boiling fractions, all of the average boiling points
approach each other and the volume average boiling point may be used for any of
the others. Then, by appropriately combining the volume average boiling points of
the narrow cuts, the various average boiling points of wider cuts were determined.
The weight and molal average boiling points of the wider cuts were calculated
directly by combining the narrow cuts on the basis of their weight and mole frac-
tions, respectively. The mean average boiling point could not be calculated in the
same manner since it is not a direct average or integral of its fractional parts. As
used herein, mean average boiling point is defined as the boiling point which best
correlates the molecular weight of petroleum fractions. Consequently, the mean
average boiling point for wider cuts was determined indirectly from the generalized
molecular weight chart on page 21.
Although Smith and Watson proposed a cubic average boiling point for the
correlation of characterization factor, specific gravity-boiling point relations for-
the different crudes indicate that the present mean average boiling point can be
used for correlating gravity, and consequently characterization factor. Smith and
Watson also used cubic average boiling point for correlating viscosity, but the
present data indicate that the volume average is the proper boiling point.
Since these boiling point correlations were developed directly from crude
assay distillations, this chart should always be used 4 if an assay is available.
Otherwise, the 10% (or ASTM) distillation of the fraction may be used in con-
junction with the other chart. The latter was derived from the crude assay chart
and an empirical correlation between the two types of distillation curves. The
difference between the two sets of curves at zero slope represents the thermometer
stem corrections for the 10% distillations.
In the case of light hydrocarbon mixtures, where the analysis is known, the
volume, weight, and molal average boiling points can be calculated directly from
the boiling points of the components and their volume, weight, and mole fractions,
respectively. On the oth~r hand, the mean average boiling point must be deter-
mined indirectly from the average molecular weight of the mixture. Up to an
3 Approximately 15 theoretical plates and 5 to 1 reflux ratio.
4 Below slopes of 2°F/% for low boiling fractions (V.A.B.P. < 500°F) and 3°F/% for
high boiling fractions (V.A.B.P. > 500°F), the volume average may be used for the other
average boiling points with very little error.
12 DATA BOOK ON HYDROCARBONS
average molecular weight of 80, the molecular weight-boiling point relation for
normal paraffins (page 20) may be used for this purpose, but for higher molecular
weights the generalized chart on page 21 should be employed.
Characterization Factor
Watson and Nelson 1 introduced characterization factor as an index of the
chemical character of pure hydrocarbons and petroleum fractions. The charac-
terization factor of a hydrocarbon is defined as the cube root of its absolute
boiling point in oR divided by its specific gravity (60°F/60°F), or
Characterization Factor = yt T B/Sp Gr
Characterization factor is given on page 16 as a function of gravity in °API

and boiling point in of for hydrocarbons and petroleum fractions.
That characterization factor is only an approximate index of the chemical
nature of hydrocarbons is indicated by its variation with boiling point both for
members of a homologous series and for fractions from the same crude (page 17).
However, it has considerable value in that it can be applied to the entire boiling
range of a crude and it has been generally accepted by the petroleum industry.
Typical Crude Fractions

For approximate use when there are insufficient data, several correlations have
been developed for typical crude fractions grouped according to characterization
factor and viscosity index. 5 These groups are numbered in order of decreasing
paraffinicity and each may be considered representative of the crude fractions
within its characterization factor or viscosity index range. The five groups were
arbitrarily selected as follows:
Characterization Viscosity Index of

Group Factor Lube Fraclions6
I . 12.1-12.6 80-100
II . 11.9-12.2 60-80
III . 11.7-12.0 40-60
IV . 11.5-11.8 20-40
v . 11.3-11. 6 0-20
Fractions from some of the more common crudes are cla5sifil'd in the following
table:
lS See page 156.

6 Dewaxed to +20°F pour.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PETROLEUM FRACTIONS 13
TYP.lCAL GROUP
CRUDE White Gas Oils
Products and Heavier
Pennsylvania I I
Rodessa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. I I
Panhandle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II I
Mid-Continent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. II II
Kuwait I-II II-III
Iraq II II-III
Iranian II II-III
East Texas III II
South Louisiana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. III II
Jusepin III III
West Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. III III

Tia Juana (Med. and 102) III IV
Colombian IV IV
Lagunillas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. V V
Since, in the case of some crudes, the lower boiling fractions belonged in a
different group than the higher boiling fractions, they were classified separately-
that is, into white prorlucts having an average boiling point less than 500°F, and
gas oils and heavier having an average boiling point greater than 500°F.
2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
+40
+ 30 WEIGHT ·AVERAGE·
+20
+'0
iJ
Ii •
-
~
AVERAGE BOILING POINT
0 OF PETROLEUM FRACTIONS ~
CRUDE ASSAy DISTILLATION i
- 10
- 20 MEAN AVERAGE
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
MOLAL AVERAGE
* THE CUT RANGE MAY BE USED FOR
THE SLOPE AND THE 50% POINT FOR
THE VOL. AV. B.P. UNLESS THE
-20 DISTILLATION FOR THE FRACTION
DEVIATES APPRECIABLY FROM A
STRAIGHT LINE. !N THE LATTER
-40 - EVENT THE FOLLOWING FORMUI AS
SHOULD BE USED:
_ t7O-t10
-60 S - 60
In ty = to+4t.50+tIOO
.. 6
V> -80 FOR WHOLE CRUDES:
t y = ho t t,50+ teo
cr....
-'00
('~
-120
-'40
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
14
t40
WEIGHT AVERAGE
+20
,.L
,~ t . t·
-20
2 4 5 6 7 8
i:J...~t-L_; of i....... .ly.......H-t~.
MEAN AVERAGE
+20 AVERAGE BOILING POINT
OF PETROLEUM FRACTIONS
,.
0 10 % (A.5.tM.) DISTILLATION
-20
IF AVAILABLE, THE CRUDE ASSAY
DISTILLATION SHOULD BE USED FOR
-40 DETERMINING AVERAGE BOILING POINTS.
r -60
r-
l/}
< -eo 3 4 7 8
2 5 6
?
cr
(.f-
MOLAL AVERAGE
+-20
* THE SLOPE AND AV. B.P. SHOULD
BE DETERMINED FROM THE FOLLOWING
0
FORMULAS:
t,,70 - tlO
S= (
-20 ., 60 ;
tlo+2t50 +t 9O
tv = 4
-40
IF THERE ARE INSUFFICIENT DATA
THE 50% POINT MAY BE USED FOR
-60
THE VOL. AV. B.P.
FOR WHOLE CRUDES:

-80
t30+t.50+t70
tv: 3
-100
-120
-140
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
'.
15
CHARACTERIZATION FACTOR 14.0
VS BOILING POINT AND GRAVITY
13.0 13.0
12.0 12.0
_ 11.0 11.0
~
10.0 10.0
90 9.0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
..
I
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
.. . .,
CRUDE TYPICAL GROUP
WHITE GAS OILS
CHARACTERIZATION FACTOR ;.t~ 1 I:n __
13.6 PRODUCTS a HEAVIER 13.6
. .-!{ ~~ili
PENNSYLVANIA
RODESSA
I I ~ BOILING POINT
I I
~ r .1%1+I.l-++J.1=:+I::t1+
134HHH1 PANHANDLf II I 13.4
• MID' CONTINENT II II TVPICAL CRUDE FRACTIONS ~m
KUWAIT I-II II-III
IRAO II II-III
13.2EEHHl IRANIAN II II- III
T·
13.2
EAST TEXAS III II
S.LOUISIANA III II
1 m:aE .lUSEPIN III III >- r
13.0
3.0
WEST TEXAS liI III
TIA .lUANA (NED. a 102) III IV
12.1:) a:m:a COLOMBIAN IV IV -... • 12.8
LAGUNILLAS v V
12.6 , . :i '. >-

12.6
I' .
-
~ 12.4
.of:
,
,
12.4
12.2 12.2
.~
12.0 12.0
11.8 11.8
r
11.6 11.6
II ~
tt ,J;
H
11.4
r TIT
" " 1/.4
r-
. i ,
r i ' 1->-
11.2 ..,.+1- _Ir H-I" ;'++1+1-++1 11.2
d~
.t I ., . I·~ -I.
r .,:
/00 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
. I
i. _
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 1300 JOOO
GRAVITY ~ BOILING POINT

TYPICAL CRUDE FRACTIONS
70
60 60
50 IHB111lHlIIII1l1l1J 1111 II tlHIIJIlJI IlIllIIlIIlIHt"KINI!'N:"lIIJilJIIH1I1lIlit11J»111 1111111111111111 111I111l"KlOIIJ II i1II1III1II1IJIIJLLIUHlIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII11II11111111 flll150
....
00
40 40
CRUDE TYPICAL GROUP
WHITE GAS OILS
PRODUCTS a HEAVIER
PENNSYLVANIA I I
RODESSA I. I
PANHANDLE II %
30 I:fI::i::l:!:1I MID· CONTINENT II II II tlllllllllI11tllltul1tlJIlItn1'W"~1i\IM1t1n&J~IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIITI't'l+l>lilJ FEIBHtlilMIllllllllllll130
KUWAIT I·II II· III
IRAO II II·III
IRANIAN II II-U.I
EAST TEXAS III II
S. LOUISIANA III II
.IUSEPIN III In
20~ II1II111111 i 1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIImmmiiIII III IlrmUWOU1l11I1't'ffi!lratJUI:I!li1ln'iJmBTBI20
WEST TEXAS III nI
TIA JUANA (MED. a 102) III. IV
COLOMBIAN IV I1I'
LAGUNILLAS V V
10
10J 200 300 400 500 600 700 .. 800 900 1000
Section 3
MOLECULAR WEIGHT
The molecular weight chart for pet.roleum fractions on page 21 was derived
from an empirical correlation of molecular weight and the function, T,,Jso.4o,·
where T m i" the mean avcrage boiling point of the fraction in oR, and s, the specific ~
gravity at 60°F/60°F. The ayerage deviation for about one hundred petroleum
fractions from 75 to 500 molecular weight is +20/0.
Up to a molecular weight. of about 300 this correlation applies equally well
to pure hydrocarbons, with the exception of normal paraffins, which have lower
molecular \\'eights than predicted by the chart. Above 300 molecular weight most
pure hydrocarbons for which data are available deviate from the correlation in
the same direction as the normal paraffins. An explanation of this incongruity
may be that these particular high molecular weight compounds have relatively
long chains and consequently should fall somewhere between the normal paraffins
and the multibranched and multicyclic hydrocarbons in petroleum fractions.
The molecular weight of crude fractions is given as an independent function
of mean average boiling point, page 22, and also of gravity, page 23, for approxi-
mate use when only one of these variables is known. Examination of these charts
shows that the boiling point chart is much less susceptible to variations with type
of crude than the gravity chart and, consequently, will usually give a better
approximation than the latter. However, in general, gravity rather than the
boiling point will be available.
GENERAL REFERENCES
API Research Project 42.
Bridgeman, Proc. API 10, No.2, p. 124 (1929).
Doss, "Physical Properties of the Principal Hydrocarbons," 4th Edition, The Texas Co.,
Fitz imons and Thiele, Ind. Eng. Chem. (Anal. Ed.) 7, 11 (1935).
Francis and Wood, J. Chem. Soc. 48, 1420 (1926).
Kay, Ind. Eng. Chem. 28, 1014 (1936).
Mail' and Schicktanz, J. Research Nat. Bur. Standards 17, 909 (1936).
Mail' and Willingham, .T. Research Nat. Bur. Standards 21, 535, 565, 581 (1938).
Rosenbaum, J. Chern. Phys. 9, 295 (1941).
Shepard, J. Am. Chern. Soc. 53, 1948 (1931).
19
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
600 MOLECULAR WEIGHT n BOILING POINT 600
NORMAL PARAFFINS AND ISOPARAFFINS
500 . 500
400 400
200 200
180
160
I - AVERAGE OF ISOMERS CONTAINING
A SINGLE METHYL OR ETHYL BRANCH 140
2 - AVERAGE OF ALL OTHER ISOMERS
120 120
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
-100 a 100 200 300 400
20
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
MOLECULAR WEIGHT
Yo! BOILING POINT AND GRAVITY
600 PETROLEUM' FRACTIONS
500
400
300 300
280
200 260
240
220
200 200
180 180
160 160
140 140
120 120
100 100
80 eo
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 aoo

21
200 300 400 500 600· 700 800 900
460 460
. MOLECULAR WEIGHT ~ BOILING POI NT
440 TYPICAL CRUDE F RACTIONS 440
420 420
400 400
CRUDE TYPICAL GROUP
WHITE GAS 01LS
380 a HEAV lEA 380
PENNSYLVANIA
'RODUCTS
I I
.,
RODESSA I I
360 PANHANDLE II I. 360
MID - CONTINENT II II
KUWAIT I-II II-III
340 IRAQ II I I -III 340
IRANIAN II II-III
UST TEXAS nI II
S. LOUISIANA III II
320 JUSEPIN III In 320
WEST TEXAS UI In
TIA JUANA (NED. a 102) III IV
300 COLOMBIAN IY IV
300
LAGliNILLAS Y Y
280 280
260 260
240 240
220 220
CHARACTERIZATION VISCOSITY INDEX

200 GROUP FACTOR OF LUBE FRACTIONS· 200
1 12.1 -12.6 SO-IOO
,eo II 11.9 -12.2 60-S0 180
III 11.7-12.0 40-60
IV 11.5 - II.S 20-40
160 y 11.3-11.6 0-20 160
* DEWAXEO TO +20 o F POUR
140 140
120 120
100 100
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

22
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 BO
460 MOLECULAR WEIGHT ~ GRAVITY 460

TYPICAL CRUDE FRACTIONS
440 440
CRUDE TYPICAL GROUP
'WHITE GAS OILS
420 a HEAVIER 420
PRODUCTS
PENNSYLVANIA I ~
RODESSA ~ I
400 PANHANDLE II % 400
MID' CONTINENT IX :II
KUWAIT I-U lI-nI
380 IRAO II II-%II 380
IRANIAN II II-XII
EAST TEXAS Dr II ~
S. LOUISIANA III II
360 .lUSEPIN :III III 360
. WEST TEXAS UI DI
TIA .lUANA (NEO. a 102) XII IV
COLOM81AN IV IV
340 LAGUNILLAS v y 340
320 CHARACTERIZATION VISCOSITY INDEX 320

GROUP FACTOR OF LU8E FRACTIONS *
I 12.1 -'2.6 80-100
300 11 11.9 -12.2 60-80 300
III 11.7 - 12.0 40-60
280 IV 1/.5-11.8 20-40
2BO
y 1/.3-11.6 0-20
.
260 * DEWAX£O TO +20 o F POUR
260
240 240
220 220
200 200
180 180
160 160
140 140
120 120
100 100
110 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
23
o-;n'i L f.J
PIA , If" \) _,_ . .JJ
t. I.,.
PABLO 1VI0T'l'A
Section 4
VAPOR PRESSURE
In developing the vapor pressure curves for most of the individual hydrocar-
bons, the reciprocals of the absolute temperatures were plotted against those of a
reference compound (ethane, butane, or hexane) at the same vapor pressures. 1 With
one or two exceptions, this relation was linear over the entire range of the data,
but if a slight curvature was indicated, as in the case of benzene vs. hexane, a
straight line was not imposed upon the data. The vapor pressure curves for
methane and the reference compounds were developed directly from the data by
plotting vapor pressures against reciprocal temperatures. Most of the reliable
data fell within -I- 1OF of the correlations, and this may be considered as about
the accuracy of solid portions of the vapor pressure curves. Normal boiling points
in all cases were taken from "Selected Values of Properties of Hydrocarbons."2
While vapor pressure is meaningless above the critical temperature, the
curves were extrapolated beyond this point so that other properties in the liquid
phase could be calculated in the absence of any other data. For example, these
extrapolated curves may be used to make rough approximations of the fugacity,
density, and enthalpy of hydrocarbon vapors in solutions at temperatures above
the critical.
The generalized vapor pressure charts for hydrocarbons were also derived
from the linear reciprocal temperature relation with hexane used as the reference
compound. The pressure scales correspond to the vapor pressure of hexane as a
function of reciprocal temperature. The temperature scales were based on the
reciprocal relation up to 700°F, but above 700°F it was necessary to modify the
scale to secure better agreement with data on high boiling hydrocarbons and
petroleum fractions. 3
The slopes of the normal boiling point lines on the rectilinear chart and the
corresponding points on the alignment charts were based on normal paraffins.
However, with the exception of some of the lowest boiling members of the various
series, there is a good indication that these charts apply to hydrocarbons in
general. In API Research Project 42, the boiling points of a large number of
1 This is the most nearly linear of the simple vapor pressure relations, with the exception
of a similar one where the reciprocal temperatures are plott.ed at the same reduced vapor
pressures.
2Nat. Bur. Standards Circular C461 (1947).
3 Beale and Docksey, J. lnst. Petro Tech. 21, 860 (1935).
24
VAPOR PRESSURE 25
different high boiling hydrocarbons were determined at 0.5 mm, 1.0 mm, and 760
mm, and these were checked against the low-pressure alignment chart. The
average deviation was about 2°F over an average extrapolation of around 400°F,
and there was no trend between the paraffins and other hydrocarbons.
Thc cxtrapolation of the vapor pressure scale below the hexane data has been
checked indirectly by the Clapeyron equation using thermal data on hexane at
low tempcratures. Also, low-prcssure data (below 0.001 atm) on petroleum frac-
tions are in good agrecment with this correlation.
GENERAL REFERENCES
Aston, Kennedy and Schumann, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 62, 2059 (1940).
Aston and Messerly, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 62,1917 (1940).
Beale, J. Inst. Petro Tech. 22, 311 (1937).
Beattie, Hadlock and Poffenberger, J. Chem. Phys. 3, 93 (1935).
Beattie, Poffenberger and Hadlock, J. Chem. Phys. 3, 96 (1935).
Bea.ttie, Simard and Su, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 61, 24 (1939).
Bea.ttie. Su and Simard, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 61, 924 (1939).
Bekhedahl, Wood and Wojciechowski, J. Research Nat. Bur. Standards 17, 883 (1936).
Benoliel, Thesis, Pelillsylvania State College (1941).
Benson, Ind. Eng. Chern., Anal. Ed. 13, 502 (1941).
Brown and Coa.ts, Univ. of Mich. Res. Circ. Series 2 (1928).
Comrp.unication from The ::\1. W. Kellogg Co., New York, N.Y.
Dana., Jenkins, Burdick and Timm, Refrig. Eng. 12, 387 (1926).
Doss, "Physical Constants of the Principal Hydrocarbons," 4th Edition, The Texas Co.,
Ega.n and Kemp, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 59, 1264 (1937).
Francis and Robbins, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 55, 4339 (1933).
Frolich and Copson, Ind. Eng. Chern. 21, 111G (1929).
Garner, Adams anu Stuchell, Refiner 21, 321 (1942).
Hei ig, J. Am. Chern. Soc. 55, 230-:1: (1933).
Heisig anu Davis, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 57, 339 (1935).
Heisig and Hurd, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 55,3485 (1933).
Ingersoll, Thesis, Mass. Inst. Tech. (1930).
Intel'l1ationa.l Critical T:1bles, Vol. III.
Kassel, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 58, 670 (193G).
Kay, Ind. Eng. Chem. 30, 459 (1938).
Kisti:1kowsky and Ricc, J. Chem. Phys. 8, 610 (1940).
Kistiakowsky, Ruhoff, Smith and Vaughan, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 57,876 (1935); 58,146 (1936).
Krase and Goodman, Ind. Eng. Chem. 22, 13 (1930).
Lamb and Roper, J. Am. Chern. Soc. 62, 806 (1940).
Kinuer, J. Phys. Chem. 35, 531 (1931).
Livingston and Heisig, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 52,2409 (1930).
Loomis and Walters, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 48, 2051 (1926).
Maxwell, Ind. Eng. Chem. 24, 502 (1932).
Morehouse and Maass, Can. J. Research 5, 307 (1931); .11, G37 (1934).
26 DATA BOOK ON HYDROCARBO S
Nieuwland, Calcott, Downing and Carter, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 53,4197 (1931).
Pitzer and Scott, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 65, 803 (1943).
Rintelen, Saylor and Gross, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 59, 1129 (1937).
Sage, Lacey and Schaafsma, Ind. Eng. Chem. 26, 214, 1218 (1934).
Sage, Webster and Lacey, Ind. Eng. Chem. 29, 658 (1937).
Schmidt, Thesis, Paris (1934:).
Stuckey ll,nd Saylor, J. Am. Chem. So:;. G2, 2J~ (1940).
Vaughan, J. Am. Chem. Soc. M, 3863 (1£::>2).
Vaughan and Graves, Ind. Eng. Chem. 32, 12.;>2 (1940).
Wiebe and Brcevoort, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 52, 622 (1930).
Wiebe, Hubbard and Breevoort, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 52, 611 (1930) .
•
_~: 4-
.-- - ::l
H-
H-
'!' --
80
70
60
50
40
-_.~
30
20
-;-
-300 -200 o 100 200
27
-2'50 -200 -150 -100
.8 - -- ~.-
~
.. - , ~
l--:r. ~
.1
.6 VAPOR PRESSURE OF
.5 ETHANE AND ETHYLENE
.4
.3
.2 200
.08 80
.07 70
.06 60
.()5 50
.04 40
.-
.O~ 30
.02 20
all',
II
.1
~
_. ...-
gr
, 4
-200 -tOO o 100 200 300 400

28
-100 -50
- ,-;;.,,", ::T:-E.=:io€-~:ff-' le"", '~7,k ,,,="
i- ~ ::ri..:r--,~f.':'=j-:', ,c.:.~3':!..J
-' =
.1
..6 -, , =
.5
VAPOR PRESSURE OF
PROPANE AND PROPYLENE
.4
+- , '+:
.3
--H
.2 200
.1 ~
100
.09 r= _ 90
.08
.07 ''''' " - -t-t=f 70
!CA_~{~!
.06 -,.!~
60
.05 ''f'
50
.04 40
.03 30
.02 20
II 10
-'I=.:f.: " 9
.009
,008 8
-'
.001 7
IXXJ 6
.005 5
=r
4
T
o 100 200 300 400 500
29
50
·5 - VAPOR PRESSURE
.4
OF BUTANES AND 8UTENES
:II+-_~,
..3
.2 200
30
I II
. II II
.01 ~-====47 -
1
I /I
I I V V 1/ I
o tOO 200 300 400 500
30
t.O -roo o 50
.9 p.
: ::r=tfel. ·-:-r-·:
~-.g: -I'
VAPOR PRESSURE OF -- ~ ...

::T'
.5 ~ PENTANE AND ISOPENTANE
.3
.2 '200
11 I
.€ ==':.f"_
-=I:: :t=:!-~:. _ 90
!:::f 80
.07 1=l;.T:,: 70
.06 60
.05 50
.()4 40
30
.02 20
I I Q'
.01 .- - , . :~ ± .§'
-',--.
.OOQ -:. .: - ":'::. - .
,008 - -- 8
.007 - l:±- ,=: 7
.006 6
- H
.005 5
.004 4
- _.
.003
- I::±l
.002 2
It .
.00IU-J....l....L.LLL.JLJ...,U.I-......AJ...J...Iu1t.U./-l..'~~I~J.:..z.J,;.W-l...l-J...J.-l...J..J..1..J..J...J...L..J...J..J..J..J...J...IW-L...J.-l....J.-l...J..J..u..J-U...J...J..J..J..1..J..J...J...L-U
100 200 300 400 500 600
31
l--. .-.---------
-100
.9
.8
..,
.5
-50
- 1 I f t i j - -.:.~
';-..::
="=±
0
T.~:
50
':
.
'.':~:
: .....
-
100 ISO
VAPOR PRESSURE
.4
OF HEXANE
.a 200
I~
.1 -t... .
" "c't._',_ . ~. ,.. -,-V-FFl 100
-fl :.~,"'f> :. 'c: -
_. '--J-;,'
:: t~ :'':' - _"':4'_ .•••.-.t r-- ~-;:=::;=:I 90
.09
:::'.-:x':~ ::~-,.
--. :r.' ,-- '-,-,
, 'f--X:==, T.:i::-'~
=- __.---7l~:.
==1':::. ' -I:' ' =l:
80
.07
-17 . n- .- ~, .. -'-+- , - 70
.06 60
.05 50
.04 40
.03 30
.02 20
.'
r
I /
;=;=. ~ 11.,,':.. '.,~':'1. ,~f:~T ~.~:~I
-, -. . ,.. =.-1-=!iiC:l 10
9
£ .'f=:£:i=E j~ --!' _:. ,_ ,. ~ - ' = -
.008 .''=8, !E::-l,=.:l3:: ' ,-J.'
9
.OOf --:=;::1:'. :t+= 'r: ~t:.:~ 7
1-.. -- -
.006 - -, ,~.
6
.00 5
4
.003 3
I II .•
I I I I ;.,
32
-50 0 50 100 150 200
.8 . =-= ::::.C ·=--==~~-:'~';'_~c~"=§=:l~F-=~. . _--< =:h:b-~-
.1-'-.
~=t=t::= ~=;:: H
.5
VAPOR PRESSURE
.4
OF HEPTANE
.3
~t:
.2 200
~~"'~~'t:g~E~ 'fg
-= . .: ~." 70
=t...: 60
50
40
30
20
H-H-++-H-t--t-++-t-f-fH--f-+-HH-+++!
10
=f:'~= ~", ~::.~f ~;; -:~-=:.= 'C, E.: ~! :t+' - §j:, = ~ - -. '._. ... .-
:;:::=.;. 9
.008 ,..:::::: 8
.em f-:-. :-'~"'-""::l: .= .. 7
.i=i= I/.·~ . '-;- 1-.; ':-i-:'- .1=;""<- H
.::t± t':i::~. ::-J: :.
.006' l::::tl" ~- ..... : 6
..:p. ";J- t-
.005 H-- 5
.0 4
. c;::::= .
·+--'---~"'H _.-.
c-F-¥+'·~f-C.,....=·
r- _ L:.I .. I-:=±:
'-.q:: Xt__ 1-- .. !-' . ; .
.003 --l- . '--.-1-1- .. 3
_J
.002 2
33
50 100 ISO 200 250
1.0
.9
=I-·,~-,,::'~,':7~,£::I-,-:.-~:: -~~ -
.8 =F~:::l~+:- ..: .
- -f-
.7
.6
.5
VAPOR PRESSURE
:4
OF OCTANE
~'. --;
-I- ' ':,::J
.2
,'+'++++++++++++++++H-J-H
"
...:' - t - •
100
_ 90
.01 70
.06 60
.05
.04
:
,
.0/ 'I
A
" , -1---J---~--1-I-I-
.009
.009
.007
DOG
.005
I-
J-+-tft-t-H-t-t
f-
"
i I i
200 300 400 500 600 700' 800
34
:1..-=
VAPOR PRESSURE
OF C3 UNSATURATES
3 ,~-. -'-" -, _I-~-~.
. - '-~:j=~~ -Ej ~I= --,..~

r'
-:1#
., -
to t-:~- 300
.1-/ j-++ -l-+
++y.j
·2 W- 200
I W-
1- 1
.J
I
.1'". 1
II l'
I l'i I I I I
o 100 200 300 41)0 500
35
1.0
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
_'00 -!'>("} () 50
-
.::
VAPOR PRESSURE
.3
OF C4 UNSATURATES
,
-I
.2 200
I ~
''1
,-, ~- ~ r/~
I r I.~
_I
-a
.1
.09
.08
.07
.- -
~, ~----.
- =Z:~-E§,.;:.
-:'E -~ -~:
t'- ~ ~
'ill_.
.,'=" :
_.-. .
_.
)/:
- ~
~--
..
I l" I"
-I:
-:J 7o
00
o
o
;:::t::T-
-- - 6 o
.06 ~ t- -,
.os :;t 5o
, t-
.04 _. 40
- -
_.-
.03 30
.02 -o
, ~
Il"l-II
I II m ~
.01 III I I I ~ ~ I o
.- . 9
~
.B.P. CRITICAL PT.

- 8
~
COMPOUND of of ATM.
7
1,3 BUTADIENE 24.1 308 45 .
6
11 VINYLACETYLENE 42 365* 75 v 5
ETHYL ACETYLENE 47.7 375 65 v
DIMETHYL ACETYLENE 80.4 420 60 v 4
* ESTIMATED v VAPOR PRESSURE CURVE

3
I
I
II
o 100 200 300 400 500
36
1.0
,9
.8
.7
-.
..
.
100
=r-
0_
_0-
.
.... .
.
•
150
0
-
---
.
200
..
.6 VAPOR PRESSURE OF
.5 BENZENE AND TOLUENE
.4 o~ . --
~=
.~ -
.2
.t
.09
.08
.07
.06
..
.- .
I
I
I I
,~f ~
:t=l=
ti
...
.
.
'-1":
'0
. I 00
9o
8o
7o
6o
,
..
o.
.05 ~+ ~:
5o
0
, ,
.04 0- ... ..... 4o
.
- 1-4-
- ·i-r~-
3 o
+-
.02 j~rc
'X 2 o
1-'
. I
.01 1/ I
- '=' .
I
I o
009 .. 9
.
.008 . ..
0-
.8
.007 0
0- .7
.006 6
.005
0
.004 4
-Hi
.003 . - 3
-ti
I
.002 , 2
I
,I -
.001 I I
I
:
I
I
oir:'1
Ie . . I I
200 300 400 500 600 700
37
50 100 150 2o0 250 300
1.0 -
W~
.
.9 -.- . - .
-
.. .. . -~-
..
M '. - ..
'-
-
.8 _. . -
.7 VAPOR PRESSURE
i=1-1=l=1=!.
.6 OF Ce AROMATICS
..
.5 --
- =). ..
.4 COMPOUND B.P. CRITICAL POINT

r-'
~ r
:+
.
=.l
~ ~ ..AItL --
.3 ETHYL8ENZENE 271.1 655 38
p-XYLENE 281.0 652 35 V
- --J
m-XYLENE 282.4 655" 36 V

.2 o -XYLENE 292.0 675 37
*ESnMAlD1 V- VAPOR PRESSURE
.
CURVE
, .. " ..--.. ,
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I L I , I
.1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I1'Y I .. I00
.09 90
.08 8o
.07 7o
.06 o
.05 5o
t+
.04 - 4o
.03 30
..
.02
:.t: - 2 o
.. -l
-I- ~
. i+ ,.. -
Ie;
.01 .. - . -
..
Vl-1-
IIi
. ..
- .. .-
-
...
.. -1 +c -' .-.a:- o
!-1-+-
' 1.-= rot·:j;·
I
~
'j'
:g I9
~'ffJ$
=T=
- ... -:. 7 ~_ ~'=T:: .. . I j . ~'I.'1;: o.:,~ : : .- 1_ "
.009 ..... ,,-:::, - 't:-
.
,·tf·L.~",t--T-i'-=
'~
.008 - ~;=.s. - . til' -- . _.. ;- ~;/
. -- ~
.f-'i F= ' ::':1':=1:2'
-.' -=to -E-:-:- ;: . j:_-;...~-':'l:LL--..
-= F.[-~ .. A
-.
..
-- -,
1::: %.-! '-.
_I::-j,r~.
~r
·,~"-I:·:-:.fil-#- '.:\=-1--::
B="-=i::t~::.m -
.001 .. :j~Ii'Jl i,; J: :'i,i £1
... ~'1..:';_:" .... -+,+ H::- . :!-r:
=l "f.£ -7
..
--,4···
0-
=t= .. .. -' , ~ - ..
.006 6
':', -, ~::IS=.$ ,
.. ..
.,
!=1 -
.- ,}--r:R:: l=f*~
.. . .' - 1-=1-:1=
.005 - -l 5
, . -
---
.-
....
- :",~ .
,
VAPOR PRESSURE OF P - XYLENE
.004 - - , .. 4
.. .. EQUALS VAPOR PRESSURE OF
.. ETHYLBENZENE MULTIPLIED BY .950 ~
.003 --l
3
='
.002 2
.00I
II II '1
.1 I
J
'1
-
300 00 500 600 700 eoo
38
.9
.8
.7
.6
100 -50
.' - 50 too
~
~. . .
.f"!--1-:- VAPOR PRESSURE

.5
~: ,H OF CYCLOPARAFFlNS
.
.3 ~
- .'.
.2
. r--
I
I
Ii ( I
.I~00
.08 80
.07 70
.06 60
.05 50
,04 40
.03 30
.02 20
++-l-l--JTf·-++-J.,l;~I)ll-HH-I++-H-++++-H-H-IH-l++++-t++-H-
:01 • ..1_ I
10
.009 9
.006 ,g: 8
COMPOUND B. P. CRITICAL POINT
.007 of. ~ ATM. 7
.OO6~ 470* 46 V 6
CYCLOPENTANE I 2 0 .7
,005 tt1'CYCLOPENTANE 161. 3 520* 42 V 5
CYCLOHEXANE 177.3 538 40.4
004 '-
1
.' 4
*EsrIMATED V- VAPOR PRESSURE CURVE
·003 3
.002 2
39
.00001
1200 VAPOR PRESSURE OF HYDROCARBONS 01
1100 LOW PRESSURE RANGE, 0.00001-1.0 ATMOSPHERES .00002

02
1000 .00003
.00004 .Q3
900
.04
.00006
800 .06
.00008
.0001 .08
700 - 0.1
~
.0002
\'2-00
600 0.2
.0003
.0004 03
04
500 .0006
.0008 06
.001 08
1.0
400
.002
u. 2.0
0 0 .003
~
~I
350 I
w ~ .004 3.0
0=
::> I w
~ w 4.0 ~
0= u-
0= .006 (j)
300 w 0
::>
(f)
(j)
0..
~
\ (f) .008 6.0 ~
W
~
W Q.
0= .01 8.0 a::
f-
a0... 0..
0= 10 ~
250 19 0
~ 0.. ~
~ ~ .02
~
20
-l .03
200 ~ .04 30
~
40
.06
.08 60
150 0.1 80
100
0.2
100 200
0.3
0.4 300
400
0.6
0.8 600
50 1.0
40
1200
VAPOR PRESSURE OF HYDROCARBONS 0.1 1.0
1100 HIGH PRESSURE RANGE, 0.1-100.0 ATMOSPHERES
20
1000 \'(..00
900 \ \QO 0.2 3.0
\000
800 40
9 00 0.3
5.0
700
0.4 60
0.5 7.0 ~
600 8.0
0.6 90
~
0.7 10
"\ 08
~ 0.9
500 '6
c- 1.0
~':)
Q(p 20
ui
400
-a (f)
w
0::
en
<l
~ w
5: 2.0 30
~
u..
0
~ (f)
c;
(f)
0 "-
350 I ~ vi
w t- 40 en
0:: <l3.0 ..J
::J I I
t- 50 w
<l W
o:: 0::
0::
300 w ~4.0 60 ::J
a.. (f)
(f)
(f)
~
g:w 5.0
w w
70 0::
t-
80 a..
0::
250 ~6.0 90 0
~ 7.0 100 a..
~
;;> 8.0
9.0
10
200
200
150 20 300
400
30
500
100 40 600
700
50
800
60 900
70 1000
sJ 80
90
100 1500
41
fOO&> ' , toe 150 200 250 ~O 350 400 450 500 550 600 650'700 aoo 900 1000 1100 ~
80 T PEn'Ll-TURE - OF , . . '!-t _ : ,~_ .,: ,~ 80
60 . VAPOR PRESSURE . I, -tY.~ "~..." . ' ,. 60

40 OF HYDROCARBONS 1 -ll'
;-r; I 40
3 0 , Y . . I 30
. ,
20 lA' ~ ' I I '''' " • I I I •• , " I 20
lliJd1.LLJL!
1t-nIlIVi 1
I0 I ..-r I ,.A' I , " , ".A' I I 1/, J 117.r I 'f' TVi T T ;/1 I0
ao I • " " , ao
60 ' , I
'" I ,
., ~ ,-,...
,
60
+ f7t; ~
I t .1 I I
40 ,~I I , I : '~ 4.0

3.0 I I 1./ I r 1 I. ' /i I I 3.0
1"-: I I ' L ~ ~ I • i
2.0
;1;
.L. I ~' ! ... t 1 J f~ 'I - -1 l J....L.. i: LI'_' I 1. : t I 2.0
.~
~ -+-~., • .'7'<~ ~" ~ ' , , ,~W ~

::E+-
~~ ~ ~7fF1"~~,~-'-"- ,~ m
~L--r+-+-'- +-
::!",~_,-:::
~~
~rTTTTT~
.4~-::±
.6 '';'''= ~<-~_
_ ~ 'P-~~~
I-l- ~ jJ
_~. .LL, x'-<~,'
~~~.gH-t+I-IIdjctti+b~" ,~ ~
' . ' , m I4+t=1;~J
~ ,t+
~ ~
1.01'-
'" "A I
.8 .>'
~--WL ~'
r++ttl +,#tT Jc.l" U-tdc
~'
. =i=rc
=
L -' ' '-' • ' ........
;, <r '+-<- -++ '"' _,.'YO ,L ""' , 14-' ' ". 7frtr"fo
~
~ '§! >--L ' ' ....,m
crT f-H,f' L! ' ,- "i:1'
144 """ , ,vII
:frh+l>H+-be l'l I
~ +l-t:-H-l ~
2 0,1=+,.±'-- , '-, H-+J,:"* 2 Tt++" - ' ' I "
1-+- zt:---T"'"7Eff± JZ '-'.... l±!=J'
._c-'-
'
~ ~ ~. d='-=' -~--i:-.""'~~" ~ ,~v

' " 0 L '.,<.I. ,
' " r ' tT ",- ,-i--;..:,t-,--
;:',~,A ~'~~~K~~I/ ,,~. ,=.t~::::a:

.oaE1=!=8- , +
LtA--- , ,_ '=' , ' '
>!'H+f!-if :, ',l1'tzj-;·
17fiiT~.2f=+_
, ==~",~ '. ~= ~==t-r~
:~I
: ~..;=z'L-[A.i
=.: '~" = ~ ~ o~.
.Q6.... ' ' _, +
=<±+-' . ' te
-rttT:--'" COf tl; , ' _' " ,-of+!-' '
~ ~ !fffR"
,-L' " , IW
-++-, ,__ ' ""
e=~"~I+~,'-
7'---'I '" .'" . ' ,'
" p,'"
I
_,_
rCoL '
=-=-'-'- r::'iIi-
- ~£":2i"
+..rm.;w!t%'
s..:x
,TT - -,'''' 0::
~ ~ = :ttl!~ ~I
+-+-: II . __ " 4..
_.~~.~-. -r I'm,
=" ,47!'
'---'-'-
, , , --H-A'
I"
' ,
T 7'
- T
_,- ... ...
" .. .. =
::->f-----,
-"o.c
, ---" '
~ ..I~,!-r~r.-t
'.L~'--+++--
_. _-;,7,E-"'-
' <1
' n>,
' ;:;
""OB.
,.,." L:...:..CJ .06
.008
.006
.004
.003
.002
v TE~PERATURE -OF A '/

tt1 -" i I I " I
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 ----600 650 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
NORMAL BOILING POINT
Y! BOILING POINT AT 10 MM
t. , . ,I ."i,
.1.-
"!
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
100 200 300 400 ·500 600 700 900
43
r)H,T 1r~T _ TJ)
oPI ~ i tV/l. \. J .)
PABLO MOTTA
VAPOR PRESSURE OF GASOLINES
180 .7
.8 40
170 .9
1.0 50
160 60
70
* CURVE
SLOPE OF DISTILLATION + LOSS 1.5 80
150 ~
(A.S.T.M.). ° F@ 15'>'. - of 5°4
10 90
IN THE ABSENCE OF DISTILLATION
2.0 100
DATA THE FOLLOWING AVERAGE y
140
SLOPES MAY 8E USED:
130
LIGHT NAPHTHAS (F.B.P.-300°F)
°F/'>'.
2.5 SLOPE *
NAPHTHAS (F.B.P.-400°F) 4
01234 150
AVIATION GASOLINES 2
~ 3.0
MOTOR GASOLINES 3 2
120 0 2
en
"- ~ 4.0 200 ci
J:
(Ij 3 3
Q)
110 ...J d u.
0
I
;;: 4. 4 ~
en 5.0 ~
l&. •0 5 CD
-J
~
100 •I 5 I
2 6
.... I 300 w
L&J 6 l&J 6.0
UJ 7
0: 0: It
:::> Q:" 8 7 :::> ;:)
90 :> (J) (/)
~ en 9 8
(J)
l&J
(/)
w
0: en 10 0: 400 It
L&J UJ II 9 Q.
0.. 8.0
80
0..
::E f 12 10
It
...
l&.I
Q:"
0 16
14
12
II 0:
0
0..
0
Q.
Q.
~ 500 ~
70 § 18 14
20 L&J II us
0 16 :::> ;:)
600 It
60
W
a:
18 ...
0:
12 I-
20 13
EXAMPLE: DETERMINE THE TRUE 700
VAPOR PRESSURES AT 32°F. 100°F
14
50 AND 15Q°F OF THE FOLLOWING 15
GASOLINE: 16 800
REID VAPOR PRESS. - 9.0 LBS./SO. IN.
DISTILLATION + LOSS, 5'>'. ~ 120 OF
17 900
40 18
15'>'. (! 160 OF
19 1000
SLOPEc 160-120 .4.0 0 F/'Y. 20
30 10
TRUE VAPOR PRESSURES CORRE-
SPONDING TO A R.V.P. OF 9.0 LBS./
so. IN. AND A SLOPE OF 4.0°F/'>'.
20 ARE READ FROM THE CHART AS
FOLLOWS:
TEMPERATURE TRUE VAPOR PRESS.
OF LBs/sa. IN.
10 32 2.8
100 9.9
30
150 21.4
REFERENCE: COORDINATING RESEARCH COUNCIL (CRC) HANDBOOK. PP. 244-254 (1946)
44
Section 5
FUGACITY
Raoult's Law
If two or more compounds form an ideal solution in the liquid phase, and if
the saturated vapors of the individual components are perfect gases, the system has
been termed an ideal system.! For such a system the partial vapor pressure of
any component may be calculated from the composition of the liquid phase by
Raoult's Law and from the composition of the vapor phase by Dalton's Law. An
equation of these two expressions gives the liquid-vapor equilibrium relation for
any component, i where i = 1, 2, ... , n:
Pi = PiXi = 7rYi (1 )
or yi/Xi == P i /7r = Ki (2)
where Pi = partial pressure of i
Pi = saturated vapor pressure of i
Xi = mole fraction of i in the liquid phase
Yi = mole fraction of i in the vapor phase
7r = total (vapor) pressure of the system
Ki = vapor-liquid equilibrium constant for i at the temperature and pressure
of the system
The above equation, usually referred to as the Raoult's Law relation, is true
only for ideal systems, ,as defined above. However, it is usually a good approxima-
tion for mixtures of homologues and, in general, for mixtures of chemically similar
compounds, if none of the saturated 'vapors at the equilibrium temperature deviate
too greatly from a perfect gas.
Up to moderate pressures (several atmospheres) hydrocarbon mixtures fre-
quently fall within the scope of the Raoult's Law relation. However, its applica-
tion to these mixtures is rather limited because of the wide differences usually
encountered between the boiling points of the most volatile and least volatile
components. This results in equilibrium temperatures at which the saturated
vapors of the lowest boiling components deviate considerably from a perfect gas,
even though the equilibrium pressure of the system may be relatively low.
I Gamson and Watson, Nat. Petroleum News} Technical Section 36, R-258 (1944).
45
Fugacity Functions
In order to improve the accuracy in predicting vapor-liquid cquilibrium con-
stants for hydrocarbons at higher pressures, Lewis and Luke 2 and other investi-
gators replaced the pressures in equations (1) and (2) by -analogous fugacities for
any component, i, whereby:
Ii = fpiXi = fnYi (3)
or Yi/Xi = fpdf.Tri = Ki (4)
where fi = fugaci·ty of i in either phase of the system

fpi = fugacity of i as a pure saturated liquid (or vapor) at its vapor pressure
corresponding to the equilibrium temperature of the system
f-rri = fugacity of i as a pure vapor at the equilibrium temperature and pressure
of the system
Generalized correlations have been developed for the r-atio of fugacity to

pressure for pure hydrocarbons as a function of reduced temperature and reduced
pressure. A correlation of this type (pages 62 and 63) was used in conjunction
with the vapor pressure charts to develop the fugacity function charts for indi-
vidual hydrocarbons. 3 The fugacity function given by these charts, 7rfp/!-rr, may
be considered a corrected vapor pressure and used in place of the latter in ~ny
equation pertaining to liquid-vapor equiiibrium such as equations (1) and (2).
These simple fugacity relations greatly extend the pressure range for which
liquid-vapor equilibria for hydrocarbon systems may be predicted with con-
fidence, and can be used up to equilibrium pressures of 20 to 25 atm with a fair de-
gree of accuracy. Beyond these pressures and especially as the critical point of the
mixture is approached, serious deviations from true equilibrium conditions are
encountered. Under these circumstances, the assumptions of ideal mixtures no
longer hold and the fugacities of the individual compounds are dependent upon
the compositions of the liquid and vapor phases as well as temperature and
pressure.
In the region where the simple fugacity relations no longer apply and conse-
quently beyond the scope of the present charts, there are data in the literature on
a number of specific binary and multicomponent hydrocarbon systems. Also, The
M. W. Kellogg 00. 4 has published an excellent correlation for lig~1t paraffin and
olefin hydrocarbons in which the fugacities of the individual compounds are
given as a function of the molal average boiling points of the liquid and vapor
2 Lewis and Luke, Trans. Am. Soc. M echo Engrs. 54, 55 (1932).
a This method was actually used only up to the critical temperature of each compound.
Beyond this point values were calculated from more general fugacity correlations developed
by The M. W. Kellogg Co. to avoid using extrapolated vapor pressure curves.
4"Liquid-Vapor Equilibria in Mixtures of Light Hydrocarbons," The M. W. Kellogg
Co., New York, N. Y. (1950).
FUGA CITY 47
phases in additi on to the equilib rium tempe rature and pressu
re. The Kellogg
correl ation was derive d from the applic ation of exact therm odyna
mic relatio ns to
a comprehensive equati on of state for pure hydro carbon vapors
and liquids and
their mixtur es. 5
If, in additi on to hydro carbon v-apors, other gases (air, H , CO
2 , etc.) are
presen t in the vapor phase, it is recom mende d that an effective pressu 2
re, equal to
the produ ct of the total pressu re multip lied by the square root of the
mole fractio n
of the entire hydro carbon portio n of the vapor, or 7r-VV;;;, be used
in determ ining
the fugacities of the indivi dual hydroc arbons . Fragm entary data
have indioa ted
that this effective pressu re gives better results than either the total
pressure, 7r,
or partia l hydro carbon pressure, 7r'YHC, for determ ining indivi dual
fugacities. Then,
after the fugacities or fugaci ty functio ns have been read from the
charts , the total
pressure is again used as a basis for all equilibl:ium calcul ations
. The following
examp le illustr ates the applic ation of the fugaci ty functi on charts
when other
gases are presen t in the vapor phase:
Examp le 1. Determ ine the pressu re and composition of the
liquid phase in
equilib rium with a vapor of the following composition at gO°F:
1st Trial 2nd Trial Interpo lation

Vapor. 1l' = 25 atm 11" = 20 I1tm
Component = 21.8 atm
Mole Fract. 1I"e = 21.5 atm 1I"e = 17.2 atm 11"
F, atm x F, atm x x
Air 0.040 * -
H2 .220
* - -
* - * - -
CH 4 .280 180 0.039 180 0.031 0.034
C2H6 .175 38.0 .115 36.0 .097 .104
C3Hs .160 13.5 .296 12.7 .252 .269
C 4H 1O .125 4.9 .637 4.4 .[;68 .593
1.000 1.087 0.948 1.000
• In this example, the fugacity functions of air and H2 are conside
red to be infinite.
where 7r = total equilib rium pressu re
7re = 7rVO.740 = effective pressu re used to determ ine fugaci ty functio
ns
F = 7rfp/!1I" = fugaci ty functi on for pure hydroc arbons
x = 7rY/ F
~ Relati ve Volati lity
Since relativ e volati lity is quite useful in fractio nation problems,
curves for
the relativ e volatil ities of light unsatu rates and isoparaffins to the
corresponding
norma l paraffins are given on pages 64 to 66. The curves for the
C 4 unsatu rates
IS Benedict, Webb and Rubin, J. Chem. Phys. 8, 334 (1940); 10, 7474
(1942).
inay also be used in conjunction with the normal butane fugacity chart to predict
fugacity functions for these compounds.
Except for butadiene and the normal butenes, these relative volatility curves
were derived from the Kellogg fugacity correlation. Composition was indirectly
taken into account to some extent since the fugacities for each pair of compounds
were read at the same liquid and vapor molal average boiling points as well as
at the same temperatures and pressures.
In general, the relative volatility charts may be considered to have a some-
what greater range of applicability than the simple fugacity charts. They may be
used up to 25 atm, irrespective of the composition of the liquid and vapor phases ~
of the mixture; beyond this pressure their application is limited to systems in
which there is a difference of at least 75°F between the molal average boiling
points of the two phases, but under no circumstancel? should the curves be extra-
polated. While all of the curves may be considered to be accurate within 25% for
the relative volatility minus one (0; - 1), deviations from the solid curves rarely
exceed 15% for this difference.
Chemical Structure and Liquid Activity Coefficients
When components in a hydrocarbon mixture are quite dissimilar chemically,
the liquid phase may deviate appreciably from an ideal solution. This effect of
chemical structure is not taken into account in any of the fugacity correlations
heretofore considered. It has been mentioned that in correlations of the Kellogg
type, fugacity is a function of the liquid and vapor compositions, but only with
respect to components of similar chemical structure.
To correct for chemical dissimilarity in solutions of light hydrocarbons in
absorber oils, liquid activity coefficients are given for these light hydrocarbons on
page 67. Within the range of the data these activity coefficients were practically
independent of temperature (100°F and 220°F) and pressure (500 psia and 1000
psia) .
GENERAL REFERENCES
Brown, Souders and Smith, Ind. Eng. Chem. 24, 513 (1932).
Dean and Tooke, Ind. Eng. Chem. 38, 389 (1946).
Hadden, Chem. Eng. Progress 44, 37 (1948).
Kay, Chem. Revs. 29, 501 (1941).
Lewis, Ind. Eng. Chem. 28, 257 (1936).
Lewis and Kay, Oil and Gas J. 32, 40 (1934). .
Lewis and Randall, "Thermodynamics," pp. 190-198, McGraw-Hill Book Co. (1923).
Nelson and Bonnell, Ind. Eng. Chem. 36, 204 (1943).
Sage and Lacey, Ind. Eng. Chem. 30, 1296 (1938).
·~- ..
-t-t-
oj-or
FUGACITY FUNCTION 1m
~T:~ OF METHANE
_. t
-l- .
200
r
'I i v. I _
100
. ':.;= ~:-:.:F-~:-~- -. -::-± .• -~
-;':~i:£ J:- 10 I::f.;=+
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
~:.,~
=~~~
-'- :.=;-
=:=.
: :.-;;!
I
j. p-L~-t.: :~- .
~/J::.1~·_-,2? ~E§=
- •
_
.j... -
- 10
8
7
6
5
9
,
..::~
4
-300 -200 -100 o 100 200 300
49
&I
.
..
F~~~CITY FUN~TI~N
OF ETHYLENE
I r
+-
- .. I-- ~
1 00
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
- •• _I~
8
7
6
5
4
-200 -100 o 100 200 300
50
-~= -
~ --- -- - --
~
- --
FUGACITY FUNCTION
=
=
=
=
OF ETHANE =
--
=
- ~
00
• - - --
--
--
-
-
- - --
- -
--
-
- ~t a -
-
-
--
-
-- -
-
-
---
I 00
90
80
70
60
--
50
40
30
20
~
/ 10
- -
~ -
--
-'
- -rl=Fl
9
- - 8
7
6
5
-zoo -100 o 100 zoo 300
51
--
o
-
-200 -100
1.0 - .
0.9 .=a=::-
0.8
0.7 -c
0.6 /M FUGACITY FUNCTION
0.5 OF PROPYLENE
0.4 - -
0.3
0.2
I~
/1
AI
II If I I 00
0.1
90
80
70
60
... 50
40
30
20
I-
-,
I I IJ
iii 10
9
8
II 7
6
5
4
-100 o 100 200 300 400

52
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
-200 -100
i
o
,
0:;
-
FUGACITY FUNCTION.
-
0.5 OF PROPANE :: -
0.4 - . -. -+-+-l
-
0.3
0.2
0.1
.. ~ i I 00
90
80
70
60
50
- 40
30
11 20
-(
If
V
I
iW
'. II
10
-
, • 9
8
7
6
• I
-+- 5
~
4
l.
3
-l-
, , . 2
- "'T I J
I
I ,
i,""'"
-ir- I
I
~
I I L
!..ll If .-L~ c.:.'_ _,- __.x. I
-j(jO o 100 200 300 400
53
__ :T"-~
,- FUGACITY FUNCTIO:lI
"-
OF ISOBUTANE ::
,
~
- r
t
0.2
"1J;:,f-;t--l+++H Ifl+I-I-/HI-H+-I--+
, I
'I
I
~l--
ElIOO
=3...J - ~ 90
. ~l='- ,- 80
70
60
50
40
___ t:::t:::t:=t=J:
30
20
I.-
~
t;-
o r+- -H-lH+I--t+H+t++-H+-H+-l-H-++++H+H-I-+-1-++I-I4-IA+:I4-jll--W-+-I-l--!-l-l--+-W-!-W~-I--l
1
I It
~:-:- 3:,-'=i-- -i-:-(=F" ""-- =- - ..;
-~Ig
.!- '7 -...t.~ ~-- .~~.l -- --t.-
8
7
6
5
3
-I- -
1/111
I 1/
-tOO o tOO 200 300 400
54
o 100
·i-tll- f:.Tfl ~aii--~f~

"':::-l_ -~
-!!III
~---.-.
--r=..t= :.
-, FUGACITY FUNCTION [~I--

8+
r:
-f- I- OF BUTANE §i=-I
- ffP-i' -:-.:~. '- Ii §
_,.-,_-r-F ~~ H-".IEI:- ~=8::=
--=+:~-
- --'-+-
'--4-=1=
0.2
1111
I
j:-t-;' 100
--. 90
±:'--;
-- 7 .. -f~- 3f~ 80
70
I--l.-r·~· - ..: ,.J~ 51~
->-.- 60
I !_-l ~~:
=t--+=!'- t-
,~
f---
50
...::;C :-I., 40
~ i7
.- 30
20
1/
j
=. ---:::-:~-_.
-,.. 10
-. ~r_ ~_r=-- ~ ~ -~_
9
1=I
8
j:::f 7
... , .-1'\)
-f- 6
5
4
..
. . ..-
• r-
-
~E::: :;=. :7t;- ~
3
I I
I
H--i--H-+-t-l---H-++-+-+-+-IH-+++-t--HH-++-+-+--HH- 'I - - LIl-lH--H..j-+-HH--H-++-HH--H-++-H-+-H-++-H-+-~--H-j
I
I
-100 o 100 200 300 400
55
-100 a 100
0.9
0.6
0.7
0.6 ~ FUGACITY FUNCTION
-
~.
0.5 OF ISOPENTANE ~
:
0.4
0.3
0.2
t I I
40
30
20
I
I
I
IjjjT±-;1-±±ttttjjjttt::t:t:tttttlltJzt~~:tt:t1tttt:!i!~~~~:t;;'tr~t'ttt:r~;r~11!!!t:!=1
o 100 200 300 400 500
56
1
H-++++ -H-++-- H-t-f-+- t--H 1
't+t-i-:+t+' ., -"1f-f-+-
I H--H-+ t-H-t-f- +-H-+t +t-H-t- f-+-H-+ t+t-Hf- f-t-I-t-t --H-H- Hf-f-t
--:
50
= 40
... 30
17'
. • 1 I~ :¥T 1
17' 20
If
11 ,
It .+-H-H-H-H-i+H-H-H-H-H-H-H-H-H-+++++
+++++-hI"'H-T+-H'-H'<H-++++Tt-++++--
H~t-H
-
. I
!/
II I -
,"
::E- o- ,-:= :::c.J' :~~ 10
_~c:~~'% .)e;d _. 9
~ ~~ :-r' '. ';: ~~. E' 8
.~' ~-- r-+-' 7
/~ :-='/--::- r:t=-1=' '~.:i=d-. ~ ,.-.
.,;- 6
5
, , 1= 4
-:!=.::l~·::r!.::
H- 3
-+- ~~.~!-:. -.
--
.e.;-::!::C
1""- -
1-1-
2
a 100 200 300 400 500

57
o 100 200
.... . (
0.9
0.8
::E;'?:::f ~i=ft. -I/~~ ± .~ E . .
I....:_!c·~
E'-=H'
•
.CE1. FF' .::t::;::
0.7
,:: ~
0.6 :t FUGACITY FUNCTION
0.5 OF HEXANE ::::
0.4
~/~ ... =
....
:~ :4'; i'c = ......
t-
0.3
,--'
0.2
I
I
~IOO
c.., ~90
'. .
~
80
.£ -:- ...... - • - ~t--
~-."'-
_ "- --4-
70
.. ..=l=E ~--::-"'::: . . . . ~'-, - '-!-
_., .... ''- 60

-=..-_"- """T
-!--,- 50
I -"'-r-- 40
o ._
30
20
Ii
I
I I .I
- :t:-.t=: _ :-~ .;:~ •. ::..: '-i-:;:-_ .I~
.: ;:::;:-~. ::H:~;:-: . =r-r :-E~.·U·~· "
-r:±: . -0--
'1:';=1....".[ .:~t""e§::l=:
:t=t:: ...c.. r=::::t:::::t=t:
e
7
=r- =j---:-' ~~ 6
3
,
t:b::
2
... -
, 1/- V
!
I I I I
0 100 200 300 400 500
58
100 200 300
I.O~
O.9~
0.8
0.7 ;::. I=l=I
0.6 § FUGACITY FUNCTION
~
0.5 ~ OF HEPTANE
0.4
=
-
~.
-->-,- ~
-
-'f
0.3 -8 -
0.2
ClhHH-+-++++-++-H-Il--JI+-H--H--I-HH-+-++-
-
'T II
I
0.09 '
0.08
0.07
0.06
o 0.05
o 0.04
0.03
o 0.02 20
~ ..
!/
1I
100 200 300 400 500
59
100 200 300
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
~
E
FUGACITY FUNCTION
OF OCTANE
1~
0.2 :
0.08
0.07
I
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03 30
0.02 20
++++H-H··t-H-+-++ I-f--H-H-+'++++++-++I-I-f--H-+--J----I--++++++-hj£.j-I-I-hjoq~
-+--I--t-+-t-+++-+-+-+4 '
-t'i-"'Fff J.
-1:- .-'-= +ie,'}l
. t= I. t=:± =Lfi
.f- f-L - F.'r
1 ::-~ ...
& I-~
~
- f:::j:. - -' 4
- ~~rj'
,-, .
• +-t- ~ ±-l-I' -
3
II II
100 200 300 400 500
GO
FUGACITY FUNCTION
OF HYDROGEN
p
::; THE FUGACITY FUNCTION OF HYDROGEN. IT"fplfll'' IS BASED ON A
P PARAFFIN SOLVENT HAVING A MOLECULAR WEIG HT OF 114 (OCTANE).
~ FOR OTHER SOLVENTS MULTIPLY THIS FUGACITY FUNCTION BY THE
..... CORRECnON FACTORS, A, FOR MOLECULAR WEIGHT, AND FOR e.
tHw CHARACTERIZATION FACTOR OF THE SOLVENT~
THIS CHART DOES NOT APPLY AT TEMPERATURES GREATER THAN
0.95 TIMES THE PSEUDO-CRITICAL TEMPERATURE* (OR) OF THE
LIQUID PHASE.
*
T pc: XH (60) + X HC (T HC )
I I I I I I I . I -r
2000
o
. _..
- __-··_··-0 ,
==- ,
-- ._. --
~.
-
K:l 50 100 150 200 250 300
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
.... I
0.6
40 60 80 100 120 140 IGO
61
.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .1 .8 9 10
1 ~.O
11 12 13
.9 9
.8 .8
.7
.6 .6
.5 .. T-
.5
=
A
"':~-:. -
fLr =- - ~~ .
II-
f p IP VS PIPe FOR LIQUID PHASE
flT/IT VS IT/Pc FOR VAPOR PHASE
.S
i'
FUGACITY OF HYDROCARBON VAPORS lJ

.2
-, h
,6.. -;fu. ~ tl:f
.1·...,;....+..........."
~
It
+.-!
.1
RE~ERENCE: LEWIS AND KAY. OIL AND GAS J. 32. NO. 45, 40 (MARCH 29, 1934)
o .1 .2 .~ .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 J.2 1.3 1.4

• 62
4 ',4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 l.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 32 3.4 3.6 3.8
I. 0
FUGACITY OF HYDROCARBON VAPORS

.9
. ~ ..
.8 .9
.7 .7 .7
.6 .6 .6
.5 .5
A .4
.2
ot.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 16 18 4.0
o
63
RELATIVE VOLATILITY
<-
OF LIGHT HYDROCARBONS
2.00
1.80
1.70
.-++- .~
1.60
ETHYLENE (ETHANE
1.50 -::1:; . , -_l
::l"-
1.40
~+
1.30 - ,
1.20
1.10
1.00
:r
-100 0 100 200 300 400
:h
1.40
1,30
PROPYLENE/PROPANE
Ir.
1.20 , - .
1 ~
1,10
1.00
• -100 0 100 200 4C0
RELATIVE VOLATILITY
;OF LIGHT HYDROCARBONS
I J
1.30 ISOSUTENE/SUTANE
FOR BUTENE °l/BUTANE
1,20 MULTIPLY BY 0,980
ct'
I-
1I0
1.00
o 100 200 300 400
TRANS-SUTENE-2/SUTANE
1... r
1+= J..~
.90
o 100 200 300 400
CIS - BUT ENE- 2/SUTANE

1.00
•
.90
.eo 0 100 200 300 400
1.3-SUTADIENE/SUTANE
tOO
LIO
tOO
.90 100
0 200 300 400
65
•• 1
, :'-' -!:-i1- .
."
RELATIVE VOLATILITY
,.
80
1111
I.IO.
o
. . .
~O
~ 1111
400
66
8 9
~~
~~'I:
=
FUGACITY CORRECTION FACTOR

LIGHT HYDROCARBONS IN ABSORBER OILS
_ t- .
2.5
2.0
- ~ L
:9..
MULTIPLY FUGACITY FUNCTIONS
(OR VAPOR PRESSURES) OF LIGHT
HYDROCARBONS BY CORRECTION
FACTOR WHICH IS INDEPENDENT
1.5
OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
*CHARACTERIZATION FACTOR OF THE LIQUID

PHASE IS A WEIGHT FRACTION AVERAGE OF
THE CHARACTERIZATION FACTORS OF THE
ABSORBER OIL a DISSOLVED HYDROCARBONS.
REFERENCE: COMMUNICATION FROM lHE M.W. KELLOGG CO .. NEW YORK. N.Y.

,-..
8 10 12 13
9
" 67
Section 6
CRITICAL PROPERTIES
Analogous to PUl'C substanccs, thc true critical point of a milltUl'c is a uni'lUC
point on thc phase cnvelope where thc dcnsitJy and composition of the vapor
phase arc identical with those of the liquid phase. Sincc the compositions of the ,
two phascs arc the samc, fractionation of a mixturc is impossible at the critical
point. Conscqucntly, the dcgrec of approach to thc critical point of a mixtuTe some-
times serves as a rough guide to thc fcasibility of separating thc components by
fractionation.
For PUl'C hydrocarbons, it has been found that a number of physical propcrties
may bc correlated by reduced tcmperature, TIT e, and reduccd prcssure, PIPe.
Various data have shown conclusively that none of these correlations apply to
mixtures if the truc critical temperature and pressure of the mixture are uscd to
determine the "edueed conditions. This difficulty has bccn overcomc by thc intro-
duction by Kayl of thc concept of pseudo-critical tcmpcrature and pressure. By
using thc pseudo-critical tempcrature and pressure to predict the reduccd condi-
tiuns, Kay found that compressibility data on pure hydrocarbons could be applied
to mixtures. Although Kay determined the pseudo-critical point by averaging the
critical properties directly for known mixtures and from the averagc molecular
weight for pctrolcum fractions, it has been found that much bcttcr results can be
obtained by using the average boiling point method proposed by Smith and
Watson. 2
As Smith and Watson pointed out, the true and pseudo-critical points must
approach each other as thc boiling rangc of a fraction approaches zero and must
coincidc for purc compounds. These conditions arc fulfilled by the charts in this
section applying to petroleum fractions. Smith and Watson's relation between
t11C true and pseudo-critical pressurcs on page 74 has been checkcd by the true
critical data of Kay on ethane-hcptanc 3 and cthane-butane· systems. These data
confirm Smith and Watson's eurvc well into thc region of their recommended
extrapolation.
GENERAL REFERENCES
Doss, "Phyaical Properties of the Principal Hydrocarbons," 4th Edition, The Texas Co.,
Nel\' York, N.Y. (1943).
Internationnl Critical Tables, Vol. III.
Roess, J. Insl. Pelr. Tech. 22, 665 (1936).
'l{ay, Ind. Eng. Chem. 20, 1014 (1936).
2 Smith and Watson, Ind. Enu. Chern. 29,1408 (1937) .
• Kay, hId. Eng. Chern. 3D, 459 (1938) .
• Kay, Ind. Eng. Chern. 32, 353 (1940).
68
800 900
._ m Il 1000
ffim
II I~
m
1200 m ~JI ' CRITICA L TEMPERATURE

I
·
•
j~ r• ~; 111'
tlftfi, •
,
I , ,
OF PURE HYDROCARBONS Iim1
1100 m .
11 Hm1
~
~
!WJ
1000
I iMj
•
lOOl
"
I
11m! rnu:
l1m1 ,
900 , · .
'I
t
,
mitIHI mrr
800 I
. "
. I
.
IIWJ
1 Ill~
<i1 i- t1 '.
J
I
1 . ,
70
I~ , r t
,
:i'
" , ·
°illii !
r, (1 · ., ,
.
f
I
,,' , mm
, .. L f I , , m
600
I ,.
I' ,I I
I
·
, I I
I I i f! "
I 1 I
it
f I"
r; I ' J j' !
,
500 J
•
!II "
'i , I,
I
. .
,j i i
I
! i
I
. I
.1
t
•
. 11 I , , I
ti, rYl·j I'~!

!l .1.: . I
'J I.11
,,
j ,
,
I
;.
,
I
IIIl
..
I
f r I, · I
j 1
,
, •
- 1-1' I . . ' t
j'" ::' • I J! I II i"
I J! r
In 1m I II inl ! • II j, f, I t ,! i' ill dlj!1! liid!! tl!
0
1t
. iI!lt-f :-!,
r:. : .. :-1"'
~.1. ;~: .
I r,I! tl I, HI ':: IJ I 'I. ,I', Iii Jfi1,
!I ." rr"l
i'l:1 II i' 'l f ~ ,..
~:; ,
.-. T'
r ",
ljl' ill ,'f·
~.,.., :-1'; ;, 1.'lil!1
''I
. . , ! ' 1.I
'1 '
f 1 ,,'. i jiPi ' :. 1111["1 "
, ,j"
I!PI : ,
,
, I "
, ' .. I " , ! ,
I ' Hli' ,: !
fH. It!; I ! ' r_1 :. •L 1!
'. I
t ,I .'II
,! t:tll. . t: fl lill Ijl ill lit!, . iu,1• liP
t . Iil" !. ,'I"t. :1:: I
It :r I
IIU11 HI' , I , .
I
· ,•.: 1tI 1f 11
'II!, IllliQ,HHlii!!: III li1
1'0 1
tub
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
69
-220 -200 -190 -160 -140
80
.,
60 440
CRITICAL TEMPERATURE
40 OF LIGHT HYDROCARBONS 420
q,
PURE COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
.f!:[
20 - -. - ,- 400
+
i ,
'l*
... ' .- t"
u
0 390
...L,
-20 360
-40 340
-60 320
-80 300
·100 290
-120 260
r 240
j.
220
[
,
.. I I .. In
200
1r I
THE BASE CURVE REPRESENTS CRiTICAL
TEMPERATURE VS. BOILING POINT fOR PURE
I" " HYOROCARBONS ANO PSEUOO-CRIT'CAL TEhIP- 190
I i: _I 1 ERATURE vs. MOLAL AVERAGE BOILING POINT
I J I t I
I ,
FOR MIXTURES.
THE GRAVITY CURVES REPRESENT TRIJE 160
I CRITICAL TEMPERATURE YS. WEIGHT AVERAGE
BOILING POINT FOR MIXTURES. fOR ALL HYDRO-
I CARBONS THE PARAFFIN GRAVITY OF THE
I SAWE BOILING POINT 5H:XJLO BE USED IN
140
COMPUTING THE GRAVITY OF THE MIXTURE.
., .fiT • 120
l I ~
t; ~ 1h .
I
I .,
I .. I
,I· 100
If I~ I [
f ,
I
:_i¥-
ill j -,
80
1
-140 -120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
70
/
CRITICAL PRESSURE
!mI ~
-
OF NORMAL PARAFFINS
20 40 60 80 100 120
'~
i50
Ii
40 40
30 THE PSEUDO-CRITICAL PRESSURE Of

LIGHT HYDROCARBON MIXTURES HAVING
AN AVERAGE MOLECULAR WT. LESS THAN
BO CAN BE DETERMINED FROM THIS CURVE.
--.-:
.-:-
20 . .. 20
I
.
-
15
-
-
.
J - - -
I t+:
Iii L
r- -
.
10
140
i~- ~i160 180 200 220 240 260 280
71
900 1000
800 §
t .... ..=r::
~
1300
"
.....,....,
':Ct 8<i5-2' -:-'
_.- -1
>:. ~
.... ,
",.
.
~".
'- "-J :....
, .. .. -
...
ct= •
1100 -
;.~r:$·
...
:$. • t "
,- ~
=
800
... ,-
'1'=: •
.::r; ":-1.ir
,- 800
700
. -- .... .. ~ .
.~
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

72
100 200 WO 400 500 100 7('.
r
-
100
PSEUDO- CRITI CAL PRESSURE
OF PETROLEUM FRACTIONS
- •
I 600
-
500
II
400
- ~
300 300
250 2
200 2 00
,
--
- ~~ -
tqJ~. .-
,. ~
'. I ,
100
IIIII11
IMmiI
t-..l
ahr,f-h---- -- -- Ffttl I00
800 900 1000
73
TRUE CRITICAL PRESSURE
OF HYDROCARBON MIXTURES
4.0
..
!l.0
-
1.18
-
1.20
-
1.2.2. 1.2.4
-
1.2.6
M
4.0
-
3.0
2.5 2.5
DETERMINED BY MULTIPLYING ITS PSEUDO-CRITICAL

PRESSURE BY THE RATIO OF TRUE TO PSEUDO-
, CRITICAL PRESSURE, PTC/Ppc. THIS RATIO IS
2.0 GIVEH BY THE CURVE AS A FUNCTIOH OF THE RATIO
2.0
OF TRUE TO PSEUDO CRITICAL TEMPERATURE. TTCl1l'l;.l
. ""1l1i"
J
t:J+l
'.5 H-t-t+t-H-t++t-H-t+' ~ mI.5

REFERENCE: SMITH AND WATSON. IND. ENG. CHEM, 29. 140B (1937)
1.02 1.04 1.08
74
Section 7
THERMAL PROPERTIES
Specific Heat
Since hydrocarbon vapors deviate considerably from a perfect gas, except at
low pressures, their specific heats arc a function of pressure as well as tempera-
ture. However, vapor specific heats at higher pressures have limited application as
enthalpy correlations may be more readily used for thermal calculations. For this
reason, the specific heat chart~ for gases and vapors (pages 88 to 91) arc given
only for low pressuros (0-1 atm) where deviations from a perfect gas are so
small that specific heat may be considered to be a function of temperature alone.
The specific heat of a mixture of two or more gases at low pressures may be
calculated from either their weight fraclions multiplied by their specific heat~ or
their mole fractions by their molal heat capacities (MC.).
Two charts are given for the specific heat of. petroleum vapors, one on page 90
for crude fractions and another on page 91 of more general application to both
pure hydrocarbons and petroleum fractions.' The chart for crude fractions is a
modification of the Bahlke and Kay eorrelation 2 and the other the same type as
a chart developed by Fallon and Watson. 3 Both ehart~ are believed to be some-
what morc accurate than the previous correlations and arc also representative
of additional data.
The change in enUlalpy of hydrocarbon vapors with pressure at constant
temperature may be calculated from the chart on page 92. While the ordinate
refers to the difference in enthalpy from the vapor at infinite dilution, this may be
construed as any low pressure (0-1 atm). This chart was used to compute the
enthalpy of hydroearbon 4 and petroleum vapors at elevated pressures in the
development of the enthalpy charts. Since the change in enthalpy at constant
1 These correlations {or petroleum fmctions nrc not quite consistent with the additive
rule for mixtures. Since these curves apply directly to mixtures, the additive rule would hold
only if the specific heals eit,1).cr were independent. of the liquid specific gravity or \'aricd
lillcnrly with its reciprocal (directly with API). With neither of these conditions fulfilled, the
0
petroleum vapor correlations have a fundamental inconsistency but the resulting errors are
imperceptible as far as the data are concerned.
2 Bahlke and Kay, Ind. Eng. Chem. 21, 042 (1929).
3 Fallon and Watson, Nat. Petroleum News, 'l'echnical Section, R-372 (1944).
4. For the light hydrocarbons below hexane, there was a slight trend with molecular weight
in the change of enthalpy with pressure at constant. temperature. This was taken into account
by the use of other unpublished correlations by Gilliland (sce reference on the chart OD
page 92) for these low-boiling hydrocarbons.
75
tottlGl"N" A.L.)
CO?l A \1i'1B.·::1 \. .)
PABLO M01.'"l'A
temperature can be read directly from the latter charts, this generalized chart has
little direct application but is included as one of the fundamental correlations.
The chart for the specific heat of hyd!"Ocarbon liquids was developed" directly
from liquid specific heat data on pure hydrocarbons and petroleum fractions.
Since liquid specific heats were not used in the development of the enthalpy charts,
this chart is independent of and not necessarily consistent with the latter correla-
tions." For the sake of consistency, thc enthalpy charts usually will be used in
preferencc to this spccific heat chart but, at the samc time, it is desirable to include
an independent correlation of such a fundamental thermal property.
Latent Heat of Vaporization

The latent heat of vaporization of any compound is the din'erence in enthalpy
between its saturated vapor and its saturated liquid at constant temperature and
may be expressed either as a function of temperature or as a function of vapor
pressure. The latent heats of low-boiling hydrocarbons and, also, higher-boiling
normal paraffins of even boiling point arc plotted again t vapor pressure on pages
94 to 97. While the use of temperature instead of vapor pressure as the correlating
variable would have advantages, it would also result in the curves crossing each
other, thus making the plots difficult to reae!.
The latent heat charts were derived by using a direct proportionality between
the molal heats of vaporization of any two hydrocarbons at the same reduced
pressures.' For the lower boiling hydrocarbons, the latent heat data were smoothed
out and extrapolated by the use of a reference compound (ethane, butane, or
hexane). Where no data were available, as in the case of a few of the light hydro-
carbons and all of the higher-boiling normal paraffins, the latent heats were cal-
culated directly from this reduced pressure relationship. The slope or propor-
tionality constant was predicted from the normal boiling point of the hydrocarbon.
The latent heat of vaporization of other hydrocarbons may be calculated
from the normal paraffin cun'es by the usc of this same relation. That is, the
unknown compound will have the same molal heat of vaporization as a paraffin
of the same normal boiling point at the same reduced pressure. In the case of
petroleulll fractions, the mean average boiling point is used for the normal boiling
point and the reduced pres ure i computed f!"Om the pseudo-critical pressure of
the mixture. The "vapor pressure" of thc fraction corresponds to that of a pure
• A modificatIOn ot a correlatIOn oy Tne M. W. Kellogg Co., New York, N.Y.
• The enthalpy eharls were derived from: (J) the vapor specific heaL eo",elnlions (0-1
aIm); (2) lhe generalized chart for change of enthalpy with pressure; and (3) the latent heat
relations. Inasmuch as the inaccuracies of all three correlations accumulate in Lhe jjqu;:!
enthalpics 01' specific heals, the agreement wit.h the liquid specific heat chart may be ~nnsidcrcd
quite good as average deviations between the two are around ±3% wlt.h a maxImum of
about 6%.
7 Maxwell, Ind. Eng. Chem. 24, 502 (1932).
THERMAL PROPERTIES 77
hydrocarbon of the same normal boiling point at tbe temperature of the fraction
and ""ver relers to the bubble point, dew pofnt, or operating pressure 01 the system.
Since the difference in enthalpy between the liquid and the saturated vapor of
a pctroleum fraction always involves change of enthalpy of the vapor at constant
temperature in addition to latent heat, except at low pressures, the enthalpy corre-
lations are much more convenient to use than these individual therm,.l properties.
Thc following examples illustrate the usc of the latent heat charts:
Example 1. Compute the latent heat of benzene at 1 atm.
The boiling point of benzene is 176.2°F and its critical pressure is 47.9 atm.
The molceular weight of a normal paraffin boiling at 176.2°F is 91.5 and its critical
pressure 28.3 atm. The vapor pressure of the normal paraffin corresponding to a
reduccd pressure of 1/47.9 ( - 0.0209) is 0.0209 X 28,3 - 0.59 atm.
The molal heat of vaporization of the normal paraffin at 0.59 atm is 91." X
(146 BTU/lb) - 13,360 BTU/mole.
The latent heat of benzene at 1 atm is then equal to 13,360 BTU/malo or
171 BTU/lb. The Bureau 01 Standards Circular C461 gives 169.3 BTU/Ii> '.s the
latent heat of vaporization of benzene at 1 atm.
Example 2. Determine the latent heat of vaporization of the following ga9
oil at 500°F.
10% Distillatioll Gravity

10% @ 430°F 35°API
50% @ 540°F
70% @ 605°F
90% @ 680°F
Vol. Av. B.P. = 547°F; Slope = 2.9°F/%

Mean Av. B.P. = 547 - 9 = 538°F
Molec. wt. = 211
Vapor pressure (538°F normal B.P.) = 0.63 atm. at 500°F
Pseudo-critical pressure = 266 psia co 18.1 atm
I'l'lolee. wt. of normal paraffin (538°F normal B.P.) = 222
Critical pressure of normal paraffin = 15.0 atm
Vapor pressure of normal paraffin = (l5.0/18.1)0.63 = 0.52 !!.tm
Latent heat of normal paraffin = 104 BTU/lb
Latent heat of vaporization of the gll3 oil!!.t 500°F
= 22Z X 104 = 108 B1'Ulib

214
Enthalpy of Light Hydrocarbons

The enthal py 8 or heat content of low-boiling paraffins, olefins, and aromatics
is given by the chart.s on pages 98 to 113. These charts can be applied to mixtures
of light hydrocarbons on the basis of the following assumptions:
1. The entha!pies of individual components of a mixture are additive in
the !iquid phase, that is, the mola! heat content of the mixtttre equals the sum
of the products of the mo!al heat contents of the components by their mo!e
fractions.
2. The entha!pies of individua! components are additive in the vapor phase
at !ow pressures (0-1 atm).
3. The change in enthalpy of the vapor with pressure at constant tempera-
ture is the same for a mixture as for a sing!e compound having the same mo!ecular
weight as the mixture.
The first assumption is substantially true for hydrocarbon mixtures (espe-
cially for homologous series) at temperatures below the critical regions of all
components. At temperatures near to or above the critical temperatures of any of
the components, the liquid mixture is no longer an ideal solution of its components
and there is some deviation from the rule of additive heat contents. However, since
these deviations arc not too serious, and since no other simple method has been
developed for determining the heat content of a liquid mixture, the rule of additive
enthalpies should be used for all hydrocarbon mixtures irrespective of the critical
temperatures and chemical composition of the components.
The second assumption is strictly true only for vapor mixtures at infinite dilu-
tion (0 atm) but is a very close approximation for pressures up to 1 atm.
The third assumption is empirical but has been shown indirectly to give quite
accurate rcsults for mixtures of homologous series and petroleum fractions. Also,
the usc of the average molecular weight to determine the change of enthalpy with
pressure is the simplest average which can be used.
Above thc critical temperature a dashed line is shown for the heat content of
the gas in solution. This line was based on the assumption that thc gas in solution
at any temperature would have the same partial density and enthalpy as the pure
compound at a pressure corresponding to an extrapolation of its vapor pressure
curve above the critical point. Obviously, this is only a rough approximation since
both a vapor prcssure curve and an ideal liquid solution arc meaningless in this
regIOn.
E:rample 3. Determine the difference in enthalpy bctween the liquid at

100°F and the vapor at iiOO°F and 20 atm for a mixture having the following
composition:
8 Based on on entholpy of zero for the saturated liquid 01, -200"F.
Component Mole Fraclioll

C,H. 0.100
CsH. .500
C,H lO .100
C,H, .050
CsH. .250
1.000
The enthalpy of the mixture as a liquid at 100°F and as a vapor at 500°F and
0-1 atm is computed from the individual components as tabulated below:
Enthalpy of Liquid Enthalpy of Vapor

l\lolcr, Wt. lOO°F 5OQ°F and 0-1 elm
Com- Mole
Lb/Mole
poncnt Fract. BTU 1~lole BTU ll\lolc
of Mixture BTU lIb BTU lIb
of Mixture of J\'lixture
CzH s 0.100 3.0 239 720 553 1660
CaH s .500 22.0 171 3760 530 11660
C 4 H 1O .\00 5.8 159 920 525 3040
C2H 4 .050 1.4 223 310 506 710
C3 H, .250 10.5 169 1770 508 5330
42.7 7480 22400
li y (500°F, 0-1 atm) - li L = 22,400 - 7480 = 14,920 BTU/mole

The change of enthalpy of the vapor at 500°F betwecn 0-1 atm. and 20 atm.
is computed by interpolating between C,H. and CsH.:
C,H.:
1f,,(500°F, 20 atm) - li y (500°F, 0-1 atm) = 30(546 - 553) = -210 BTU/mole
CsH.:
H y (5OO°F, 20 atm) - li y (500°F, 0-1 atm) = 44(522 - 530) = -350 BTU/mole
Mixture:
li y (500°F, 20 atm) - li y (500°F, 0-1 atm) = -210 + 42.7 - 30
H _ 30 {-350 - (-21O)J
= -340 BTU/mole
Therefore,
li y (500°F, 20 atm) - liL(100°F) = -340 + 14,920 = 14,580 BTU/mole
or 14,580 = 849 BTU/Ib
42.7
The foregoing procedure can hc simplificd, with a loss of accuracy which does
not usually exceed 5%, by interpolating on a basis of molecular wcight and total
so DATA BOOK ON HYDROCARBONS
olefin content between the initial and final states:
CaH s:
H v (500°F, 20 atm) - Ih(IOO°F) = 44(522 - 171) = 15,440 BTU/mole
C ZH 4 :
H v (500°F, 20 atm) - Ih(lOO°F) = 28(500 - 223) = 7750 BTU/mole
CaHe:
H v (500°F, 20 atm) - HL(lOO°F) = 42(500 - 169) = 13,900 BTU/mole
Since the average molecular weight of the paraffin portion of the mixture is 44, the
propane values can be used directly, making interpolation unnecessary.
The average molecular weight of the olefin portion is 39.7; hence the enthalpy
difference between the initial and final states will be:
7750 + 3:;7 _- 2~8 (13,900 - 7750) = 12,880 BTU/mole
Interpolating between the paraffin and olefin portions,

Hv(500°F, 20 atm) - HL(lOO°F) = 0.70 X 15,440 + 0.30 X 12,880
= 14,670 BTU/mole
14,670
or 42.7 = 344 BTU/lb vs, 342 BTU /lb by the longer method.
Enthalpy of Petroleum Fractions

The enthalpyO of petroleum fractions is given by the charts on pages 114 to
127 for both paraffinic stocks, having a characterization factor of 12.0, and non-
paraffinic stocks, having a characterization factor of 11.0 over a mean aver-
age boiling point range from 200°F to 800°F. Theoretically, these charts
represent pure hydrocarbons of the designated characterization factor and boiling
point, but they may be applied to petroleum fractions if the following assumption
is made in addition to the three previous ones pertaining to light hydrocarbon
mixtures:
4. 'The avemge difference between the enthalpy of the vapor at low preSSU1'es
(0-1 atm) and the enthalpy of the liquid, at constant temperature, is the same f01'
a rni.'l:ture of chemically similar hyd1'Ocarbons as for a single compound of the
sct'1ne molecular weight (or mean avemge boiling point).
\\'hile this assumption is empirical, it is accurate \\'ithin a few percent excrpt

in the region of the pseudo-critical temprrature \\'here the enthalpy of the liquid
is subject to variation depending upon the true criticaltemperatUl'e of the mixtUl'e.
Since the dashed line starting at the pseudo-critical point applies only to a pure
compound in solution above its critical point, another dashed line was arbitrarily
drawn for mixtUl'es, joining the satUl'aled liquid line below the pseudo-critical
9 Based on all enthalpy of zero for the saturated liquid at 00 F .
•
I
point with the pure compound line about 50°F above the pseudo-critical tempera-
_ ture. This is more representative of a mixture and should be used in preference
to the pure compound line.
These charts may be interpolated and extrapolated linearly with both
characterization factor and mean average boiling point. Occasionally, in inter·
polating between two adjacent boiling point chart~ the pressure and temperature
of the vapor will be such that they fall inside of the "dome" of the higher boiling
point chart.. Since it is impossible to use the charts in this region, it is recom-
mended that the two adjacent lower boiling point char'" be extrapolated upward.
Following are two examples illustrating the use of these charts:
Exan,ple 4. Determine the ditTcrence in enthalpy between the liquid at 500°F
and the vapor at 775°F and 25 psig for the following refined oil fraetion:
Crude Assay DistillatiOlt Grauity
I.RP. 300°F 40 0 API
50% 440°F
F.B.I'. 580°F
Vol. Av. RP. = 440°F
· '11 .
81 ope 0 f t}Ie dIstl 580 - 300
atlOn eurve = 100 = 2.8 0 F/%
Mean Av. B.P. = 440 - 6 = 434°F
Characterization Factor = 11.65
hI' = Enthalpy of the vapor at 775°F and 2.7 atm (25 psig)
h L = Enthalpy of the liquid at 500°F
Mean Au. B.P. -400°F
Ch. Factor = 12: h" - hL = 567 - 286 = 281 BTU/lb
Cb. Factor ~ II: h v :- h L = 538 - 263 ~ 275 BTU/lb
Cb. Faetor = 11.65: hI' - h L = 275 + 0.65(281 - 275) = 279 BTU/lb
Mean Au. B.P. -500°F
Ch. Faetor = 12: hI' - h L = 556 - 273 = 283 BTU/lb
Ch. Factor = II: hI' - h L ~ 534 - 255 ~ 279 BTU/lb
Ch. Faetor = 11.65: hI' - hi = 279 + 0.65(283 - 279) ~ 282 BTU/lb
Mean Au. B.P. - 434°F
Cb. Factor = 11.65: hI' - hL = 279 + 1.'.. (282 - 279) =.280 BTU/lb
If the char'" for 300°F and 400°F Mean Av. B.P.'s had been extrapolated, the
result would have been essentially the same, 281 BTU/lb.
Example 5. Determine the difference in enthalpy between the liquid at 425°F
and the vapor at 925'F and 350 psig for the following gas oil:
10% Distillation Gravity

10% @ 455°F 15.5°API
50% @ 560°F
70% @ 620°F
90% @ 695°F
VoI. Av. B.P. = 455 + 2 X 560 + 695 = 5670F

4
SI ope 0 f di Bt I'II ation
.
curve = 620 69
- 455
= 2.8°F/%
Mean Av. B.P. = 567 - 5 = 562°F ,
Characterization Factor = 10.48
h v = Enthalpy of the vapor at 925°F and 24.8 atm (350 psig)
h L = Enthalpy of the liquid at 425°F
Mean Av. B.P.-400°F
Ch. Factor = 12: hv - h L = 662 - 233 = 429 BTU/lb
Ch. Factor = 11: h v - h L = 622 - 216 = 406 BTU/lb
Ch. Factor = 10.48: h v - h L = 406 - 0.52(429 - 406) = 394 BTU/lb
Ch. Factor = 12: hv - hL = 642 - 224 = 418 BTU/lb
Ch. Factor = 11: h v - lt L = 606 - 208 = 398 BTU/Ib
Ch. Factor = 10.48: hv - h L = 398 - 0.52(418 - 398) = 388 BTU/lb
Ch. Factor = 10.48: ltv - h L = 388 - M(394 - 388) = 385 BTU/Ih
MollieI' Diagrams
The MollieI' diagrams for the individual light hydrocarbons are of essentially
the same type as the familiar one for steam. To minimize confusion and to make
the charts as easily usable as possible, lines of constant volume are omitted and
lines of constant temperature replace lines of constant superheat in the super-
heated vapor region. These charts will be used principally for adiabatic com-
pressions and expansions.
In applying the MollieI' diagrams to hydrocarbon mixtures, the mixture
should be treated as a single compound of the average molecular weight. An
empirical study of the diagrams indicates that successive charts of the same
series (paraffin or olefin) may be interpolated (or extrapolated) by assuming a
linear relation exists between melecular weight and (1) isentropic change of
molal enthalpy with pressure and (2) the product of the square root of the
molecular weight and the isentropic ehange of temperature with pressure.
If both paraffins and olefins are present in the mixture, the charts of each
•
I
series are interpolated (or extrapolated) to the average molecular weight of t.he
total mixture. These values corresponding, respectively, to a 100% paraffin mixture
and a 100% olefin mixture are used for linear interpolation to the actual olefin
content of !lie mixture.
The following example illustrates the application of the MollieI' diagrams to a
hydrocarbon mixture:
Exmnple 6. Determine the work of compression 1 0 and final temperature when
the following mixture is compressed adiabatically from atmospheric pressure and
60°F to 50 psig:
Average
Component M ok Fraction Molee. WI.
CH, . ....... . 0.050 0.8
C,H, ........ .100 2.8
C2 H• ....... . .150 4.5
C3 H. .100 4.2
C3 H s ..... - .. .200 8.8
C,H s .100 5.6
C.H, 0 .200 11.6
,
C.H, ....... .100
--
7.2
--
1000 45.5
Values corresponding to adiabatic compression from 1 aIm and 60°F to 4.4
atm were read from the individual charls and arc tabulated below:
BTU/lb 6fl
I,
Compound S M(h, - h,) 61VM
h, 112
'F
BTU/mole
C,B, 0.763 301.5 338 1M 1610 625
C~HIO .680 295 321 135 1510 570
C2H.. .935 300.5 363.5 221 1760 850
C3H e .780 303 3!2 164 16iO 675
By interpolation, lif{ = 1600 BTU/mole and litVM = 620 for a saturated hydro-
carbon mixture of 45.5 malec. wt.
By extrapolation, li.H ~ 1610 BTU/mole and li/V,lf = 632 for an unsaturated

hydrocarbon mixture of 45.5 molec. wI.
By interpolation, li.H ~ 1603 BTU/mole and litVM = 6z.t for a hydrocarbon
mixture of 45.5 malec. wt. containing 30% unsaturates.
10 Change in enthalpy which includes the difference between the work of expulsion and
work of admission.
:. The theoretical work of compression is 35.2 BTU/lb and the final tempera.ture
is 152°F.
If other gases (H 2 , O2 , H 2 0, etc.) are present in a mixture, it is recommended
that effective IJressures equal to 7rVYlfC be used to determine the total work of
compression and final temperature of the hydrocarbon portion of the mixture.
The inert g&ses usually may be assumed to be ideal and the w'ork of comprestlion
and final temperature for this portion of the mixture calculated by the adiabatic
compression formulas for perfect gases. The work of compression for the mixture
is then evaluated by combining the change of heat content for the hydrocarbon
portion with that for the inert gases on the basis of their mole fractions. In deter-
mining the final temperature of the mixture, it is assumed that the ch.ange in
enthalpy of each portion from its final temperature to that of the mixture is
equal and opposite in sign to the other. This method is illustrated by the following
example:
Example 7. Determine the work of compression and final temperature when
the following mixture is compressed adiabatically from 25 psig and 0°1" to 150 psig:
Hydrocarbon Portion
Average Molec.
Component Mole Fraction Wt. Average Molec.
Mole Fraction
Wt.
H, 0.500 1.0 - -
CH, .100 1.6 0.200 3.2
C,H. .ISO 4.5 .300 9.0
C,H. .250 11.0 .500 22.0
1.000 18.1 1.000 34.2
The effective pressuras to be used for the hydrocarbon portion of the mixture
are:
25 + 14.7
7rei = 14.7 vO.500 = 1.91 atm
7r.2 =
150 + 14.7 vO.500
--
= 7.91 atm
14.7
Values read from the ethane and propane charts are tabulated below:
BTU/lb t, 6.H
Compound S OF M(h, - hi)
MvM
h, h,
C,H. 0.837 294 340 121 1385 663

CaR. 0.686 278 307 92 1280 610
By interpolation, UTi = l35~ BTU/mole and t:.tVM = 6-1.7 for a saturated hydro-
carbon mixture of 3-1.2 molee. wt. The corresponding final temperature for
the hydrocarbon portion of the mixture is 111°F.
For the H 2 portion of the mixture, the work of compression and final tcm.pera~
ture arc calculated as follows:
-. 6.97
MCp = 2.016 X 3.46 ~ 6.96; K = 99 1.40
6.97 - I.
UTi = ~I R1'[("2)K~' - IJ
J( - "1
= I. 40 X 1.99 X 460 __ . 1.40 [(1647)1.40-' I J -

1.40 - I 39.7
= 3200(1.502 - I) = 1610 BTU/mole
I.fO -1
7'2 = (164.7)1:<0 X 460 ~ 691°R <> 231°F

39.7
For the mixture, the work of compression = 0.500 X 1354 + 0.500 X 1610
= 1482 BTU/mole <> 8f! BTU/Ib
The final temperature of the mixture is assumed to be the temperature I, at

which
0.500[Ji Jre (t, 7.91 atm) - Jilfc(l1l°F, 7.91 atm)J
~ 0.500[Ji Il (23I°F) - flll(t)] = 0.500 X 6.97(231 - t)
Since it is necessary to use enthalpy for evaluating UTi lie, t will be determined
by trial and error.
Assume t = 140°F.
Interpolating between the charts on pages 99 and 100,
0.500 X 34.2[3·12 - 328J = 0.500 X 6.971231 - 140]
240 "" 317
Assume t = 148°F.
0.500 X 34.2[346 - 328J = 0.500 X 6.971231 - 148]
:l08 "" 290
By interpolation, the final temperature is I/.7°F.
While the foregoing procedure permits the ~follicr diagrams to be used for
mixtures of hydrocarbons and inert gases, the method of combining the cnthalpics
and the temperatures of the two portions of the mixture is theoretically incorrect.
In this procedure it is assumed that if two gases, ha,-ing different thermal prop-
cries, arc compressed individually from the same initial temperature and pressure
to the same final pressure and then mixed, the resulting thermodynamic properties
of the mixture will be the same as if the gases were mixed initially and then com-
pressed. This assumption is not quite correct and will always lead to small positive
errors in the work of compression and temperature rise. The errors usually will
not exceed a couple of percent with a maximum of about 50/0 if the average
molecular weight of thc hydrocarbons is not greater than 50 and the compression
ratio is not greater than 5: 1.
As an alternative to this method, the equations for an ideal gas may be
applied to the entire mixture, provided the gas law correction facwr for the hydro-
carbons, P-YC, is not less than 0.05. In arriving at an average molal specific heat
at constant pressure for the mixture, the molal specific heats of the individual
components at 0-1 atm should be used irrespective of the initial and final pressures
of the compression. The following equations apply to this alternative method:
= (y HCIlIlC + Yalla + Ybllb + ... )
Il ..
(MCP)m = YlIc(MC p )llc + y.(MCp). + Yb(MCph + ...

K = (MC p ).,
(MCp) .. - 1.99
AU = K K- 1l.,R1"
[(7I'z)K;:
-
1
-
]
1
1 71'1
Tz = (::) \-1 T 1
where Il = correction factor for deviation from the ideal gas law at initial conditions
Y = mole fraction of any component
MC p = molal specific heat at constant pressure (0-1 atm) and at the average
temperature
MC p
K=-
MCv d' b t' compression = work of
AH = change in enthalpy during an a la a IC
compression . 0
7", Pz = initial and final temperatures m R
71' = initial and final pressures
71'1'UC = subscript referring to the ~otal hydrocarbons
a, bJ et c.
= subscripts referring to mdlvldual mert gases
Example 7 will be recalculated by the alternative method:
For the hydrocarbon portion:
460 . = 1.91 = 0.041; 1l1IC = 0.966
T r = -575 = 0.80e, <fer 472 .
MCp(70 0 F) = 34.2 X 0.410 = 14.0
For the hydrogen:
I' = 1.000; MOp = 6.97
For the mixture:
I'm = 0.500 X 0.966 = 0.500 X 1.000 = 0.983
MOp = 0.500 X 14.0 + 0.500 X 6.97 = 10.5
K = 10.5 _ •
10.5 - 1.99 - 1.230
1 235 [( 6 ) •. 235
6H = 9:235 X 0.983 X 1.99 X 460 1 \7 1.235 - 1]
39
~
4740[1.311 - 1] = 1470 BTU/mole as compared with 1482 BTU/mole
previously calculated.
T, = 1.311 X 460 = 603°R "" 143°F as compared with 147°F by the first
method.
IC desired, this alternative method may also be applied to hydrocarbon mixtures
if I' at tbe initial conditions is ?!at less than 0.95.
GENERAL REFERENCES
Communication from The M. 'V. }{ellogg CO' l New York, N.Y.
Gary, Rubin and Ward, 11ld. E1lg. Chem. 25, 178 (1933).
Gilliland l Unpublished data, Mass. Inst. Tech.
Keenan and Keys. "Thermodynamic Properties of Steam1 " John \Viley &; SODS (1936).
Misc. Publicatio1l of Bur. Standards, No. 97 (1929).
Nat. Bm. Statuiards Circular C461 (1947).
Sage, Webster a-od Lacey, Ind. E1lg. ahem. 29, 1309 (1937).
Weir and Eaton, Ind. E1lg. Chem. 24, 211 (1932).
'i
20 400 600 800 1000 1200

-~'l ~-;r,TIE'
~- -.~
f
_,
~. .. .
fiffi'·[ili'
.:;, -
-
., .<+;;
SPECIFIC HEAT OF
"
-,j~,tI1~ti MISCELLANEOUS GASES
0-1 ATMOSPHERES
'1-···..
n.
0.26
..
·"l.IP
'
·f,.I~:;t+
l~n'd
0.26 0.60
.1 .... • _:.li~;:tI~JtIni:t
I£l~il:!~ill : .,., c",
f _ti •• lf:t;.t±t:-:-~
Ii
gJ
",,~-.
,..... t· ;", "·,'tT'
:..:' ,'.. ·1' I"
"' ;:t'
0.24 ~TI!H~!"_, eI
I
l!fi !;rei iJ:j±t'.:±i'lt!#t~!·
'l:~ ;-t:rTti-r"; H~l~
!i ~I":t
•
.. .....
~, ;
0.22
0,20IlU'ill"~'
In":'Tl7'i"" ,'",
11,,11
tU" NAT. BUR, STDS, CIRCULAR C461 (1947)

KEENAN AND KEYES. 'THEfNODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF STEAM' JOHN WILEY AND SONS ~O.46
'I ", ( 1936)
200 400 --' 800 1000 1200

1.2
1,0
. . . . .9
.8
..6
.4
"200 300 o
89
+f~-l.J..Ht+Ji '-.r;
no
IJij
j
'I
[1fI" !
'UlIJ
TIfflI
THIS CHART APPLIES TO PARAFFIN BASE rn1
SPECIFIC HEAT OF
ffiiI II
CRUDE FRACTIONS AND FOR OTHER
PETROLEUM FRACTIONS THE FOLLOWING PETROLEUM VAPORS HiIrm; IiiI~I r; 1lIlftfi nm9
MULTIPLYING FACTORS SHOULD BE USED: ~
1tI111 Ufl IIIIHII11H4II$!
.8. •
CRUDE FRACTIONS. 0-1 ATMOSPHERES
J "T
-, I
MIXED BASE CRUDE FRACTIONS .9B ,ql
ASPHAlT" .96 I
to ..
i I 1
I, ·,11111
I •
I
lit
r ~
, "
.7 I .7
8
"
tm!
OOB
.6
.fJi.llum·H1 HillllID~B;'lit I"
n"
I
iElHI
r,
tr~ii:b
:W.l.I±! .' " .; I! f'l.l·
iTt
:.r ;:r-=
" ~
t mm
.5 i
~""
~likuiJ
.,·1 " J'
.. n- rolC
f J1 iII"
~'
Hl:IlW @h!±Hil rl
IlIf j
.~
nil<
.; m
om' $1
, -. ~
iuHm1'h !1 IMl
:4 ; l.1oof1 _ 1m .4
~
+
r: "·hi
,~.
<tilHmlm mt!WJmt-;tt
II
I - _ •
,.... t· :ftj
,_._._.t.
~
;.. II.t
11Ht!~
1l11ffi
100 200 ~ 400 we' 600 700 soo 1000
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
...... ~ : ,. ,.. .
111111111
' .,
, HEAT OF HYDROCARBON +:'~ ~,: ._~
e 11"'1 'g-'lOlll;tJj q_. H" ..... - "
"1 '1+1 I11"1'",11":1 1:,1' 11' !"IE'H~l': i 1'+1' I~ 8
...... ,::::::.". l~ •• ~~_, ,.;~ . . ;, . ,.~. ,,'" i->4I.II....lI:I:::\.~ h.;,~ .
PARAFFINS,
.6 .6
<0
~
.5 H.5
_1~tm!1UEI:llilffm .4
ilJEL'E1jilll ,l'i I:[, f: ',,"

.2
0 100 eoo 100 800 900 IU,
8
6
10 c., 0.2 ~0~'3~O~'4~~0~'6~O~'8~"~~~~'2~~'3~~,4~1'161'~8111111211311411161811010
ENTHALPY- PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP
p._ . 8
AT CONSTANT TEMPERATURE
4 4
HYDROCARBON VAPORS; MOLEC. WEIGHT ~ 75
3
I I
.8 .8
.6 ..6
.4 .4
.3, - , .3
.2 .2
.1 ,,
1
.1
.08
.06 06
.04 .04
.03 r! .!i~
.03
.02 INST . TECH.

.Ql
. T
.01 .02 .03.04 .06.00.1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 2 3 4 6 8 10
92
.9
.8
18
.7
.6
.5
01 .02 .03 .04 .06 .08 .I 2 .3 4 6 .9 1.0 2 3 4 6 9 10
220
210 l-+- i 1.+

IR l.
ffiBll
~ II '1 iPili
210
,, i I .
,. ' ",;i1I~~
' -j , -
+rtHftt ,111 Hi , "tf+l!-t 'Ii'"';' ....
.
t, I
u',:ii 4i. ' m
'I
I'
200
r ~-~'·I+r
,
'11';",TI·i· ~~, '~' HI: ".:
,I- 'tlO'[ ,.., 'L,
''';':;o..~ - 1 ~
L.;U;.!, ~LH-t' I I i ur.:,· ;
-LillI!
200
ioQl .!.11'SiJ_~
'U:.. •• ~ n-'"
~
I" I'
190 190
+i H..l'I+tH fH1 w'r+r " 1I1~ "" ,': ,J
ttrt-:i4t"C Hl.!,·
- ,-' -''''I+i 0+ -
-
!+-\,:.,t:-
'H-'11~
~..L ..... tj ~l.... ," ~~ ~l to,... "Til 1i1....U_~J
190 4+~'I" - I !...ll~If1I,ll!:!.
180
;.l..LU
1-:----;1', .... ;- -'. :'. ~ •. T"T
.=\;q'r", ~:.: .. 0! ' , ..•. "".. T
110 170
-1.l..~--~··'·+h-1Ih"":·· ~
. r-th-t." g'. .
'i', ..··
1 I t"~- ' . tn'
L.J 0'-' l... ,.,!;1:c:c
..... ~ '·"1.:.L 1 "
11
I
._..- rrlt- _
:-!+ "'1'-'" .. enL
m
160 t-t--" .i N
I' I,. "~-· 1
......",[ij,:!jjtd~ :'::i1trH
:-+~r~ ..... "--
r' ""
-.' ."'1'-'rt
" -I'
.. I-I.tdt ' It ,
.~ i .' .. It'
I
I
,...
I I
ll' tJ+:.l
L.L ..., "'n
4H ~t! 'Jr' Cr
;1': I;:c;nPiS
rt~~:tt.:l. 1"'!"",...!-.1
OM '
jill f\; Ij 'I
~150
iE§.+!,.J :~Ir l~!i~~1

1 i j !
Tf.;'IJ"," ' .... '.::
~'.
"".
T'" TIT: ,t 'n. ,
';-'tti I • ',~lt'; P. 1
140
I t r' . I It-H+ ' II I J' 1
, 1 • 1 II 'II I r
I~ _~_L -- .• ::': 1 I'Ll,', it~1
r,.j:"
,tT,,! ,;LC,"r ,:~ ,I
HI '" ffl.. L
, Iii'
'.
liiiill '.,
"",HIli 1 i1 ililli
130
+r.:~~. .':..u',!j'
.~.. ,
I I
;' :,!t4. '1 }
fl.:" .- 1 " If,
"'~;]C" ,.; J'lr;t;r' .
I ..L-L.l..L..l.-.,..-
I II ' '~'11 I .
• +00-1 I ' ," Hiti" I' ..
120 If IIW I I,~ :--J1 I I
, I .,
n-'lf
t
LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
J.ll', 111 I I I' Hllllll I I"~I
1/0 OF LOW BOIUNG HYDROCARBONS ' illllillilUi
,~
,
,~ ,; ':j1 VAPOR PRESSURES A80VE 10 ATMOSPHERES _ll
,..
100 j , , i
mnrt rrF. I I ill
" I I
1H~ i I I II
90 90
nIT.~"
Tlli 'T . .,
,
90
01 .02 ,03
I .04 .06 .08 .1 2 .3 .4 .6 .8
,
10 2 3 4 6 8 40
90
LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
190 OF LOW BOILING HYDROCARBONS
140
130
120
110
100
90 90
80 eo
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 :10 34 36
95
.002 .003 .004 .006 .008 .01 .02 .03 .04 .06 .08 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 08 1.0
180 ,
I I I I I
I I'! u:rrENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION

180
170 I 1 1 I I 1I I 11111111111111 iHllliilil iii: :111 11111111: Ii ilillllll I I I 1 I I I I I11I fR , i; i1111 ill:!l±ll Ulfl' , , ; OF PARAFFIN HYDROCARBONS _170
1ij ,I'il VAPOR PRESSURES BEl.DW I-AllIIOSPHERE
W
I
, ",' 20' t It Ii 11 ' 1'1,' -
11 - ' I ttl" ' J '
160 II
1I1,II!i 160
,, ,
I .1 , I'
'
150 ' , I
,
'I 1!
~ti III fTtll.g;,,:jIIII:liliil I 1IIlTi'ti+;;±llllllllllllillil150
ij II I "
'140~
. j hlHIIlIIlIHi11 1111'111111111111111111111
'III , , ,,
130 I-<t
I II I'
I ' "II
"II 130
If~ II
I
- - 1 . jl
120 ~
,, ,, , WI ~n II"
1" IIF1 '1r:'~f . i,
:
II II , i'
,, . '~' 120
illj
- - I "
I, fi 'fi' ~t'!~. Il!iiL -~
1
L
,,
~ II 0 -"* ,
" I II
'1 II m 'I )" I"
, , II I •
, '" , ;',110
'~ , '" , " "
100
'Z
liJ f- , ,, ' 'li ",: 'I
I i
90
.• i
I , ,
90
80 80
-
.I1. r l
I
70~
. . Ulllii!lllill tttlHM 11Il!1I!11.i,1Ii1.,,:ll"'nn mi 11 C lr.;U'iUUU:U~ :rn 101:;;:1:::'11 ::11:rrr1 n:1t1T11TJ:11i'Hi1.lllIf
601111111111111'11111111111111111111111111111111:\"'1l'II"IIIIIIIIIIIJ"IIII'IJI,11111,ll"IIII~II'1111111111~"IIIIIIIIII:
50 . . . . . . , ..... , ..... ,... """,.""." .. ", .. ",.", .•. . ................

IND.
r
,, ,, 40
40 I
.002 " .003 .004
" I
.006 .008 .01
I
" .02" "
.03
I III
.04
1111 III
.06
I I
.08
I I"
0.1 0.2 0,3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
140~~~~~~
130 •
• • 1I1I_ _1IIII
:~:_·._iiiiiiii.
10
2 4 6 8 ~
"(
i~:;~,:~ :1I:'~~~~~;b;: ~~, : ~ J·~f ;m!~: :~:~~~~. 2] ~I'~~ ,1: !i.! :,1,:~,r
12 14 16 18 ro ~ M H U
i
ro
"il1:!;: Jt~;I~~ ~
a § ~ ~ 8
~I
, ,-
Ml ."
, , '...
-,
.' ~
Jj
t .,j .1 ·1 :.t~ ............ I ....... I-'~
r. , _ I ~.- t1i::- .
tnt I ~.:a~
~
H·b 1 It t 1.!t11 T, •. -- TT' 1-r'"
8V
.W
ijfdllr:B1 • •
• , ·"1' I
1
4~':_1
i I~I• ••
I. 1'" .....
-~- :-T'-'.
,l,;;;fJ""~:-
~l
tl
•
"t
• ;':i }I~'
l rrl:If.P.:~ :.;.:: :::-: :':~';:i:-:
.',t." tt,!l~tl ...•.... -... _;;:::...
:./.:1 "'!'; 'T
,:tll,i..ll
'
01
• , f.
I "
,
"I.'
• ,rl otrj
~·t tJ:tJ
n,j .' r
p::j ' ! .
!"I;Ii,
.. i:rq
:":,'1 litl ;1" li:, "". fr.: ::" :;:t.! ¥.rt
t' U,t r+l ;W !;:r ::--', 0':":- .:.~:..: :;:;: -!1
I
'! -t-,. . 'c_1 '" ~

l:!'.' . . --, .,, ' , 1 [I,t:; If' ,tJli'
'"., , ':t ""r iHi'
. 0 " I, ·f·
"ti:!i" lit·I,tit
:cl' :l:: ~ ".,:.:: ::~.,. ,:#ju:'
-II I 'I I ." 2
~
1 . •• .n! ~ -." u.r, -.' 0 ,;..j I..... T •• ~ • • -I •• ~: t- ••
" 'ft!, ~ ~ , , Jlj~ ~. - , . , " !~1j :ff~' 11" n" f' j' " 'Hi, I '1 'Ill .•.
, ! " t""., ",,,r ...... t
~ ,." • ] • ••• ~
.~:± '+J"';' . _,', I rJ .t1.1. :.I.' ~ J.~: ! I ~l 1 ~:: ;.:, d-: -lH-: nd I::: :..:.:....: ::.:: :J 7~:
• • • .-! I- -. d o . _. • ••••
}I"
"" ...L' lof rot'
T . fill.".IIW illl
"1' ,r-r- . •. . If't: + .., . ~~.
T 'J' Ir
..'. -r- I"S t41'. : !
'!-I'''" iLl, ''1'
1'1,1 II"
. u lql 1'j
.. 'i',-,
,"" if"'1
,..
';1:··"I-l!' q"f:' Iji'...:' IW 'll
ILn-:~
tIl"
'.1+,1"
':.IJ
-~:.. fj".+: , 'j ,•
.- t ; \ ,.'
.~. 1..
':~!
":-.;-r.
+-_~
" . :::r.117t-J
r"
T.
.••• ': ••-,
Lt- "I' ."...,

I'.~.)• " It!:r.,
.. I,,! :'.;
_,I. ..
"'n' "..
I ~11i-' ",
1 : ";..:-.. l.n (.....
H,',
~'."
J.t I
, ,
tt" h
,:-Ii
IT
Jt- t
I'!'ili'"
, • . ::j .•" •
1 . 1": ,.j., . . f~
,
,~l 1-
tH : "": :
t
. m"
~ ~ :::' ! :Q::
'I~,
tt d·'
;'< H, 1.,
ll·; :"'1
iii .", ii 1"j'i1lj' 'I',r' .",
I .. ·1 :. 1~, r:: I.; .1.1' :'!
.. t
U" " . N!' '," . '-
'lJ'';
.11.. ",i
Ij,
I.~!'.
'1+ ,.,
:tt
.. ,..I Ii'!
. I' -.1,.
'111 ," ~f..
I. , •. .. l.~ '0 . 4 .
8
~
r· I,
w utHffi j'
,.~. I .
'"
'f[1
,." elmt' .", \:\; ., .. :'\" id· JI' .. ,. T '/'. ",..... d,
tn· l:]:lt:1·qf'I.:l\i'N:: lt~ flli ·1:.1 i;:: :':1 ~t:i ;:.: nlj lin .r';'l ,i~i : , l t a ", ,". , .• "I'
'11' .~ '"
Z " ~: : ... ,~. "'4':
" .' H i ; 1 ~.... ~ ••. ~.;; '." '.~: : ' . : ' ::;~ ,;:. :;: :::: ::.: :::~ :~;: :;.'":~: :", ;.;~ I" :
"i
« .
,: .:::
f1i, :'j,.. 1"" "... " ,.
:! .:1! t: r- r- f ;tttFI'\..,
'
liil, ... 1. n 1'1:. :!:I 'I-
I...
' ,.. [,,,, ""'I"" .1l1"Ji1 ,.. , .... "1' 'i" "'I ..,. ,... d,' Ii 01. ., "Uf,
.::. :\.\.~:'\.: ·;-n:ll,.:. It;' ~~:: j l l : ii I;' I:.: ::r',:1;l .;1 .... ::I' .. U:t
if'I"IJ'g' 'ill' fY'! it··, 1-" ",' "I"" .....," '. g;
J:
I- r::;:l'j'
"'j):'
to...... •
... , 'IJ' I·.
I! 1_:
::1 " . :) _,'rt • t,','
, ,." "',
IJI 1'N!'n' I"11:'1:
T
~ t • ~ -.r, p.,'l
t. nL
".. ti-'Z.
'II! I::I:, 0;," 'j'
- II·!!"
. . :i'll.,';
"ro· ,', 'i:1j
' ..
" .. 111 ::,i :l: :,:' .::; :,,"1 :Ii',I I:l~ ..1'11'' , CI
f •••• , ..... 0'- ..... , ; _. • ••
W
"'== . btU'. "H :,1 l!~ :.1 . 1 .'m'ltll
.... 'Ij '''' I. :·11'
Ti ,,""'1 'II' lifi'll
r- +,. .r.. :"'
u; :'11 p,. 11\" ,(.~'1.1" :, i!:-(.': , ; j',.",.,1
n., ,.. :",
U.H "I: :::i II!',. ..,,+
.. .....- . ..... ,. ','-
.:,: I": 1'1" r'" ".,:I.I~' 8 J:.
~
~ ~UI • II' :q..: ~ . 1 .t l' •• '11"_ .,j j
• ~ -I •••• 1." , ......, '.' I'" ''t' ;',1 t 1 I' • ,
u. t,...
·W···· 1:.1' ,,,.,
,n 11'1" Jid'j '·1"1f' 'M...." ., •. ~..
I''1,"1 It '1. , r I' ii:';' I::'
ff1j'JI",. '1: ~:"
I"'" ~:. ", N'
·C'\ ''';'' . I .J:'
..c:
, iW I":,., ,r:'
"t "'1•. 1. ::,: :t:; rti'", ",'
,:1: ..... '::' ,,':.I - ; ... , I', I· ,
"i~ >-
o l $,'"
•
.::'
' .1' Hil
II
..
•.•
I", I" 'n ' t
tIl
~
,"."
~l..
'". I, or.... 11. " .... , ...,1"it ~..
~
,,,, j1
:,
f
t-!! I '
.; t ~!.
..u.
~ 'I
1.'1 • .. •
.• ~
t
""
;1' _
I
,rrt.
.. 1:"
..
,.,.
:.;.. I ~,K" '1 "
1
':l:
'\,;' ...! ~ .. 'I;"~",.I-i:t
••
ll" '''I
':r: ., ;:;.
... "
-.
...... " ",. ,.

;::.: :;;' I: ..
1 .,1. ., ..
,d "rn'
II!
','+
'j
Ih·
~ ; l i .•~'~ • •
.; "" '"
"..!~~
.'!~ ....
~;:;
. ..• - I: .".
Ii .. '''' ...
~::: ~:'
1
!4+ a..
'lE: ~
r:'
I
"'r' ,I! TI:; tt! ...l1j' HI
;11 '" .;n
'1'1; !iiJ 'I! t:t:Jt lie !.t;, i~.~ti;
'11·!. ". J \ ~lij 'L:t: ,·ttJ
t-yl: .... "", . .- t!I':±t,
. .-:i:t, '.!J:,
lll, f'ltf %.;1::1::
t\:'tJ .,j
' 'Ii'
1 Ii': In' iii
:.l .ti\
II':: ii'! U:i r,:i ,ifi If, I'
t~l •• 1.· ... ·, ,hl-~~ ·'t' I.t'r
"«
Hill' !ii' ,~'"
1lJ.l' ·1,' ,,,. ' t . 1" .11' II'" 'II
111.:;'!'I'· ~t f ,,~ '1m
I ili!'
r ft":\ !r; rill ~ lL ':,l!. I iN'
1 I· " 'i"N" r;'\' r.1· ,; .. ,., .•:..'
1,1' "'I i,ltl
I .,:: ," r::I '1,1: :n, ',." "I 0
!'t:
~
I I I • -.. • +i'\
I • Ilp " 'I' 'HI
.. I. ". . .~. I.j. ~ . " r •
j.,.... I. I . ,.;10
,. . . . j.. • 'I' t·· , . ...I., •
, • • j "" ,
•••••. ,J:
oil: ';
';iit 'H. l. ~ 1;:H ftl· Htill

-r, ill "I+H:
t lj:Hl++hr; tii:nr !~ri
rlfj i
! J:.
• ;t; . ,.It.tl-.l n:j I,; ,I;1.n.. t; f. II r~ '; ~\' .~\.,
;LJ \ :: '-:~ ;'\,.; . .'~~~ ..!i;! jl~l L1':': :!;j ~;:l £::1 I';q :~!;
.Li~'. I,U .. 1. ;,.~ I. ... ,t. r" 'jl
~
Z 1 .. ~r~. d . -.-.. . .. , t· .. , .pl
"i
,~'. W ' 't. !lfl;'
:1 1, ;.,~
.
I'll r .II!' r 111't '1. li1
II-:i; r
:t;" J!;r I'~Rn: '"I'tBl t,'~~n;,-,,! 1'1 '""
H::jt:....+.U'~'t1j 1!'\.' . Itt ,.W .'<');:'~." 1:",<1:: !;jr II:! ":1 :,1: I'il 1:1L
I, ; n\.'1.\."'\.,':I~: ';\:1.' -~" ::1: :,;. ;.!"! I 'il-'
al,+t· fWf
~
:- :;:
"' , t:'..~ In'''
" ·t' ,.,.
.;l: '.,. I'"i;g"I'"
'f"
;;: :11;' -' .. ,; li/'
'1, "rr'I"
i
iii' ['Ii' .,.PI"'! I I'"
'I" 1.111- f.,
t1 n"~I "'I ""It+111.1;
~l 4 H
,
"" ~1 . ,~, 1&
":~
. .
_
. I'• , ". ~\l
1 '!: . ~~ '" .• r'*"• "'-~.
'" ... :1:",
[",~
"., '1 ......
:.r.1,.:: ,.. ,."I' II'
PI: I!l' rr
:!~
'II
1, ••• ' •• •
1·itli,n
H_d FEr
,;t- fP.' ., ~ ~-;i-~,.,I ~"I"
,...;: 1 Ij ,~.....
t:....t 't. ;;
'iI'f~'i
r: ,J • +' ~ j I f1'•~ 1.
J '11' , ' I ' I"t"
1.,:.' "., .. ::\' '"iH
, "",1 ,I . , r:':.'
1+l1ft:;,' J- 11. i";" i\i
'I' ," .' .[\i \~ . .. ",,,,,,,~.
r'\..;. .... '; ~. ~.',:::::
·~,.:~I:.-:'" ...'." '1"'"
II;: Iii:., 8
§ .1
M'" JJ±: '''''-1 ;'1.-'' ·t'· .,. 0..: • "II rt'J ,.I: I:U','"'
,1 ., " , I·,
It.: f r .~ .~, ~., . ~.~.'N'"

r
jl
". k' " •. "

'l , ....
1 ":j till r 'jij 1·'ti '..;j:: ,1':'i ip ,q J. ",,1 r:!, "t I"' I'I';+: .,. t rr' 'I' :?<....:. n
~: ~:t: in 1
,
.
.' ... , . . . ' " '+'
• >- ...... •
I .'
j" 1'\.:-1:'1 f'ld.· .. ;\ ,'!;
.. . . , . .. , ll::
:0
. ~:'\.. 1 I." • I I
""i . 'mi'
'0- ...
," ,:i :'J:

,". "'1'
..... ~ ".- j.
~i' "'c.
I; .[. ,
.'1" ::;'
• ,.•'11.,
i~h
''':r;
r........ 'I'itf '"-...
.
"1 I',: :"',
"f'
~,r ,1'11' l
, t ,illl
l' it:,.1,Ii;I ':"',' p,) , nI'".
. •. ,
II' ,m
~,..1
\""1\":'" . . •' <1,. .. ~~:::: ;;-,,~.:.
.., . .rI"
,HI!.. . . . , :,11
'"" I'.!
l. ,' .. ,I, ,' .. H"" I ..., r'" ••
w ..·
4
+!
'
_L
-'i' •
:;'f ""'
;",
•
__
-
..
; I'·'
i ....
':-l' 1:;/ I"'
'n ;p: .,..
. ;:
p.l I.. ,~ ... r,. 1.·•• 1...
I"'r
III j . II'
, ,.
.r.,1 .ljl
'1'111111'
+1..:1/ I I
I -",,!. i" I,
c.::r
:..It- ~
,.
.j I "
, "
;r, II'
1:'
41- ;--l- l~.-.
j'
' '..
.....
.
"i'h
111
-l-HJ 1
J ,.
"lip, • • .
1\It;
.t:l.: ,\,t !:!..
. ~.
.~ll I' ,......
,I:;: :;1' r:1
I ... !,
~~l'
'
II
. ' ~
I tr "I'i ,," __ , j.
'!± Jt••
"t, it[ ":'Ifflllt'w
Ii:: lij:1 HI
I . . .." ,I"" l 'Il' . .~.
,,' H . " .." • "I. lli'h.
, ' p I,.
'til . . .:;,r "I !HpITI''':-l<\
W.· ·n'ILl.IlIl' "" 8
~
, .;. , ,:+ , . , T'H
8~ 0
=
o 0
Q
2
0
0
~
0
0
~
0
0
~
0
0
~
""
I
99
600 900 1000
~1~IO~°lEi'§ml200
.•• , ..Jl'E '. :.
t ~~::::
-.
..'
1000
-- -+ :n,. ,
~ .;'
ENTHALPY OF PROPANE =
.o:r-...r: --t
'"
.~
:1:1
900
t
itr.'::
tI ' .
800 • ~,
700
600
500 400
300
200
,-"100
100
.~oo
101
900 1000 1100 1200
·-t"T _
.....
....
~.- #IT.. ~
.._~ tt
.....
x~ ..-:-;
..- .:::.- --
_.-.. :::::":
-.- ......-
'.
sao
,-
800
700
600
:
+
.r.
•
l'
1'1 r
'ft-
,
, ~ ttl
i-..... .ffi W
_I ..... ..,."""''''
+ •
, -
.,.
T
....
•
-100 o 100 200 400

102
103
8 8 o
0 8 8
1
,lltl.W I' ' :,.,; .:>.'":" , '" ll'l ~ Q
III IHI Hn
IiI1t1 Ii'l !j',l, 1tIfl-1~ .;l!9ft 1M'! ii., :t -::. F •• ,i!},;iI:r.:'1,
I,• :~. ':1'
I'" I'
,
I:II~ ;-:',: ~.;;:-q·1
i'l " • • • ,., •• l
. . [', YU'."'
"l"';'
I,.j, to; j n .'Nln' ' .
,....
'II"~'
~..~
, , .. '
,, :tl:" lui
,. -.. .;:<+
,rI-
<::.::': ., ... ,
WI
'I'L 1:. n:'; I' ". Hl·1 "'1'L ,." '.. ,l:. -'Im ,_. , r1', j04
I .!It'".
" d.-lt~
~,'
\ J' ~
~
,
. H·t·'·• ',,1'
...
•
,,". .,.w;
j,
.._ ~
,., ,1,'1.
I·'
I"
:1;
'1"
L~...
,.-
, ........ '0" ~
,:;;:r.:=;
....
:l-~' :
'I'~ '+
., , '1"
ti., IP-
~,
Ii!;;
',,,
I
f"
11:i
!'
~~
.
.
- ::."rJ
~'.'::i';
'1:i'.
.
,~.
l:'- ..... '.

• ... :..+t-l.
-+'~~l...,
H: .m
'" I..,.
IU mlliflo
~. , ,:i::-J I
',.,.
-I .. ' , " olj. '0.;... ,I" . II -" .. ,,, ~If J I 1, ,,, I .. "--ro =t'"~~ ..
'4
"I' , 1 / " "

-+.,
ffij. I';" '" 1t;l'
.." •
"1 ;::.' IU,

" ",,-,' .•. j
'*, + , ,,"
" . ;.....-
.. -".., -j.
~
'~f1~
j 'IH- t I ,.:; ..: ::d.:.W-t!;:-r·".. - . • ;..:it
... l' 'W: t ::"~11jtii~., " ' . , .. " ,~d:iP. +0-
"Jj :1,' H,: <i.!

11'U-~.
' j j1 'iii 1f, it
l.t .J..: .... I"
'. ~ 'I O-'f
• "1,x~ ,
1T~
. .. ~
'. I¢,IX: ttsl:t:l:
~ Ult.t..ut...t~
31'
1+ . "j'jl" ....' ~l" ,j' I'. "~I'
8"'I+,IIU'
rt: m ';1; :::
!"
,1".,
'It; ;;J': !
,.
,. W·· .-Ii .L , • L
f :.'
,.- I':"t.
.' ,+:..1 "1
~;.j '.,l iJ1 ,+11'j
.['j. .t · I'
1J •
" ,,<
~" I
. . . . . ... ,._'1
I'
I,,:;: ,HI.t
!+ Elm!
,",,'.,.,:.p: 11+1,':[1, I':' ,', +i:11
,,,.'!Jt '' ", -'. . ' . ; + "
i;;" 'U,l t ., ~~~ .'<41:-><: r
~
~.
••
,'"
,.
"r
!:il-~'&"t"
~:'
,,1111H1:li~x~:'\:! .rl It~.·
"
41. gil li,I, 11!
.•
t. III 1
. I. I ..
I W , , \ ; '.Ii' or~,~C'.At,t:;'
• 1.1
~-
" 'tt .• -
rh
I"
,,:t~IN~t~ ,J
•
,..., ......:.
~L~.
, ., "
._ ~ •.. 'j
"
ll'l
J
i' II" ri:
.'ur" ,',
~ ... .
", ••'l.!.'~
.,.rl;~l 1'1'
lS' ",r"'1
. . .' :'(~ 111'I"
...:.'\.,-'J..:'\l 1'"
.,_ ". "'l4I"
1 ii;: ;'11
• . 1. ,1
I 1
'11 ~" lIt!.....
LL, LC'., . : j :lIT
., ~Il :].:
1 '" " •
jffi
Olt
Olt:
I '''J Pit 11",,7. ''', ""
ilL .!,! ~i: mK: ,:~ 'n. ,~jt
~" '1'
r: Ii,' , fl1. . trf
". - ~
,tl . • • .." -, ,._, •.
~~ '., 'Tt; " I 1;' ~I-
0.1I1--l-"
"
tj.:H.
'!'n[lfli]rIHW;1'i-1l\J~I' rmrlfii' '1:llfffh, '1ft . ';-"1' . ±i 1n;7, :fi~ ..,till' I '.I\t:1'<t
ffiHHt lu' 4::,
I,! l'.00lL: C
,Il!;~'l,
H'. ')':1 ,ii" HI! I ' 'I i 'WI11111:lt~~.j:j
",",~~-t ," ·1~1· ~TlB..~ In· l[ti' ' ,
I .
ittll; I I IlttHH!111±r' ... 1 f '.l!..: .t
~
.....
!i1~~ ~, 1+ ·tj1~ ;t!. . . ~.., "111'1'1;"1'~I'II~II
'itr
'W 1" 1 i"'I

,l1lilllfi F.1 If F'' ~f tl"H'
Ulj t/I'
ill! lffr
8~ m -ill;; 1"~11Fil:f).;!Xj"S"tll·i.rl"i
,....
W
Z
;.;:::
1 <l '" •IiU
0 ... : .,:: .::,
:lti;lt ::1'
.-fi-S-'t"I'!::n
. 't;J
f-
Cl.
j':;I: ,,:.
."t 1-
';"T'~:
ol
. ,.:
,I"
tf'
'1'" y t ' ,.." .{; , I'm' J
-l.; ,,\.;<oo. ," I •• . 1
' , '
'
,
•, I
.,
:; 1\1: 11;' lL.. 1'1 WI "'.1\ ~~' I ~

!l;~ :;;j 0 Ui ttl tl..:.'X '.,;
8 I "i' ,,',
~ ILl:\ >- ql: Iinj I'
ll'dn:li -l
I!E il,j 1I ;;
Ii i
.,., ,
,1
, '
. l-
il I' .;
en' :t . :J:: ;"1
," I
Cl.
-.l I ,"
it,:I' ,I'I 't 'I"
j. I, I
~"
;1' , .'~ "I f " . ,+ N
i:ln! j :11' :i'i ~

,':~II,:'lr!~;:L
;m
~l:l
Iitt f'. 9/: if ii' .
,. , III-t·.• " 0'1:- '.
JI'I1.; .
,'L~:
...,
~ij ~ "H 'II '~". 1~F.i-
'
~
fHj:1 ;i::';'
1 I.:..;.: ~l~'
f-
Z idi Ii,' ;'Ii'• "I
,i~l:P [":1 • i+
I' II I' I..
'.' • •
o"ili .,' I
dltil! I.l .... :__
W ,:1/1;1; '"I "
HI: l::l HT .l~ 1- I·,' I
1111
.. ~ , . . .
X"
,\.j\.:"
:\I.
~ !
I
11 11 111
f
h
t:j rr. .
(I)" ,
'II
I .
I
" ..
1".. ,
" , ' j ,.
.[., "
+l:..l
I'"I..
,ll :l:~'
.f. !H! 'Wfl.'"FJ. I' . .
j
I "1'
I
I,··,,, 'I '''Iu
'''1;' 1';"~". . ":~~N.l
lJ.
,:m
I'U:~
t I I I ; j i;:i:Tn .~! iTI1~ri Ii ". :ttf ..t 1'1 nn' .
, T I ., , .. , I" II" '.I, t
t
Iii· II:' i'/
'l.'\I'J\Jrl
1tL,,~~N II ;1, II lib.
oj··· , . ~ 'LL~ ~t ~ L~ 1·, :......1 I .,1 '1t.\i.. r I I ·n' ~I~

!'- o o o o o o
o o o(I) o o o<S)
o to-
'" '"
105
1200
,- -
,
900
f " . , ,f
. u
800 • ,. t~ +-
~T.:
:.I ..:t:
~ • it:· . "
, ..,j
..rz:i .:-: _.1 1

.
100 600
It
600 500
,t 1
1500 400
~
400 300
-t+t-;-, HilH
i 1
100
,,
o
-aoo -100 o 100 300 400 500
106
107
QR1G1N A.1.,\
CO PI A (FIR ';1 "cD:) i
PABl.,O 1'.1OT['.'\
500 600 700 900 1000 1100 1200
ENTHALPY OF ETHYLENE
900
!l±
fi'
} Jf.
- 1:
•
800
+
.,
700
, ..
'r~
._. •.,......- :P I
500
...... ,"!}S .-
JF,e
.; .' •
..,.--
..
+ & ~ ".-1 ~+.
~oo :~. 400
. :II "r-'
~l.<f'
.,
1±1Iiti
J
J
•
±
~ T
I~ 1 •
~ l~rqT.
"
-200 100 o 100 200 300 400 500

108
.'
~200 -100, o 100 200 300

109
600 700
'-' . .
-'-1- ....... _. -- .. - ~
1000 1100
:ttn:-.~.!T ~~
00
. ~.
_ .....I-:!.',e:.~
._~_r::::-::
"" . ,=:,;::::::,
ffi=.::£i.f
.... " :1:=
-r . :.
~ .. =.'-
1000
'. - .:.'T~:"-';r ...
ENTHALPY OF ISOBUTENE AND BUTENE-I
900
= r
-+ --••
800
~-
.;...
: .,.~
r- r ... _
;t;:1±l=r- .ft'! 0::-, .. 400
7E ~--::;:
. ......
;,.
-+ •
~
- t- - •
".~
- -l
,11
+.
., 100
JOO 400 500

110
1000
800
-100 o 100 200 300 400 500

111
•
I 'tIT
I
I'If:.
,
,
;J . I
I :"
M
tI l' [ ill
~ . •. ~
i"[ )1
II
l.
- t . -
I I
t 1
I
600 -ffiEHffi
;: i
500
400
j,
I iI
,1'
,-i' 200
-1- f ' t ::;:
II
I , I
,f
o
100 200 300 600 700
112
900
600
500
400
111 300
200
100
o 100 200
a
300 400 500 600 700
113
!§
500 600 'too 800 1000 1100

iiOO]"If{ 9 00
900
j
'iH,
Ill- _
"
.l t , ~ t
t ,ii I'
r !'• I' ijf1'lt"'",I~
.• l~. Kif.; l':.rt'I1'"I!.Jo",
IX,
• ',"'!l',
rH ifl",i,
:U~.
700 . t-
" II .. 1".
t . 't ~'. 1f":Jt
. t; ni.f If I "" v"" J::IX:.-
;:-, I l l : .~ I . f~! :- 1 I ,.'
I
"
• , I t 1-t 'L: .t ihl lh!]•. mt, . " c:- V/-
Y,:/.'lt
i }, I
'4,. '"#~~li~:~;j J'.-"I, 'b'lfat'lH!ll

I . . ·l·Y9~,', '
:~ ,:<- t +:!
, I
J ,I i
~.-
, it ,
tJ
j t
500
....
~~
"
. "
" • II
~, '
400 400
Cl&'l'
,;
' ,'
I
300 , 300
Hr· ,
I 1
IIi! ,.J 1 •
200lillrlw
:1
H
. Ii"
,
l-fi1 .
1
I
,,.
..
, t ,l'il
I fl1! j I
, m TIl
#f T I I:, 1 j, II I
r! fT) 11
1
100
I rI j
I
,
\ J
" J ,f:lf'
,
lJ ~ I +
a 100 200 a
•
114
115
)
5 0 600 700 800 l1J900 1000 1100 I 00
rr
, L
+ = ~L
~ , .
~ ••• - '--rrl -....
j: ...1 ;1 :::-: :--::rl:z:::.s: '-;': ~.tr'- .

.
~
. . . . . . . ._ t - " " 4 -
ENTHALPY OF PETROLEUM FRACTIONS r,;"- ~"- ~~ ~

IT_" _. __
, ,
. -.
. ... '''iFf'''' ". -....,..··f-'\1'--0-'-'" ..,.,..
~
~ ..- -.~ i2_ .... .~-;:+
_ _
-_..
-0- • -t-·-o-J--t,··
--pi-
••••
.-.........
• 4-0 __
..
-I..' '''''.'r--
..
~ MEAN AV. BOILING POINT 250 of ~"~""
CHARACTERIZATION FACTOR-II.O
--:1.. :.r"~ - -----r- ..::t: r' 'T- I"
. "cil+= fO-- •
t.:z= :--' .. r:::::. _ T ._ I :::-:-_ :::_.~- .::~~ ~ -~~
,,' ,...- -r-'
...... 1- ttL
r ': I 1:-
600
T
", T
~+
o 100 200 300 i 400

116
117
500 6 0 700 800 900 1000 1100
t
. I .' .f> j • '::1:- _ :.:-
..•- .... :.r • -
I~ I ,
I ~ ..-
l'
, , -4.;
T ,I II
~1 t. .'-:::r: iif! " "
ENTHALPY OF PETROLEUM FRACTIONS

., IT
.1
, , tl
i j ,
700 , . ,fJ , ·f 1
fill 1 1
.'
.' .'1 'l ,
I',J n
t j • ; ,. , , .'
'f
1
;:l
600 , , ii·
.,
I
,11,
l'
500
, 300
,
"
200
:
1100
•
200 300 400 500
o
118
I
o 100 200 300 400
119
; lOG 1200
900'-
PETROLEUM FRACTIONS "
800
MEAN AV. BOILING POINT- 400°F
r r ..
J:!. :.;
, . :-,
, , ,'
.
tlHlfFHH
,.
600
400 400
300 IlIDJmlI :;'.Lft:Il:1ffit!lj300
200
..
+
100
,J!
300 400
120
o 100 200 300 400
o
500
121
500 600 700 800 900 1000
1IIIEGN!TiH~A~LPY OF PETROLEUM FRACTlONs~~~1111

MEAN AV. 80lLlNG POINT-- 500°F
CHARACTERIZATION FACTOR -11.0
700
600
400 400
,
300 300
200~1~.
o
5 0
122
300
, .. ,
200 _2.00
o 100 2.00 300 400

123
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
1"
900
8oolllllll~~ITIlil MEAN AV. BOILING POINT - 600' F
700
500
400 400
300
200 1ffifHlP" 200
100
200 300
• 124
500 600 700 600 900 1100 IZOO
900
aoo
300
100
125
800 1000 1100 1200
Iii ENTHALPY OF PETROLEUM FRACTIONS

I
ill! I MEAN ~OILiNGPOINT - 800 of
-I
CHARACTERIZATION FACTOR-II.O
-,
'"
.' =-a
700
".
~
.-
- .. - -
..
~
600 ~
- -
-
-
.
-.---1
- "
500
, -- - "
. ~
I;t
-.
~,
~.
,-. ~
<
400
,~ .. . .. 400
.-
~
. <
gg•
::T:_ Pi
t±:-:'• ~ :;E
~
!:tt .
•
-
~
, 1
;
- . , 300
! • " -
.. 4
='
.. .
.. ,
-$
~
...;,
-
.
"
~ 200
, Cl " - '.
~ - . "" ~
::t::
• j .-, 100
'~ •
o 100 200 300 400

o
500,
126
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 IZOO
127
oCD o o o
8 o<D
.,. .,.o<t. o o o .,.o o
'"
<D
'"
<t
'" '"
'" '" '"<t ~
<D
'" '" '"'"
.....
'. -
,.
t
"
o
I :
-t
lHin . t
I ~ •. I
l.·: I
:- j~ '::.
, . '0 OJ'
I,I -! •_,_
L;.: :p
..
. :r". Cia
.,'
- ., =
"_ .........
-
~
o
g
<D
o
<D
lI')
0
<t
lI')
o
'"
lI')
o
o
lI') .,o
CD .,o
<D .,o<t .,'"o o
~
o
CD
III
o
<D
III
o
<t
III '"
III
128
6 .7 8 9 1.0 1.1 12 1.3 14 15
360 .......... , :l:tll
.. ~ : 1
!~: ~ ~ ;.
~ ;;:.. , ;. "':'1": T···· ...... 1;'0'· ;1';.11' ~;;t,I''':Y If '/ ! i' 1.1' t 11 t.,....,... I r,.:.:l] ;n 360
:..: ., . ~"1: ~Z.b~. "j' ': . z usn :) I,. )--r--/

.-
IJ
(
.. ,I J;~.:.)r.:·:-:':':':':jr. u:: ).';~J±l;~ 340
320
.. I .. .. 300
.
.... ., .
~_.~
- ... ...
'" - .. . .. , .. ......... - 280
_.Iil.n; ~:'::~'. 1 ,1' ... , ,• . ~.".., ...... , __, 'J/ ,_H, /" .., ,.. _, ... .,-,' " ... ,···----11 260
240
::1.":'J~:lnl
;;;
<C
-. 230
: .... '
'---....... .... 220
210
200
190
180
170
~+"
ill. 160
.6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
7 8 9 10 II 12
440
420
MOLLIER DIAGRAM
FOR ETHYLENE
-,
_ _~1Lf'l
_
I 440
420
400 IlfIf1TH1- ±i 400
t-; -
•
1 380
360
340
130
.62 .64 .66 .68 .70 .72 .74 .76 .78 .80 .82 .84 .86
• • •_ _11 340
290
I
280 HffiH+/lI§~~*l'
.14 .16 78 .80
520
~oo :
480
460
., , ,
,
,, c
,I , !i . 'I
•x
" .
1: •
" ,•
,x. "
•, -
.,
JI .
, ,
,
• ~
, .( r • ,
. I'
, -,
- I
I Ii
~
l. '
"
" ,I
,.84 .86 .88 .92 .94 .96
134
.64 .66 .68 .70 .72 .74 76 .78 .80 .82 .84 .86 88
560 560
540 540
520 520
440 440
~._.400
400
380 ~ 380
360 li!triffiiRflHl
350
340 340
330 llEllE31 330
320
310 310
300 300
290 _ _ 290
280 28C
.62 .64 .66 .66 .70 .72 .74 .76 .78 .80 .82 .84 .66 .68 .90
135
Section 8
DENSITY
Low-Boiling Hydrocarbons
The specific gravity of the saturated liquid, from low temperatures to the
critical point, is given on pages 140 to 142 for a number of low-boiling hydrocar-
bons. A hydrocarbon mixture is assumed to be an ideal solution, and its specific
gravity can be calculated by adding the products of the specific gravities of indi- •
vidual components times their volume fractions. This assumption is essentially
true for members of a homologous series and is a good approximation for mixtures
composed of hydrocarbons £l'om different series as long as no component is in the
region of it-s critical temperature.
Thermal Expansion of Liquid Petroleum Fractions

The thermal expansions of liquid petroleum fractions at pressures up to 1500
psig were derived from the thermal expansion and compressibility corrclations of
Watson, Nelson and Murphy.! As in the case of many physical propcrties of
petroleum fractions, thermal expansion is more sensitive to averagc boiling point
than it is to gravity, although both independent variables arc necessary to corre-
late the data properly. Up to 1.25 multiples of the volume at 60°F and 1 atm, it
was found that gravity could be neglected and that the thenpal cxpansion could
be represented by the molal average boiling point alone. Above this expansion of
1.25 volumes, gravity is introduced into the correlation in the form of characteri7,a-
tion factor. For each average boiling point two lines are shown, one corresponding
to a characterization factor of 12.0 and the other to 11.0. Interpolation and extra-
polation may be made on the basis of characterization factor or, if preferred,
gravity, which is also given for each curve.
P-V-T Relations of Hydrocarbon Vapors

A series of charts on pages 148 to 153 give I' ~ PV IRT, the correction factor
to be applied to the ideal gas law for hydrocarbon and petroleum vapors. The
correction factor is plotted as a function of reduced temperature, TIT" and
reduced pressure, PIP" where 7' and P arc the temperature and pressure of the
vapor and T c and Pro its critical temperature and pressure. A explained in the
scction on Critical Properties, the pseudo-critical, not the true critical, tempcra-
turc and pressure should always be used for hydrocarbon mixtures. This method
of using the pseudo-critical properties of the entire hydrocarbon mixture is not
only more accurate but more readily used than the application of either Amagat's
Law or Dalton' Law to the individual components.
10;/ and Cas Jonma/35, 85 (1936).
136
DE"SITY 137
Since there is c\'idcncc of ::omc lr('nel in p- with incr('a~c in molecular \\"eight

for T,. ;> J .00, there are thrC'c Ect~ of charts for the rq:rinn where T,. i~ {.!;I'cntcr than
1.0, c-o\"('rinf.!: din'erent r:ln~c~ of ll1ol<.'('u]:lr ""('i,,rla. Bt'!o\\" 1',- = 1.0, Ihe data arc
jn~llmcjcnllo take into account n similar trend, so a ~illglc chart 2 covers the entire
molecular \\'eight range.
if olher gases (1-1,,0,,1-1,0, clc.) arc present in a mixlUl'e 01 hydrocarbon
Yapors, an cfTccti\'c Jlrc~surc equal tn 7rV?!IIC E"hould be used to obtain the rceluted
pressure of the h~'drocarbon portion. Likcwi:::e, if it. is
ncc(':;:sary to lake int.o
account ~as Jaw dc\'iations for any of the oth,,1' gn::=c<:, p. should be determined for
carh of thc[o;(' g-ascs at an cO'celi\"(, Jln'.~:'llrc C''ll,lal to the total pressure multiplied
by the square root of its muIr frnction. The molal \'oIUine is then calculated by
Amilgnr~ Law,
111'
V'" = - (y
11'
"C""C + y,,,, + y,,,, + ... )
\\-here I'm is the molal \'0Iu1l1e 01 the mixture, lhe subscript He relers lo lhe lolal
hydrocarbon fraction, and the subscripts 0, b, et.c., rcfer to other gases. l.:'sua.Jly
P-a/ jJ.ln etc., mar be taken as l.OO \\;ith ycry little error, sincc most of these gases
approximate a perfect ~as at thc efl"ecti\'c pressures encountered. In the absence of
other data, the hydrocarbon charls may be u,ed lor these gases.
VAl..UES OF GAS CONST..... ~T--R
Pressure Temp. n
Lhlsq in. abs Cli It Ih-mole 'n 10.73
Lb/sq It abs Cu It/I h-mole OR 1545
ALm Cu It/lh-mole 'H 0.7302
Alm Liters, g-Illolc OK 0.08205
Atm Cu III I h-mole 0J{ 1.31~
;\1 m or Ilg Liters ~-molc OK 62.3G
Lb sq rl abs Cu It I"-mole OK 2781
GENERAL REFERENCES
l1e:l.ttie, IIar/lork :lIlrJ Poffenberger, J. Chem. Phys. 3, 93 (1935).
Beattie, Ka.\' and I\:aminsky, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 59, lii~9 (I93i).
l1entlie, Rim:lnl and ~u, J. Am. Chem. SQr. 61, 2li (103D).
Tnlcl'n:llional Criticnl Tnhl('f:, Vol. lIT.
Kay, /11'/. "ng. Chem. 28, IOI~ (1030); 30, ·1,,0 (J03S); 32, 3,;8 (l9~O).
J(cl~o:lnd FC'I!olinl!;. J. Am. Chem. Sn 62/ 3132 (19-10).
c
,.
L(>\\'i~, Inl/. Htl(l. ('hem. 28, 2.37 (I!l36).

S.a~c :md L'l(,cy, Ind. Hllg. Choll. 30, (l7:~ (ID3R).
Sal-!C'. Srh:t;lr"ma :,"d Lacey. hid. En9. ('Iu'm. 26. 121S (1!l~-I).
S:l~C, \\'C"h<.;tC'1' :inti Larcy. I nIl. [.,'lIq. r1l,.,.". 29, G;j.". II~S (193i).
Smith, I3c:\ttic~nd K3~·. J. Am. Chl"-'. Soc. 59,1:')1;)7 (lfl:li).
;! COpC'. Lewis and Wcber, Ind. P;,IO. Chem. 23, 88i (931).
10 20 30 40 50 60
I:NV :r1~
..-0++ ••'1,
", 3'
mt ~.
..
8.8
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND POUNDS

8.6
PER GALLON VG °API GRAVITY
~ r..=:n:
'.I-
~£
.... _
.API' 141.!5
131.5
SP:GR.
• 1=; , 141.5
:=:± ._ .. SF! GR.'
"".
.98
... ·API + 131.!5
.-: --'-f.:..v::r..
7.8
~
_
•. +I'
.96 I
..... = ~ -:.' .- 7.6
. u.;
.t:tl _ -...-
.94 7.4.
., +~ -.; ...
.92 ~7.2
.90 ,.,..... - 7.0
"'" rl'>."T •,,:
,,= ". .- rti:: ....
~-
~
.88gs .=.= 6.8

::::t:
.89
- .
-.......-... ..~.
,
, :r
j
.84
.3
.82 ,. 6.2
... ...... __ ._: ~I'_ -t

.so .=: 'ra 6.0
~ ,",...-
.78 ,.. ... 5.8
_ .::t.:::
.......,. 1- __, ,.
h " • ..- ~
j:j,- .,
_ r ..- ..
...- ::>±::::.. ~ ._-'
.74
.72
.70
o 10 30 40 50 60 70
138
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210
139
CD, III <t r'"! °1 -:
nIl n'1 '1+ ,r ,fr; :1:i:
irr1
litl
::r
'f
Eli;
m'
i.
;'1' i
,H ~.
..
Sf ;j:j.H
Ilti
I
,"
...
11 I + +
IT, ' ~1 ;:1. ;-t
. 1: f
~: II; ""I- r
~
i, . _ 01 . _ . oj
+;.11 !r;:
_I ~
:1
... 1,
h!~ '::'; 'ill, t'_: t

.... tJiR,.:. ,'J , ~ .•
II ,- t~..
- ,
it '++1 'l=!, i1'1-1, , -

t-o- , I
:11," n:... 1
,i .
'"
- - ..:i~"
I;n:
f
:r l-'o.i .1b
=
'S1' ..!
"
,0
,0
"T"
,'"
.. I!:.
", '8
i= - ~. '""
i,~ ........
.....:;..: -0
,
o
140
-...
100 200 500 600 700
.... OO!
,
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AROMATICS ~f9

'ig
LIQUID IN EQUILI8RIUM WITH ITS VAPOR
~
~
,mh"m!'~!k~il£'~':ll::"i'~i~l
.
•.'1111'
,
ttl ,.~'.. .8
USE m- XYLE NE CURVE FOR
! - ~
, SPECIFIC GRAVIT.Y OF ETHYL8ENZENE

. . .. ,
• t .
;
,
• ... .
t
. .' ~
r
7
--
~
1'4 I
-
. I
ill! ,. '
~
, ,
-+ if,:~ "
.8 I
'I
I~ , ,
.7
f•
:
l r
;
,6
. -,~
"
R! •
~
.5
e
:..
.3 .. ~ l-
I')() ~ JV
142
o 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
1.7 _ _
THERMAL EXPA:N:S~,~o:N~~~1I1I1I1I1I1 1.6
1.5
1.4
:;:
co
1.3
_1.2
1.1
100 200 300 400 soo 600 700 800 900

o 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
1.7
THERMAL EXPANSION
1.6 1.6
OF L10UID PETROLEUM FRACTIONS
250 LBS.I SO. IN. G.
j-l-l.
1.5 1.5
'"'t:::nlo
I"-I"i ~
1.4 1.4
,,--
;~·I.,..;4", =:: t:tt;j t.lith:: .-
'~1=1:1;-tt~t~
....
:t - .h";::
...I,,"'..
1.3 1.3
~
1.2. tT+- .."., 1.2

o:r.l" PARAFFINIC; CHARACT. FACTOR, 12.0
---- NON-PARAFFINIC " " 11.0
(8ELOW AN EXPANSION OF 1.25, THE SOLID LINE
, . . .1
REPRESENTS AN AVERAGE OF ALL STOCKS.)
1.1 1.1
;..Il-.4.
1.0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
__ _ 300
1.6
...",
~
1.2
1.1
1.0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
o 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 BOO 900 1000
1.7
1m
.:j::;'+"w~~;U:l~
• • 1.7
1.6
!:tt::l 1r
+rt.
±t:'
.
'":1":
THERMAL EXPANSION
OF LIQUID PETROLEUM FRACTIONS
-n_-,::1=li:S1m..-tt:.':r;::::;
1000 lBS.lSO.IN. G.
;:rt:fE-tt..,
h~
i¢-rJ:,
;:.~b
.T
r:
.. '~T'" ••• r,."."
, 1.6
r~:l: !l=W~ mIT!' /:;:j.tlr.!'ll ~

~~l~ t::tt ~ :q::.'
t l~ ',:!.'--
l! M.i ~:..
1.5 Eb_ ';il . IW -, :.5
! p.;:l
I=
1;
~ Lo:"j,
/tit Ii H:.ti;.ll~i-Cl?11 :=rr '!:If'' '.---
~:;t.l.f!]J+7~'" -W.j l,.~ :r;J:; . j .....
t:ti,,;
• rlrl'"i It-! I Yi
':3:rf1
'< $!:Ii Ji-, !Jatj;t j:\{lR ,ilE liiJlOi.IG' J?C \-}, .+ ...." t
im
,,"
14
l!Q'1h:Hl4tlq
-.-tot •• .
li iT" ,m'ft:: tit,
:n:r.,!1=:'1 ,'; ,. l1:J.fi~ ,-)(' •':J.;;-::;:;
-~,:n:: ~ ......i1 :-:-::-=
i!?- 2'~,J l±,'_
t+ T.!1t ...;:t :u E;:r ~. fl
".
l.:t:Jut ....i· :=("1 1.4
• '.-.,
"'--'It+!- H
i~ I ..
_ :H-"-
.,
_I Irl-J
n t:'t ~
• """=',
';11' ,,~~~ !Ll •
1~
~. :~A:'
,..~1 ;'<.111'_ t' IIl·Jr.
....
I'r-~"'",
~'-'j ~:±
F ~ p.~' lr..:.: 1 .:
•.
tt= "
~.
-
w. . . +-
rl
~f:.J.I;:~
iii
~
"'J::J:
C'!:!' lpo,,-j ,; t:·...
.. dttt!
• •
I
~
r
, i i- .~.
.i1E
:;t:l
.
,
.~. - ;.+--dL·-' ~ t:'~
r-:- :'" ~I,/r
- -.
:.4 I
P-
......
• +
~' 1m ~
*
,
:::r.
• t,:' ,:r: ~/,

0+ .." I M ~ .' _li.1,l !.3
'V.-t ,lTIf~
'"'t
t
Jl.U:'_~ '~ !ffiI,
.. "~
~fi-i ::l¥11:t! '~ +- it/-:
. . ..,...t-:
lfir.
, •+.: ,i ,~
u
"r:.
11.,:t Vi
till
m PARAFFINIC; CHARACT.
NON-PARAFFINIC"
FACTOR = 12 .0
.. II .0
.2
" ~ " (BELOW AN EXPANSION OF 1.25, THE SOUD III ~E
, I REPRESENTS AN AVERAGE OF All STOCKS. I
-
~l;nilqi. ,..f-i
1.1 H·-It I f •. 4·1...... '1' !.-t1,...... ,~; .I
H:
~-tttt:r. .. i ....
~
_I:±' ilWW
.,
-.. ,~
•.~;..I •• ;tHi1-;,
o
o
~i
600
.-.
700 800
a 900
.0
100 200 300 400 500 1000
<:>0
-0
Q
o
:il
g
CD
g
r-
o
oCD
g
'"
8<t
8N
o
o
lIIIIo
q
147
...
o CD
r
•. I
.. rr
w
m
w
~
0
z
«
V>
~.
-'
.w
"-
o·
u·
...
N ffii ,.,.:ill 1:1:,

. '. N
148
_ .2 ~
.6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
~ 1.1
.9
.8
:;:
<a
.5
A : j;I;JF~·J; ;.J'lU+:"RJ.4
o .1.4 1.6 1.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0
-H"
~.~~
~
o
.Wlj':-"H~'
.......... "'.di
t'·....~- ""1b1fJ1n
III
d!
,;.u
til
•
~ oft
.. .j.l,
.- <t
" .... ~
,..,
:1-
I.;
.',-
11
':"t'
N
iJot:
'"
N
~ "'"
"
m::T'
ttl: " ;:;
•
~
~N
II
-~, ~: ~ h\f
"' ,'c:t!" :Vf!.iJ i~ffi, • r
~ ••j
""~
!:iJ,'
1;Jlh.:.;f
'"'!!"
,II •
1# -i
'TIT'
1-~IfIti
;
,..-
,
"it'"
~:
.-00 •
lit
I,
11ffij N
N
~2
,-,: <t
....... > t+'
,!--, :yr-
'r'-
j
:J.,
111.
~ I ....,
.:11r .-., o
N
,,:c
;t~ Z
8""
;..~: 1
'I I
';i
l
'"
.m 'II
tF
lJ'Ii 1....,"'
-:l;... 0 G: :-~:-' l-•. ~ ~
:rz..-: m ~ :t: -ttf;i "-'-/1
a: ,. ~:'"
M •.
',:';; <X' 0 .I"·
4h +'g :..." +
;~.; g ~ H=' "ll"~' ." ,x:.., .. i~
1
·,~'~:H.;
i1
''-;
....Jh '.1;
:±:+ a: ,.. p
~ ;-:::;:T;
:1 1 '" •• • '.'
:.; Ll ,l:.tt·!·
..... ! . . .
+ -
..... 'd
...... ~"J
• 'i.: 0 :~,.
......:.. )-r0 ...c: L-.' ., ...I " ....,.
1 .-" ~::-~., ..:..#iJ :1" -", ffJi",
,,,[yt ,IZ~
,'i ',,-~ ~ u,~ t::7.ftt
::t11nittt "
~
-
.L.; ::.....-: :;r,t.~ .. I .....
....+'
! liS
J . ~r: :t::~~==,1.f.' ...
;::1"'.. ., ~,
",liE j.I
~ ::t: .I ',:,..::-
"'~'.'" . ,f';lfi;-I, ·.t, 111>1>=
i+t+lW·'-.A44H-1 ;:
M .,
1",'" ~I'
I-;L
::: u.. CT qnn
o WL..:.. :t "'.:' :./,r:;t,'I-r:l, ,;1:; :
C) :j.;±;
:1'1 ~:, .'~' 'i~ .!; ·t~ 'jf..:-lf.;·; :;J1. 17
I:
J;1: ..
i:..:: :.. ._ it
+~
':-fj
en
z ;=•. ~
'."
;JIO .t ::1 1"u 1~:1 xi tr:rrl~'!:f '
"! i:4• :~: ';i,'. .;.:t~1:!~A-!. ±: '1+
~,,",I
i ~t: •• ·.thrru
I
o- -' t_.
::-
.,
..I: 'fJ,::>;; '1,111;-:..",,; t"jl:r"
f.~ .1t: :/.: ...llLtt:lttll:tt Lrr!"
1"" ~
:.". ~ ~ ~.:I1: :,.1.::/'''''1/''

,:: ''''I-I,.
.,' , ;y"!,,I'",'~0". [.;''r\.,H,H."-!.ii.':::" ."'tffij,fj..!jTj,. .~
. • r 1: I· ,.. . .,. ". • " .' .. [j:lJ~ l'
,t1f J .. t ,~
. wr
f'j ~h 1~;''';:,'
I" .. :-
f!l::l, ':/I/:: --', rF-,
J;.r
:1' 11' ltU:'"
I
",tl':r:zv'
' _ ."It
:ttl ~h
~ J":
",' 4''Il:. r II:"'~" :ttl"C<' ' T II!
I,
....... I :~
:';.,' :.;
"._ ;,. ....,' ;f"".:";'.J"-;. . ,
"H·:,..;.r-::
t :d'
.. H V,j'.1iI;-l~
;..tI..
~,~.,
::1:
,~_
-. "u'
'~,., -:r-,:i1~ I 1 iT,.
Ii > ~.,~ 1"rllYf0'
'11.... , '= """"lIZ'
"',-' .. ,v-" 'VI_~"d_'
-
,lim
~.
'I:,", roc::1
i:1J til'
-.
::~. ,
N-.
_ ' - ' • • :: I .';;. L~t.; ..; 'UP.'
...._.. _•. ;~~l J.H-'
i1:E'; a..
I
t:-:: !I.'
I. . .- '. . .1 .•.
'J':}. lA' "'".
','"L!r:l
: ~'Il(;' .. ". -r. .. " rifl
:'!1.:'IJ'I.rL:..111"';'
; !{;' [gj IttL.;
'tt' ,-j'.: ,~
rttH-!
i:. • ..j :
~1frffffi
iii. "!
IB,;,
+.
:' ..
,:,IHJ:
if the ,'" _t: ttl
'-I- "'I' iiidT1=1
VII "eI, 1/;:: or:: l'1'. t' ,:-r:t: ~t,ft
Il'.J. u./':~ :.L~: ;/ ;;.r.:;:./. , ;-t:it:+t~ n-:t :
p~
'Foil .. ... J
II
:j 1.. ,:
-- :i~.;tli:" "'tiT'
rl.-.
:±r:tt.. , at:· .. r//I/'!<' All-!' ,'

, .. ' I,U ';'f!fI1'" "-..j: 'l:
b;j1~ ···r ':/: ''r LY'; ,.. +1f1 t ' .L! I~
;:-r:j:::
, ,
: 'V" " ' 'jj' •
Z~ :~;- t;~: !1: Hi
• t Jf1' In!I j' fjTH
~ t..:J~ I-:r~. [HEW'n° mli ... fH-mml:l
·':I1:j.l.!!:.·.IL:;;V"
t:t~::"t~:tt:;':lttl· .. -,
"rlli';; '.1: ';:/··1 ;01. 41' ~l~
.:1 ;! !~!: ~d'
:I :
!~j!
-~ 1:" Uil ~!; ~1:rth:_
.;~l r:p+H-~tr ~~, it ~ ,
t
"!
:ilit.ll¥iJJ~ e,: H'-1 "I ~ ~ Ii!: ,: II :,I I ~i ~

.:..l....
~"j;';'. ',;J'~"'r"""'l"'~"'~" tt":- 1r!"t""litHU Itill1· 1 J . ,1', tJm i i.i.~ll 1;
In l'iHllitt-l
T; liH,.1 ,I:t
-l.
j-< -l-ft1
,.j" : " t
'1"" !'''1l:;t; "II Mn ,-tIl
fm,
I !'ltHlilR i
tJ
_ 't- l,t+ H1 IE R o
~ "! "! ": "! ~ ... "1 "L
•. ,- :'/"!.r ::l: .:::: :::::::J r::~'
·9
::T
...............
•. :.:.= .:::c +;-:: :.- -::; E
.7
.6
2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6
151
j
.8
Iltl:tl
I
.7 -1fi11111J . • •
.. l! ! ,
, t
,
7
~
" n .. •
J
,
.
;
• . <
-
-I
. ,
.6
, 6
< I
~ •
.j. ·1+1+1 H
t .
g
.5
j
mE J.
5
. -. ", . ~
.
~
.... .
.4
I. •• • ,
.
, ,• , ~
I ._-
I ~
, 1 . 'T'
, '"
. .
, ..
;
J
, i ~
:J:t . ,
,- -
~ +
L
.3 !ml .1:i;i-
i+
t!fiI!; 3
<
• •
•
~
.jjlQ
.
!Wi t'
.
.2 : T
<
j .. .
o .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
152
3
.8 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 Ii.
153
P-V-T
1.0 1I! IIII!II!!! '1111111111111111111111111 j Ii IllllllllllllfffFfFFfl313"B3iFFl"EfffEfIII i 1111111 i 11111 III II I1111 1I111 11111 1111I III 1a:a:tlllllll l ! IIIII1111111I1 i I: Ii: II i:1111111 Sitll: II1II1 !11111 II! I !I! II! 11.0
.9111111111' III ffEliifllj£[llll! I! III! III I!! III!! I!! II! I! i I! I!! III!! III I!! II! IIIII!IIIII! II! I!! Jill!! II !! !!!! II! II! I II! 1111118333333fI111111! IIII! !III II! II i! I!!:!!'!! :! II! 11I11111111 !III! 'IIII!IIII !II! III ,9
.8 .8
.... 7. .7
~
.6 .6
.5
All .4
.3
III
em III! Mi
.3
.1
m ... I I ;m
.2
.1
o .1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 .9 1,0
Seclion 9
VISCOSITY
Absolute Viscosity
]n the metric system the unit of viscosity is the poise which is equivalent to B
force of I dyne pcr sq cm shcaring a liquid at the ratc of I cm pcr sec per cm.
By reduclion to minimum dimensionality, the poise becomes I g/(cm) (sec). The
corrcsponding English unit is I Ibl (ft) (sec), or (pouodal) (sec) I (ft) 2, which is
equal t.o 14.88 poises.
Howcvcr, the unit of viscosity most commonly used is the centipoisc (0.01
poise), which happens t.o be the viscosity of water at almost cxactly 68°F. There-
forc, the absolute viscosity of any fluid in centipoises may bc considered to be
oumerically equal to its viscosity relativc to water at 68°F.
Kinematic Viscosity
Since thc density of thc liquid involved in the measurement of viscosity by the
standard industrial viscometers, it is necessary to introduce kinematic viscosity,
which is the absolutc viscosity of a fluid divided by its density at the temperature
under consideration. The metric units of kinematic viscosity corresponding to
poises and centipoises arc stokes and ccntistokes, of which the latter is more com-
monly used. The kinematic viscosity of water is I centistoke at just about 68°F.
Industrial Viscometers
The industrial viscometers which are widely used throughout the petroleum
industry in this country are the Saybolt Thermo for rcfined oils, the Saybolt
Universal fur lubricating and gas oils, and the Saybolt Furol for crude residua and
heavy fucl oils. The Redwood Standard and Engler viscomctcrs arc used mostly
abroad. Curves for the conversion of these standard viscometer measurements
to kinematic viscosity arc gi\'cn on pages 158 to 160.
Except for the EnglCl' instrument, these conversions arc slightly affected by
the tcmperature at which the viscosity is mcasured, but this effect has been
neglcctcd in thc prescnt convcrsion charts, While Saybolt Universal viscosity may
'>e measured at anyone of several temperatures, lOO°F, 130°F, or 2lOoF, the
maximum variation between the temperature extremes in the conversion to
kinematic "is('o~ily is only 3% and, above kinematic viscosities of 5 crntislokes,
it is Icss than 270. The va,'iation between the extremes of the Redwood Standard
instrument (70°F to 200°F) is appreciable at low viscosities but does not exceed
3% above 10 centistokes. Saybo!t Thermo viscosity is normally measured at room
155
temperature and Say bolt Furol at 122°F so that it is usually unnecessary to

consider conversions at any other temperatures for thcsc instruments.
Change of Viscosity with Temperature

Viscosity-temperature curvcs arc given for pure hydrocllrbons and crude
fractions on pages 161 to 165. In the absence of other data, these curves may be
used to approximate viscosity-temperature relations for othcr hydrocarbons and
petroleum fractions if the viscosity is known at only one temperature. However,
if the viscosity is known at two or more temperatures, the charts on pages 166
and 167 should be used for linear interpolation and extrapolation.
,
Viscosity Index
Viscosity index is a generally accepted criterion for evaluating lubricating oils
with respect to change of viscosity with temperature. The vi cosity index of any
oil may be read directly from the charts on pages 168 to 172 if its viscositics at
100°F and 210°F arc known. If these particular viscosities are not available, but
viscosities are known for two other temperatures, the viscosity-temperature charts
on pages 166 and 167 may be used to find the values at 100°F and 210°F.
Viscosity Blending
To predict the viscosity of a blend of two or more fractions at any given
temperature, the blending index for each fraction is determincd from its viscosity
at this temperature, using the chart on page 173. The blending indexes of the
individual fractions are additive by volume fraction and the resulting sum may be
converted to the viscosity of the mixture by referring to the blending chart again.
If the viscosity of one or more of the components is not available at the desired
temperature, it must be converted.to this temperaturc, since blending indexes arc
additive only at constant temperature.
The viscosity of a blend of two stocks may also be obtained graphically by
using the viscosity-temperature charts. A straight line eonnccting the viscosity of
the lcss viscous stock on the 0°1" abscissa and the more viscous stock on the 100°F
abscissa reprcsents the locus of the viscosity of all blends of these stocks. The
ordinate corresponding to the percentage of the more viscous stock-whcreby the
temperaturcs between 0°1" and 100°F are considcred per~entages-represents the
viscosity of the blend. While thc blending indcx chart was derived from the
ordinate scales of the viscosity-temperature charts, the two methods will differ
slightly since thc tcmperature divisions vary between 0°1" and 100°F.
Viscosity of Gases
While pressure has very little effect on the viscosity of liquids except near
the critical temperature, its effect on gases may be considerable, especially above
the critical pressure. The change in viscosity of a gas or vapor with p1'essurc
VISCOSITY 157
may be predicted from the chart on page 177. By the use of reduced temperature
and pressure, this chart provides a generalized correlation of the ratio of \'iscosity
at any temperature and pressure to the viscosity at the same temperature and
atmospheric pressure.
The viscosity of a mixture of two or more gases at atmospheric pressure may
be computed by the following formula:
N,Z,v'M; + N 2 Z2VM; + ... + NnZ.VM:

Z - -'---'------==----=-'-="'--''------'-----~==_----''
m - N,VM; + N 2VM; + ... + N.-vM n
where Z... = the viscosity of the mixture
N" N 2 , etc. = the mole fractions or moles of individual components
Z" Z2, etc. = the viscosities of the individual components
M M 2 , etc. = the molecular weights of the iudividual components
"
The chart for change in viscosity with pressure may be applied to mixtures by
using the pseudo-critical properties of the mixture to determine reduccd tempera-
ture and pressure.
GENERAL REFERENCES
ASTM Standard Viscosity-Temperature Chart. for Liquid Petroleum Products (D341-39),

Charts C and D.
Deale, "The Science of Petroleum," Vol. II, 1080, Oxrord University Press, New York,
N.Y. (1938).
Comings and Egly, h,d. Eng. Che11l. 32, 714 (1940).
Davis, Lapeyrouse and Dean, Oil Gas J. 30, No. 46, 92 (1932).
Dean and Davis, Chem & Met. Eng. 36, 618 (1929).
Edwards and Bonilla, !rId. Eng. Chem. 36, 1038 (1944).
Etherington, Sc. D. Thesis, Mass. Inst. Tech. (1948).
Evans, J. Insl. Pelroleum Tech. 24, 321 (1938).
Forlch and Wilson, Ind. Eng. Chen!. 16, 789 (1924).
I••ne nnd Dean, Ind. Eng. Chon. 16, 905 (1924).
Lipkin, Duvi!'on and }(urtz, Ind. Eng. Chern. 34. 976 (19·12).
Nat. Bur. Standards Circular CI,61 (1947).
~age llnd Lacey, Ind. Bng. Chtm. 30, 829 (193 ).
~llge, Yale and I.,cey, l1ul. Bng. Chem. 31, 223 (1939).
Watson, Wiell and i\furphy, Ind. EnO. Chem. 28, 605 (1936).
10 20 60 80 100 300 400 600 800 1000
1000
800 800
600 CONVERSION TO 600

500 500
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
400 400
300
200
100
60 -
50
40
-F_'':':
20 2000
10 _ 1000
8 ~ 800
6 " 600
5 - 500
4 .. 400
k'.,:: ~#l
....
:::
300
I::: :~. i
l~! :il~·
J.".i , •.• I·'
,h '
i1 ~; 1
!lIT"
I I !Hl·~
400 600 800 1000 2000 4000
15!3
100 200 600 800 1000
10000 f,i -i.Jk.ti .q 1000
8000 -=tot 800
6000 600
=11111 500
400
300
200
1000 - ::: cf 100

80
60
50
40
30
200 20
10 10
8. 8
6 6
:r;
~ 5
4 4
3 3
>
t!
2 " 2
2 3 4 G 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100
159
FROM SAYBOLT THERMO VISCOSITY
,.
4
SAYBOLT THERMO VISCOSITY
-lOX (SAYBOLT THERMO TIME)
o
100 200 300 600 700
160
VISCOSITY OF NORMAL PARAFFINS
.1 .I
-100 o 100 200 300 400
161
1.8
1
...,..
_. -_.. ,-_r:r::
1.6
I -: •
VISCOSITY OF AROMATICS
-
-
+- .
:=T._.
~±
1.4
-- - - I'-L
H· =1=
., -
r
I-f I
12
' -r+--r-'.
r -i- .-;...... -;- - ++- .-i--- ~ ..,...
,
::!.. ..
± L..j _ ,
-
.
-- . - ,.
-
- - . -
I - lJiIllI
I -j
.
I I
0.2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
162
- -ri
40
KEY
I 26,8' API RESIDUUM
2 33.2' API 527-572·F. AT 40"...
3 35.0··API 482-527·F. AT 40M",
4 36.~·API 437"462" AT 40"".
,5: 5
6
38,2'API
39.2·API
392-437'F AT 40"M.
UP TO 39rF.AT 40""-
7 43.~· API 482 - 527·F.
8 46.0' API 437 -482·F.
9 48,7'API 392 -437·F.
10 -i:!...:?!= r.l- 'i_: :;.'-=:'-~:. . ;<ic --=.t:-~ 10 51.soAPI 347-392°F.
80_. ~~ ~ti ~~~£ ~~ .~ .~

t : ~ ~:..~:::~ ~~~=;~;:~
7.0 _0 __ e\'=~ •;~:il'ii ft 4' ; :1.si?=a" 13 62.9·API 212 - 257°F.
6.0 ~i=LGl,{: -.M cFI..i.~:',r ;L,- l'!'=!o\2, ::EJ=L-"
lc
NOTE- 801LING POINTS OBTAINED IN A
1-. \1 .,='1: -~l-+" =
1
I-W::-;:;\ :jeil- _til HEMPEL COLUMN.
T:~ ,---+-+ - .-~-t-t \.tr--l=
- I rt:'
_' "-+i-L
-i-tREFERENCE: LANE AND DEAN. IND. ENG. CHEM. 16. 905 (1924)
1+
0.1 'i', . !r~r~I'
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
163
80
70
60
50
. • -;~ ... =.=t=<="
VISCOSITY OF
MID CONTINENT OILS
•
40
30.~ KEY
I l4~ 0 API RESIDUUM
2 ~3. °API CYLINDER STOCK
o
3 23.l API HEAVY MOTOR OIL
4 (lO5 SPGR) ROAO orL
20 5 24.2°API RED OIL
o
6 26.l API LIGHT MOTOR O~.
7 27.1 °API LIGHT PARAFFIN OIL
8 32.8~PI WHITE OIL
9 28.8°API LIGHT PARAFFIN OIL
10 3D.OoAPI PRESSED DiSTILLATE
II 35.2°API CRUDE otL
•
12 35.6°API MINERAL SEAL
~ .. 13
I~
40.4°API KEROSENE
GASOLINE
.. =~--- 15 GASOLINE
do'
L
4
• -,.,<i=-
09,_-
I,~ _~c_o
..._ .•
5§". . . = .=
0.4
0.3
:
.. _-
0-2
REFERENCE, FORTCH AND WILSON. IND .. ENG. OlEM. 16. 789 (1924).
I II II II I II I I II II
100 200 300 400 500 600 7'00
164
wo ~ c
~~...:-
- _ _T";.
90
80
70 - VISCOSITY OF CALIFORNIA
60
CRUDE FRACTIONS
50
40
~
30
KEY
20 I 18.7 'API 527-572'F. AT 40 MM.
2 20.3 'API 482 - 527'F. AT 40 MM.
, 3 22.8 'API 437- 482'F. AT 40 MM.
4 25.0 'API 392-437'F. AT 40 MM.
5 27.3 -API UP TO 392'F. AT 40 MM.
6 30.4 'API 482-527'F.
10 437-482'F.
7 33.0 'API
8 8 38.2 'API 392 -437'F.
9 41.5 -API 347- 392'F.
7
10 44.3 'API 302- 347'F.
6 49.5 'API 257-302'F.
II
5 12 54.5 'API 212 -257'F.
4 NOTE- BOILING POINTS OBTAINED

IN A HEMPEL COLUMN
3
REFERENCE: LANE AND DEAN. IND. ENG, CHEM. 16. 905 (1924)
0.1
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
165
500 600 700 00
-:fl 10eo
VISCOSITY - TEMPERATURE CHART 6.0
HYDROCARBONS AND PETROLEUM FRACTIONS 5.0
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY. LOW RANGE 4.0
30 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II I I I II III II1II II i III1II1 \1IIII11 i 111I1 11111 11I11 11111 11111 II!! 111111111111111111111111111 II I 11 III ITTTRRTlI I I I I I I I I i I m 3.0
20 I I I ! I I I I I I ! I ! ! I I I I I I II II ! ! I ! ! I ! I I I ! I I " i I II ! III " III !!III 1!1111111 ! I I !I !!! !111111 111 !111 1!III!! I! !I!III !II I I I I I I ! ! I I I I ! ! I
! !! ! I I ! I I ! Ii! ! ! 12.0
1.501 I I ! ! I I I I ! ! I ! I I I I I I I I ! I I II I: II;! I : I ; ; I : 111!!11 ; 111111111: il! 1111111111: 111111111 illil I: illllIillliil iIi II I UE±lJ:±J±l1I££U Li LOll Llu i 1,50
1.00
0.90
-
~ 0.70~~
0.80
0.70
0.60~· '060
I .
():
j:;:
o.sOt~ J" !!
I
.0.50
Zi
s;2i
0.40 ! !
~
!!! 0.40
0.30 I I I I I I I I I I I I i I I I I I I I II I I I II I I I i I : 1111 i II ; 1111 !l111 i 1111 ;11111111111111111111111111111111111111111 i 111111 i II I I I i I I I I 1I I i I I I I I i I I I I I I I I I I I 10.30
R~FERENCES: A.S. tM. STANDARD VISCOSITY - TEMPERATURE CHARTS 0341-39

NAT. BUR. STD5. CIRCULAR C 461 (1947)
WATSON, WIEN AND MURPHY, IND. ENG. tHEM. 28,605(1936)
"'MM I , :bx,,1 I I I I I J,M JsMO.20

0.20 o o o
! , ! , ! ! J ! ! ! ! !
'" N
~
0
......... 199 8
'i' 1~9. 200N
I,. , 2~q"" ~ ~ 400 450 500 600 700 800
10,000,000 .. ~
VISCOSITY - TEMPERATURE CHART

1,000,000 HYDROCARBONS AND PETROLEUM FRACTIONS
500,000
200.000 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY, HIGH RANGE
100,000 , 10C\OOO
50,000 50,000
20,000 20.000
10,000 10,000
5,000 5,000
2,000 - 2,000
1,000 (/) 1,000
500 ~ '""'h- 500
~
,
~4 ! kb! , W'2ffi E' bt!-bikffi.::tt!"ttJ:tl'!ifl L141l114lWJtUifflfi±ltlitfilll!ifl J II J I !J btl ! I I I ! I I I ! I
! ! Ifu:'1200
z
w
<.)
-...
0>
50~§
I
>-
(/)
:>
<.)
201::~ I 1I I I II I I 1111111111 ! I: III! ! III! : I IIIIIIIIIII!! 11111' 11111 11111 11111 11111 III:! III I! 1111"IIIIIIIIIIIII!:1 ! ! I I I II I I I I I II! I I 1II I ! ! IJIIEJ 20
::;;
w
z
i:
10 10
8.0 8.0
60 6.0
,
5.0 5.0
4.0 , , 4.0
• , , I REFERENCES: A.S. TM. STANDARD VI$CO$ITY- TEMPERATURE CHARTS 0341·39

3.01 1I 1I 11I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II 1111I11 , 111111111 , " IIIIIIIIIIII! 11111111111111111 NAT. BUR, STOS. CIRCULAR C 461 f'947) 3.0
, , , ' , , WATSON. WIEN AND MURPHY, IND. ENG. CHEM. 28,605 (193G)
, TEMPERATUflE.~ .·.F. ,
2.0
,
34
33 VISCOSITY INDEX ALIGNMENT CHART 140
32 2.0 TO 50 CENTISTOKES AT 210°F.
31 130
30
29 120
28
27
26
I"~ 110
25 100
-"S
24
23 90
u: )(
22 0
0 w
0
Q ~
21
... >-
80
20
<t
l/l
W C\J
'"
°
Q
t:
l/l
0
19
...'"
0 ...
q
<:>
l/l 70
>
18
17
.-
!Q
2:
w
§
<:> f2 60
16
;g
$
0
15 50
14
13 40
12
II 30
10
9 20
B
7 10
6
5 0
168
~50
440 140
VISCOSITY INDEX ALIGNMENT CHART
430 - 40 TO 60 SAY80LT SECONDS AT 210"F.
420 130
410
400
120
390
380
370
60
59 110
360 58
5;>
350
56 100
340 55
330 s.,
320 5,3 90
310 "' 5f!
300 ~
~ 80
290 ><
w
280 '"0z 0
;;
270 8w >-
>-
70
260 '">- iii
8
250 ..J
0 !!!
> 60
240 '">-
<l
230 '"
220 - 50
210
200
40
190
180
170 30
160
150
20
140
130
120 10
110
100
0
90
1G9
1650
1600 140
1550 50 TO 120 SAY80LT SECONDS AT 210°F.
1500 130
1450
1400 120
1350
1300 110
1250
1200 100
1150
1100 90
u:
1050 °0 !<.' x
°
0 ~ w
0
1000 C\i 80
f-- .... ~
<t
,,'"'"
950 - Vl >-
0 f--
900
z
0
<> tJ:;
t in
0
<>
70
UI <fl
850
Vl
~
....
(j'
'" :>
800 0 60
m ~
>-
750 <t
Vl
cJ
700 50
650
600 40
550
500 30
450
400 20
350
300 10
250
200 o
150 1.
170
3800
3700 VISCOSITY INDEX ALIGNMENT CHART

3600 80 TO 200 SAY80LT SECONDS AT 210"F.
130
3500
3400t 120
::1
3100 -
110
3000+t 100
1900+
2800:1- 90
t
2700t
u:
2600 i "0 80
Q x
2500! ""
0
~ :;;
,
24COt
T
0'"z >-
!:::
70
0'"
2300+ 0
""" ":;'"
2200t '" 60
2100 f
T
:;
0
al
>-
<l
2000 50
1900
'"
1800 40
1700
1600 I 30
T
1500+,
1400+ 20
+
1300+
t
1200+ 10
+
1100+
1000:1- 0
900t
800 1
171
7800 T
I
7600
1400 130
100 TO 350 SAYBOLT SECONDS AT 210°F.
7200
1000 120
6800
6600
6400
6200
6000
5800
5600 u;
°
5400 ~
5200 ~
<f)
0
5000 z
0
<.)
4800 w
<Il
4600 ~
16>-
4400
4200
..
<f)
4000
3800
3600
3400
3200
3000 20
2800
2600 10
2400
2200 o
2000
1800
172
0.2 0.3 0,4 0.5 2.0
35
30 80
25 60
~
20 40
15
10
10 20 200 300 400 500 2000 5000 10000

.030 .030
.028 .028
.026 .026
.024 .024
.022 .022
.020 .020
.018 .018
.016 .016
.014 .014
;,
.012 ;+ ~
.012
.010 .010
.008 .008
.006 .006
.004 .004
.002 .002
o 200 400 600
174
100
80
~IIII-!!IIII
20
10
.BEALE. THE SCIENCE OF PETROLEUM. VOL. 11. P. . OXFORD UNIVERSITY

PRESS (1938)
I I
0.1
o 100 200 300 400 500
175
o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
mtmm
.040 .040
ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY OF
.038 ..038
.0.36
.034
.034.
.032 .032
.030 .• .030
.026
.026 .026
.024 024
.022
.020 .020
.018
. ,
•.018
" .016
.014 .0/4
.012 012
,
.010
I
.008 .,
~
.009
l' fr ~ f 1+
r t•
i iJ. .• ;:j~ ~
.006 .006
o 200 600 800 1000 1200
TEMPERATURE - 0 F
176
.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 3.0 4.0
10 10
9.0 9.0
8.0 ~~. ,~,E~E~,£,~~~~,~,~~,IN.~~.,.6:~"~, ,~~,;~~,~~~",r' " " "'~ 8.0
7.0 7.0
6.0 6.0
I :: i I I i i i I II II ! I i
VISCOSITY OF GASES AT HIGH PRESSURES
4.0 4.0
..,
-.J 3.0 3.0
2.0 2.0
1.5 H;tt+tttf+ 1.5
H
,
,
"
11'i],11
1.0 T 11 1.0
.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 80 9.0 10
Section 10
COMBUSTION
Liquid Fuels
The heats of combustion of fuel oils and petroleum fractions are expressed as
a funcLion of gravity by the chart on page 180. Both the high and low heating
values have becn correcLed for the average impurities other than water which
are usually prcsent in oils of various gravities. These average impurities, tabulated
on the chart, are fairly represcntative, although there may be appreciablc devia-
tions for a given stock. In general, the heating valucs of average fuel oils arc
within 1'i& of the curves.
The heat available from the combustion at 60°F of liquid fuels is given on
pagcs 186 to 188 for fuel oils of 5°, 10° and 15°API. Because of the small varia-
tion betwecn these charts, interpolation is unnecessary and the available heat at
any tempcrature and percent excess air may be read from the chart which most
nearly corresponds to the gravity of the fuel oil. If the impurities are known to
be appreciably difTerent from the average values tabulated on page 180, the
available heat may be corrected in direct proportion to the bydrocarbon portion of
the fuel with sulfur considercd as inert material.
Gaseous Fuels
Heats of combustion of paraffin and olefin gases arc given as a function of
molecular weight by the chart on page 181. The paraffin curves on this chart were
used as a basis for deriving the charts on pages 184 and 185 for the heat available
from the combustion at 60°F of dry refinery gases having high heating values
of 1000 and 1600 BTU/S.C.F. Allo\\·ance was made for average impurities of
2.570 H 2 S and 2.5% inerts (equal parts CO 2 and air) by volume. As in the case of
liquid fuels, the chart more nearly corresponding to the high heating value of the
fuel gas may be used without interpolation with very little error. However, in cor-
recting for variation in impurities, the available heat must be adj usted in proportion
to the weight pm·cenlage of the hydrocarbon portion of the fuel gas. In making
an adjustment for thc H 2 S content of thc gas, its volume percent may be dis-
tributed equally between the inerts and hydrocarbon portion as a good approxima-
tion. The following table gives relevant information for refinery fuel gases of
9.verage impurities:
\78
COMI3 S no" 179
Nominal HHV, BTU/S.C.F.-, .. _.•.... 1000 1200 1400 1600 1SOO 2000
Wt. Percent Impurillc~ ... ~. 10.1 8.3 7.1 6.2 5.4 4.00
~p G, of Fucl Gas ('-or - 1.0'-. 0.60 0.73 0.86 a.utl 1.12 1.2b
M.W. of H)'drocarbon Poruon. 16.5 20.4 24.3 28.2 32.1 36.1
Actual HHV of He Purthm-U rU/ti.C.F. ' 1037 1248 1458 1609 1879 2090
I Calcubtcu by the perfcct gas hw at GOoF and J atm.
Properties of Flue Gas

The CO 2 content of flue gas and the lI'eight ratio of flue gas to fuel are
given both for liquid and gaseous fuels as a function of excess air on pages 189
<1nd 190. Since the effect of percent excess of air is almost imperceptible on the
viscosity and thermal cunduetiyity uf flue gas, it has been ncglected entirely and
each of these properties is expressed as a function of temperature alone.
;e
. ,.-
it ~
tit~~' Jif- HEAT OF COMBUSTION OF FUEL OILS

... - i.!
*'H-
..
,f
~":4
,~
AND PETROLEUM FRACTIONS
_(,,!It. ::::
IMPURITIES IN AVERAGE FUELS . "
:;t;:t!1 ". - I
..
"A.P.I. I % S %INERTSI'M~Y,m'tV ~
,., .
20000 RESIDUAL FUEL OILS AND CRUDES ~.
o 2.95 1.15 4.10

5 2.35 100 3.35
10 I. 80 .95 2.75 .,
15 I. 35 .85 2.20
20 1.00 .75 1.75
CRUDE OILS
19500 25 .70 .70 1.40
30 .40 .65 1.10
35 .30
-
.
• ~
~
.60 .90
......:...1-_
.. 1;-
~
.~ .~ ... -+--- ...
:=+--~E-f, ~t
,
19000
fD
..
18500 [I
+
il
~.
~ +.
:~11
T
~, '.
18000
I::; ,., .....
THESE VALUES REPRESENT AN AVERAGE
OF CRACKED AND VIRGIN FUEL OIL DATA
19
r
UP TO 20"API,AND THE CORRELATION
~X·· -tE':-::~
:-T.r~."""·
\1
.,
ALLOWS FOR AVERAGE SULFUR AND INERTS
• (EXCLUDING WATER) FOUND IN AVERAGE
FUELS. ABOVE 40"API THE CORRECTION
FOR IMPURITIES IS NEGLIGIBLE AND THE
17500
CURVES REPRESENT PURE PETROLEUM
4- LIQUIDS.
, .
17000
o 10 20 30 40 50 60
180
4600
4409
4200
4000
001.
341
3200
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1200
1000
10
181
ENTHALPY OF
,
900 ~. FLUE GAS COMPONENTS
0-1 ATM.
B"· -<-.!.
~. Ii ;'If!- ~ ~ _:.:. -:
t t
800
700
600
+
500
o
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
182
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400 .
1000
600
400
200 .
1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000
183
HEAT AVAILABLE FROM THE
COMBUSTION OF REFINERY GAS
1000 B.T.U.I CF (60· F)
,
3000
r. :..
j" n r
2000
1000
. ,:}:- - j .~
~.
•
.
zoo 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000
184
14
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000
186
,. ,
k
" .
t ,;
~
.~
~ ,
THE COMBUSTION OF
50 API FUEL OIL
15000
I ~= .
..
12000
9000
,-
8000
I .,~ . .,..,
7000
1 =
. -r-r-- -
=
6000
~~
l.';.
.,_ ~.,... ~: ..... -+-
.m:-. .::z::::
5000 ; . . ,
l-
t
• •• t:[ ..... .,... ;
. "'tt"
4000 Ii'! ., -trt!
~
r- ..:
" 1-
.,tl~
,
3000
!
. .;in ,;
••
2000
1000
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000
186
17000
~
9000 .,
,~
- =-
~
9000
,- ~
7000
~.
---
6000
,
+
4000
H
3000 _ _
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000
J87
1000
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
188
16
15
14
13~
111
12~
"
101111 ~
:» 9
'"
8
7 rJiJf 'I I· TI'li:r

6
5~~q;;$~;;:!fl!;:m;=;;'I;jj~
3 _ _
- 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
8<t
I
t
o
ill
o
<D
.Im '"
o
II MlW
"'"
o
- N
'"
o
, ~
, ,,
g
, - N
+
t g
N
.'
t
.j:
,
,-
,
$ ~
-
a:.•
,
I
,
,
o
1li
o
N
N
. ti
t"·
j ....
., 't
.
~. 'M1Ii
t
,.
!. f - , o
to
a: 1
1- 1
~
<l
II (/) r>
.. . o
~
<D
'7: (/) : :I41
w w " T '1 1
,~.. 81
I
r:, ::> 0 +
o
it ~ ,. ,u; , <t
W :~
n!: ""0 I-wz :. ilL ,

o
IIi! (/) 0 p~ , .J
"
N
a: " , -
~;
I i t~
; 0
W r; II I
, J: ~ 0-
.8
. /ffil.
I
I 0
J
0- ~I
1
I. -
I' j
I
, .I o<t
, f I
I . I i
, ,! t
I I , ".
1 , ,
! I : ~~ , il!S
mf: i , 1fIt\;,1 !
o
o o o o
...o '"
N
"
190
--_._--
191
<t
q
0
~
(!)
~
IJJ
::J
..J
LL.
LL.
0
§
>-
!::
~
t
::J
§
0
Z
0
0
..J
<t
~
D::
IJJ
:I:
I-
o
o
"
...q CD
q
N
q q
o
192
Section 11
FLOW OF FLUIDS
Friction Factor
The friction factor for turbulent flow of all fluids (liquids and vapors) is
expressed as a function of a modified Reynolds number (DUS/Z) by the chart on
page 198 for both commercial pipes and smooth tubes. In the unstable flow region
between values of DUS/Z of 0.135 and 0.390 (or approximately 1000 and 3000
in consistent units for DUp/p.) the turbulent flow curves have been extended to
the stable streamline flow region. These extrapolated curves for turbulent flow
give maximum values of the friction factor in the unstable region and are
representative of the flow usually found in commercial pipes. For streamline flow
the pressure drop may be computed directly from either of the formulas given on
the chart, since the friction factor is incorporated in these formulas.
Pressure Drop in Commercial Pipes

To facilitate the determination of pressure drop for liquids in commercial
pipe" the charts on pages 199 to 201 were derived from the friction factor curve
and the formula for turbulent flow. The following example illustrates the applica-
tion of these charts:
Exampte I. Determine the pressure drop for 21,800 gnl/hr of gasoline f1owin~
through 800 ft of standard 6-in. pipe. The kinematic viscosity of the gasoline is
0.60 cs and its specific gravity is 0.750 at 100°F, which is the average temperature
of the gasoline in the pipe.
21,800 .
Q/D = 6.065 = 3600 gal/hr/m.
By following the dotted lines on the chart on page 200 as indicated for
Q/D ~ 3600 gal/hr/in. to a kinematic viscosity of 0.60 cs, then over to the inside
pipe diameter of 6.065 in., the value of AP/S ~ .38Ib/sq in. per 100 ft.
The pressure drop for 800 ft of pipe will be:
t:.P = 0.38 X 0.750 X ~: = 2.3 Ib/sq in.
Equivalent Lengths of Fittings

Data on the frictional resistance of fittings are usually correlated by the
equation Ah ~ Ku 2 /2g,·where K is a constant for each type of fitting. However,
193
in problems of fluid flow it is more conycnicnt to express thesc resistanccs as

equivalent lengths of straight pipe for use in thc gcneral friction factor equation.
Since the latter is a function of Reynolds numbcr "'hile J( i" an independcnt
constant, it is nccessary to corrcct the equivalent lengths for variation in Reynolds
number in inverse proportion to the friction factor. In the table on page 202 the
equivalent lengths correspond to a Reynolds number of 10 and, for appreciably
different values of the latter, should be multiplied by the correction factor on
page 203.
Example (Liquid Flow). Kerosene at lOO°F is being pumpcd at a ratc of

18,000 gal/hI' (gal/hr at 60°F) through 500 ft of standard steel 4 in. pipe in
which there are eight standard elbows, one tee (side out) and two gate valves.
Calculate the pressure drop through this line using the friction factor curve for the
1I0w through the pipe and the "K" factors for the fittings; check the result using
the pressure drop charts and equivalent lengths for the fittings. The kerosene has
an absolute viscosity of 1.5 cp at lOO°F, a specific gravity of 0.825 at 60°F, and a
volumc cxpansion ratio of 1.025 at lOO°F relative to 60°F.
Q = 18,000 X 1.025 = 18,500 glll/hr at lOO°F
U - 0.00680 X 18,500 - 78 f I
- (.1.026)2 -. t sec
,.. 0.825
SpeCific GravIty at lOO°F = - - = 0.805
1.025
DUS 4.026 X 7.8 X 0.805
----z- = 1.5 = 168; f = 0.0052
P (. ) _ 0.323 X 0.0052 X 0.805(7.8)2 X 500 _ 0 lbl .

ti pipe - 4.026 - 1.2 sq Ill.
. (7.8)2 X 0.805
fi
tiP (lttlllgS) = (8 X 0.45 + 1 X 0.90 + 2 X 0.19) 148.2
4.88 X (7.8)2 X 0.805 Ib/'

= . = 1.6 sq Ill.
148.2
Total pressure drop = 10.2 + 1.6 = 11.8 lblsq in.
Check
Uncorrected equiv. length of fittings = 8 X 6.6 + 13.2 + 2 X 2.8 = 71.6 ft
Correction factor (D~ S = 16.8) = 1.1
Corrected equiv. lcngth of fittings = 1.1 X 71.6 = 79 ft
•
FLOW OF FLUIDS 195
Total equiv. length = 500 + 79 = 579 ft

Q 18,500 Z 1.5
D= .1.026 = 4600; S= 0.805 = 1.9
tJ,: = 2.5 lb/tiq in./lOO ft
Total pressure drop = 2.5 X 0.805 X ~~~ = 11.7lb/sq in.
Example (Vapor Flow). Propane vapor at 90°F and an upstream pressure

of 20 psig is flowing through 800 ft of 6 in. standard steel pipe at a rate of 25,000
Ib/hr. Determine the pressure drop through this line assuming the ideal gas law
applies to propane under these conditions. At 90°F the viscosity of propane vapor
is 0.0095 cpo
Thc following cquation for isothermal flow of ideal gases and vapors can be
derivcd by applying Bernoulli's theorcm to a diffcrential length of pipe and inte-
grating thc rcsulting cquation between the limits, 0 and L:
gI?T(P,' - 1'2 2)
where U 1 = upstream velocity in ft/sec

U
1
=
J 2MP,2 [/L
-
2m
I' J
+ In-'
P 2
PI = upstream pre ure in )b/sq ft abs

P 2 = downstream pressure in Ib/sq ft abs
T = absolute temperatme-OF + 460
L = Icngth of pipe in ft
m = hydraulic radius in ft = d/4 for pipes
I = friction factor
9 = gravitatioual constant = 32.2 ft/sec/sec
R = ideal gas law constant = 1545
M = molecular weight
By substitution flnd rearrangement the abovc equation can be converted to a
modified form of the equation for liquids, or
tJ,P = P - P =
I 2 PI + 1'2 [0.323 (If,
21'\
D
+ In P24/P. I 2
) S U
1 I
'J
where PI, P 2 = upstream and downstream pressures in Ib/sq in. abs
S I = speci'fi c gravity
. 0f l
vapor re '
atlve I,0 water = 000 M1' I
. 150 T
D = pipe diameter in inches
Trial and error must be used in the solution of the above equation since P 2 is
unknown. The friction factor, I, is independent of the variation of pressure since
the mass velocity term, US, in the Reynolds number remains constant, U varying
inversely and S directly with the pressure.
D = 6.065 in.
S = 0.00150 X 44 X (20 + 14.7) = 0.00416
90 + 460
Density = 0.00416 X 62.4 = 0.259 Ib/cu ft
U - 25,000 X 144 X 4 _ 134 ft/sec
, - 0.259 X 3600 X..- (6.065)2 -
DU,S, 6.065 X 134 X 0.00416
Z = 0.0095 = 355; f = 0.0031
For the first trial assume P 2 = P,

0.323 X 0.0031 X 800 X 0.00416(134)2 9 lb/ .
Ii P = = 9. sq tn.
6.065
For the second trial assume P 2 = 24 Ib sq in.
liP = 2 X 34.7 [0.323 X (0.0031 X 800 + 0.37) X 0.00416 X (134)2]

34.7 + 24 6.065 24
= 1.18[0.323 X-(0.409 + 0.015) X 74.5J = 12.1 lb/sq in.
A third trial would give a liP of 11?,4 lb/sq in.
In this example neither the initial velocity nor a contraction loss from a
larger vcssel into the line was taken into account. If thc propane vapor wcrc flow-
ing from a drum into the 6 in. line, it would be necessary to calculate an initial
pressure drop as follows assuming isothermal flow:
RT In P /P = U,2 0.5U,2
01
M 2g+2g
The first term on the right-hand side is the velocity head, and the second term
is the actual contraction loss due to friction.
If the available head in the drum, Po, is 34.7 psia, PI is determined by trial
and error and for the first trial U, is assumed to be 134 ft/sec.
1.5M 2 -6 2
In Po/P, = 2RTg U, = 1.2 X 10 U,
In PO/PI = 1.2 X 10-6(134)" = 0.0216

PO/PI = 1.022
PI = 34.0 psia
•
FLOW OF FLUIDS 197
Since the differential is so small, 0.7 lb/sq in., a second trial is unnecessary.
If this loss had been considered at the beginning of the example, the latter would
then have been based on an upstream pressure of 34.0 instead of 34.7 psia.
GENERAL REFERENCES
Beij, J. Research Nat. Bur Standards 21, 1 (1938).
Chilton and Colburn, Ind. Eng. Chern. 26, 1183 (1934).
Crane Company, "Flow 01 Fluids Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe" (1942).
Drew and Genereaux, Trans. Am. Inst. Chern. Eng. 32, 17 (1936).
Foster, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs. 42, 647 (1920).
Gourley, Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., p. 297 (1910, Part 2).
Karl' and Schultz, J. Am. Soc. Naval Engrs. 52, 239 (1940).
Schader and Vanderlip, Cornell Univ. Eng. Exp. Sla. Bull. No. 130 (1935).
Walker, Lewis, McAdams and Gilliland, "Principles 01 Chemical Engineering," pp. 71,
87-89, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, N.Y. (1937).
0-+, !". ... tt :M1 I , '"II' t H
t1lt:r '11' •.• , t·,t T- I I I I: f lU!-
'l' Tl nt' I~"rr ., l I FRICTION FACTOR
r FffllHll +h Ih,j rtiH t r I H+ 1+ I
ffi1'i3ii ~ :e:: j~;; .f:: •••• : " i l l . Uij H Ii1I ni 'Iii HL FOR FLUID FLOW
I.fflJ. .:'II'1r- ."
:::. ....
• .. • .....
1
, ... ",. , ' . "
,-"~, :.:: .':' -+ I I I' I'
" •• 1',-
[""j
~J' II
IliI '"
'
.I
+, +.'1
"'I,tt'·'
• ~-1, I
~ IN CIRCULAR PIPES
'j!~ EIII11.:ll'f:t11+
IP =I- ::t:
+ -IH-H !Wi If1
rt::lJ'Tltl!. R~
r : f"
1
'I ~
~ J~'~lll~I~~ ~~~I~
"1ffilIrlJ §~ ~f,= '- ~FrFi 1+U {l+! lfin .n I j HWi
~,rfl;';;r,:~~ Iq,~'il·" l'ii:'1
I
PRESSURE DROP
• .:;::;.+:: -,' .~ .• I~
11111'"
I -m-1. ,11: .1.:h . ,n··
~i
nn
t 1m' ,1~'1:l: T 1 j ., ,,~
~"I+ 1 ·
~h··
l' 'I ,til~,
'il
.-, '
It"
STREAMLINE FLOW
Ll.p, 6.68 X 10'4 ZUL
TURBULENT FLOW
Ll.P'.323f SU 2L
-0-
~ fHllh;; " 1 - . ' ' '~I "[5Z
1 rnnffi., + i ~4.55 XIO'6ZQL '1.495 X IO'5fSQ2L
05
, 0'" -...
. 11
l_
1
• 1 Ti 1
:"1'
! l I t
t i Th l' rt,
t ;W:
D4
"+t. ",,1+ +, ~2.15 X IO'7r W2 L
'*H'i i' ,'ll·"t-t·,h '" WHERE SDS
-. -.. :;:':'-'1:s}~~ij.L::: i -~. ~iJ:1i;i: l~T:n:_iJft-fm:1?
"-=,:"W.l.l':'-'
#t
.1-
t"1-: Ll.P ~ PRESSURE DROP IN LBS.lSQ.IN.
• ~ "" +~;: 'I" .c ..;..' . ,·,~t' 1 ' . 'it. 4"H-"" H'II: 0' PIPE DIAMETER IN INCHES
~ ~~ Ui1 ~::; ~ ~ ~ ~'l~lllii~ :,': illi"

1
I·.
U ' LINEAR VELOCITY IN FT.lSEC.
-
1il
,ft
I.
l\$f.!ji; oL4'ii ,'i:; j~:, ".' l·j
rm' ,I ..q.;
11· :.:,,'
",. "
'+!.i 11'.' t; iE: !I r r: ii Iii;
. ~
~'-Il.:r::: . .::. jj' rf
.. -.;~:. I'm" 'jj'm
II .. ·"n.
N,-H •'I""r
~iil'
Z ~ ABSPLUTE VISCOSITY IN CENTIPQISES
S ~ SPECIFIC GRAVITY RELATIVE TO WATER
L ~ LENGTH OF PIPE IN FEET
.,l
I -' I'" 1- • -f -, t-, I . -

Q~ QUANTITY OF FLUID IN GAL.lHR.
"'I',-,mt~n
hr I,.,,,c~l'
".'.;.
I I,b
J
-I-
n t'
+-t.(. eM
t f!l-UI,
I .,., W' WEIGHT OF FLUID IN LBS.lHR.
U ~. 006BO Q /0 2
.010
~t , ; .;_i 1,,Ii ttT
i ~.000816 W/SD 2
'1" Ii +I--t~;r :j 010
II
.006
++ 1 1'1, r-.., ::1 1 I. i liT'
.008
t-t+t Hf-l llt-t+ ++r-i- U r-tr H! T
.006 +1++ Ittii HW+++ +, I-"~ t- ,006

,005~
rilmW It:t ii~! 111 :s.j 1: ;j:::l ;!lr i~Hm! ~i~~ ~
~
,1'1 _. ~' . •
005
"!lill!
~f4
. '; n" --r - 1!=Rf"" ! i i ': :l~
1 ...,.....,~_
.J • • I
; ~ .,' Il'
.004 rl . , 4, , 004
:-U.. ''11'J .., ~
1
4
:rr .... I -
003 003
"~'i-llll~ tHHiJI !i,'§' ! T 'R+f 'j j31' illJ E ~
.002
,
iii :twrp :! Hi; II '
h, ;::1:1:1: ml 'jn
.. j.
iJl ,-', I mr fH-' t;ttf-i:: .., I
~ •
RE·FERENCE, DREW AND GENEREA~,)('

1111=lllllwmlm~~il,002
Cli,Wo1:
'fil~S", PM • .JNST•. EN~, 32, 17 (19361
.I .2 .3 .4 J; .6 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10 20 ~ 40 60 80 100 200 000 400 600 eoo
-C>P'PRESSURE DROP IN LBS./SQ.IN./IOOFT. h-i-rll i dli II ill 11.11. i Ii ITTn1l11t11 r +~
li~rPRESSURE
I .J I J I I ~
rr- I .
D' ACTUAL INSIDE DIAMETER IN INCHES DROP IN COMMERCIAL PIPES
Q' QUANTITY OF FLUID IN GAL.lHR.
Z' ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY IN CENTIPOISES
,:n TURBULENT FLOW
,
HI "X:·I~,::.
S' SPECIFIC GRAVITY ~n~:
Z/& KINEMATiC VISCOSITY IN CENTISTOKES ·II-Icl=q.,

. ;'~"'::ttt±1:..r.
~z
STREAMLINE FLOW
r
""""54 r. T'" ~
Tl
+0: "ir
I
I
I
I I.
,
I' .1 "
~-r-----"-'+ .- , - - ",- ~. ,...•• -.If •• ··1 ··-1-+ 1-..
-!-, ........ ;'1 -r7trt' '1---/' ,•• 1
'- -'- -.r. 'W'rl"<' .J t,v.t=L

- - .- - ... ,.
~ §liE#hf:7.Ht:-
~ , .r
-
'-l.
f '-"''''''71,:-
'-rJo" ....-
co
~
-'
co
"r.'tT,
. -~~r'··"
~
"I"f- ~
r: -
I
IIII
_
" ,4_
I"
n
l"
t,t:'!:
......
r~'
l- ~.
m-r·.
." ''''
~'-~,"
II
IYf
'1+;
J,
OJ
rI
...
r·:.:: -.
, .; tm: • ,-_.
•
CO'
_~_
--
"I L.
I
I
1· H lr
I
.H- j.'r:-'" fl-
-~~~'~';;1l
:~ ~::-..:--: :~-c:-:.:.~ ~~I .....,.·
..
'"
~ -
II
• ~_
'~I"
m:
I,
"':~=-g.
~.
- T-
I-'f:" F ~L:D~-~-
...,.-
f-. ' - , ,
'I': ..~-'1i: :::1 ,

-iT ti~
''-'
_.-~
~~''''*''
i 1:" - .,.• '.,til R-t:J
~....
I
-r -
---/,",
,..7-';t..Y;.
;\'1
·f
.. .. . .
, I
XiI E;il5 -'i....
,
" I
' t':!.+,
~. 1
50 100 200 500 .3.4 .6 .8 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.010 20 30 40 60 80100
.:I.P= PRESSURE DROP IN LBS./SQ.IN./IOO FT. . , .. " ., ,," .
0= ACTUAL INSIDE DIAMETER' IN INCHES PRESSURE DROP IN COMMERCIAL PIPES
Q: QUANTITY OF FLUID IN.GAL/HR. • TURBULENT FLOW
Z: ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY IN CENTIPOISES
S' SPECIFIC GRAVITY
ZIS- KINEMATIC VISCOSITY IN CENTISTOKES
STREAMLINE FLOW
.:I.P'4.55 X 10-4 ZQ
04
TOr
~I,
...,
8
11
~dIt
~l-
"
..
,
,
rm
\. T?
",
~ 1000 2000 5000 .2 .3 A .6 .8 1.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10 60 80100
./lop, PRESSURE DROP IN LBS.lSQ.IN.lIODFT.
0' ACTUAL INSIDE DIAMETER IN INCHES -
5'.. ; .... ~:.'
.' +:- ......-r.
~
• ~I~ .... ·t--r---t-t-~·I T.-'
",~,-,
Q'QUANTITY OF FLUID IN GAL.lHR. '. t PRESSURE DROP IN COMMERCIAL PIPES

TURBULENT FLOW
~I' _ ... J
Z 'ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY IN CENTiPOISES ·Ii

S'SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Z!S'KINEMATIC VISCOSITY IN CENTiSTOKES r_l""iJ
.,...1"'"
STREAMLINE FLOW
AP'4.55X 10-4ZQ
04
TTj'l'n.
'-"ft,
~, .Y~,
J ••
~ I
~=-Y~ ~·;:;,~~A.J,.;I
"En"'"
1i£1!;i.•.
·0
a'"
~
TJTf"I:t1fwm
I·
I
I I
,n
, t;
i ·1
'~".A~ - =- "=' - := ''''.1ffl
I
5000 10000 50000 .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1.0 8.010 40 60 00 100
EQUIVALENT LENGTHS OF FITTINGS
Pipe size - Incbes Equivalent Lengths' - Feet
1.D. Vah'es Elbows Dends Tees

Nominal
Inside 0.0. Close Run of
Stand- Extra Stanrl- Long 00' 45° Side End
Diam. Globe! Galc Angle Return Stand-
ard Strong ard· Sweep RID = 6 = 1.5 Out Out
= 1 ard
-- -.W- ----
.30
Kt 10 3 .45 .30 .25 .21 .75 .no 1.3
~ 0.540 0.364 0.302 13.3 0.3 4.0 0.6 0.4 03 0.3 1.0 1.2 1.7 0.4
)1 0.8·10 0.622 0.516 23. 0.4 6.8 1.0 07 0.6 0.5 1.7 2.0 3.0 0.7
% 1.050 0.821 0.742 30. 0.6 n.o 1.3 o.n 0.7 0.6 2.3 2.7 3.9 0.9
1 1.315 1.04n 0.n57 38. 0.7 II .5 1.7 1.1 1.0 0.8 3.9 3.4 5.0 1.1
1)1 1 !l00 1.610 1.500 59. 1.1 17.6 2.6 1.8 1.5 1.2 4.4 5.3 7.7 1.8
2 2 375 2.067 1. 93!) 75. 1.4 23. 3.4 2.3 1.9 1.6 5.7 6.8 9.8 2.3
""o 3 3.500 3.068 2.!l00 ll2. 2.1 34. 5.0 3..4 2.8 2.4 8.4 10.1 14.6 3.4
"" 4 4.500 4.026 3.826 147. 2.8 44. 6.6 4.4 3.7 3.1 11.1 13.2 19.1 4.4
6 6 62.5 6.065 5.761 220. 4.2 66. 10.0 6.6 5.5 4.7 16.6 1!l.9 29. 6.6
8 8 625 7.981 7.625 290. 5.5 S7. 13.1 8.7 7.3 6.1 22. 26. 38. 8.7
10 10.75 10.020 9.750 360. 7.0 llO. 16.5 11.0 9.1 7.7 27. 33. 48. 11.0
12 12.75 12.000 II. 750 440. 8.3 131. 19.7 13.1 10.9 9.2 33. 40. 57. 13.1
14 14.00 13.25 - 480. 9.2 145. 22. 14.5 12.0 10.2 3(; . 44. 63. 14.5
16 16.00 15.25 - 560. 10.6 167. 25. 16.7 13.n 11.7 42. 50. 72. 16.7
lS 18.00 17.18 - 630. 11.9 188. 28. 18.S 15.6 13.2 47. 56. 82. 18.8
20 20.00 19.18 - 700. 13.3 210. 32. 21. 17.5 11.7 53. 63. 91. 21.
D~S
J)[''i
• The equivalent lengths tabulated correspond to a value of = 10. For other values of - Z:"" , apply correction factor from the chart
on the opposi te page.
XC;, S KC;'S
pP=-X- =--
2q 2.31 148.2
: For swing che('k valve, usc ~~ or globe valve equivalent lengths.
o CD
~'I
~
..
+1
:. t 1I-± --l
"'
j ! ; Q
.1. I -t.; j It)
~.
.
II. ~ ::j
J I, ri=-
,
en I X
C)
z It r:-, " I
;'
"I
l-
I- .. '(,
a::u.
0u.
tt I b O
I
Lten ,
.
••. t"T - -'_. ;
+, l··1 ,
::I: .
1""";
i
,+ .. "
l~' r~!-t r"--' "-r
It-t - T t l ' · ' Zl- , ..I ~
O~ +"I! ., hit It 'iI'

,
T': jIll
1. ~ i·~ ;:: ,i~; :~jl:· I-W : .: :-4 ~ l 1" !!Ii i .. ii; i Ii ti
"... .. ..,
l.m='O,::I,'",: I':; 0": '.1' O...J
ill! iJ.l ' 'II' ' It- " :f
'I
1 jI!
W
.-...,.- ,... -. .•.• r-
-~ ....... '4tc '" ~. I.
a:: I- '1
~ ::r -:!;-! 4tt~ ::!. a::Z
OW ,
ili!
l,'
O...J
~ 'u
o
::>
o
LLl ...j. H'! I
"
;f o
o
.,;
H'l I q
+ 'h .,
.f,
.,' r
litf
I, ir!,
1 i, 1I~ I
II '~ :]11 ' j".t I 'J H ljo.
It)
I ,
iii! n i I" !.
.;: ,h I • 4 ! •
."
, i
},
,-,
'1' I
~
,
if! '!..:
ii~
I
j.j
'"
'"
,tH
I I 0
r<'i
203
0
'"
FRICTION LOSS DUE TO SUDDEN
CONTRACTION AND ENLARGEMENT
TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES
LOSS DUE TO CONTRACTION LOSS DUE TO ENLARGEMENT

(U2)2 F (U,-U2)2
Fe' K64:3 E· 64.3
A2' DOWNSTREAM AREA

F • FRICTION LOSS, FT. OF LIOUID
K • FACTOR FROM CHART
U, • UPSTREAM LINEAR VELOCITY - FT. / SEC.
Ue. DOWNSTREAM LINEAR VELOCITY • FT. / SEC.
lip· PRESSURE DROP DUE TO FRICTION
LOSS - LBS./SO.IN.
S • SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FLUID AT
TEMPERATURE UNOER CONSIDERATION
.4
.3.
.~ -'- .
.~- i
.
.2
:±±: :.T'/-
.
,.
•1 .
. WALKER. LEWIS. MC ADAMS ~D GILLILA~D. 'PRINCIPLES or CHEMICAL ENGINEERING.
PP.
u.
87·89.
r.
MC GRAW·HILL
• . .- •.
BOOK CO. (1937)
0 •• l-!r..
, y..l~:'
:t '-I:
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
204
o 2. _7
DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS OF
RECTANGULAR AND CIRCULAR WEIRS
3400
6000 3200
1 ' "
3000
2400
2200
.2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0 7 0
205
.01 .02 .3 .45.6 .6 I 2 3
04 610..04
.03 .03
•
REFERENCE, COLBURN. IND. ENG. CHEM. 26. 1183 (1934)
.02
.01 01
PRESSURE DROP .008
.006 ACROSS TUBE BANKS 006

.005 005
Ii .....L.,. N""('- ')2'(~) f'
. 004 liP' 3B90 S GM Os •
.003
"")' FOR TUBE ANO SHELL HEAT EXCHANGERS
MULTIPLY 4P BY A BUNDLE FACTOR AS
FOLLOWS; .002
0.'0 FOR SQUARE-TUBES IN LINES
0.40 FOR SQUARE - TUBES AT 48·
GM IS EVALUATED AT CENTER ROW OF TUBES
.01 _ ..001
.006
.006
.004
.003 __
.002
" '
.001 .001
.0006 006
.0006 0006
liP :: PRESSURE ,DROP ~ LB./SO. IN.
.0005 0005
N 'NUMBER OF ROWS OF TUBES
.0004 S :: SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FLUID RfLATIVE TO WATER t 0004
GM ,MAXIMUM MASS VELOCITY' LB'/SEC./SQ. FT.
.0003 (THROUGH MINIMUM FREE CROSS-SECT. AREAl, .0003
1.
Do :: OUTSIDE TUBE DIAMETER· INCHES 1~
Os ::; MINIMUM CLEARANCE BETWEEN TUBES-INCHES;
.0002 f' 'FRiCTION FACTOR FUNCTION 0002
ZF -; FILM VIS'COSllY - CENTlP<XSE$
10 20 30 40 5060 60 100 200 300 400 600 6001000
206
Section 12
18
FLOW OF HEAT
6 Heat Transfer
5
The film transfer cocfficient for liquids flowing inside tubes (page 211) is
4
based on the Sieder and Tatc corrclation l which is generally acceptcd as the
3 most rcliable for this type of hcat transfcr.
2
Thc chart on pagc 212 for the outside film coefficien~ for flow across tube
bundlcs was derived from a corrclation by Chilton and Colburn 2 with thc con-
sistent units in the dimcnsionless terms replaccd by more common units. Com-
parison of limited data with this correlation has indicated that the film coefficient
should be multiplied by the "bundle factors" given on the chart when GM is taken
as the mass velocity at the center row of tubes. Kon-uniformity of flow and
by-passing bctween the tube bundle and shell appear to bc the principal reasons
for this diffcrence.
Thermal Conductivity of Petroleum Liquids
Attempts to correlate thermal conductivity of petroleum liquids as a function
of gravity in addition to temperaturc havc resulted in contradictol'y trends with
°API gravity.3.4 In view of this inconsistency and since Smith 5 has shown that,
at 86°F, a single value represents the reliable data belter than either trend with
gravity, the relabon for the thermal conductivity of petroleum fractions on page
213 is shown as a function of temperature alone. This chart may also be used for
)8 pure hydrocarbons, although the data on low-boiling aromatics arc about 1070
higher than the curve.
)6
)5 Thermal Conductivity of Hydrocarbon Gases
)4
As most data on the thermal eondueti"ity of hydrocarbon gases were obtained
)3 at room temperature, it is was necessary to find some means of extrapolation to
higher temperatures. This was done by using two different methods: (1) assump-
)2 tion that the Prandtl number is a constant independent of temperature and
(2) employment of Sutherland's equation. As the results of the two methods
became more divergent with increasing temperature, it was a question of selecting
either one or the other or using an average of the two. An average was chosen
I Sieder and Tate, l1ul. Eng. Chem. 28, 1429 (1936).
2 Chiltonllnd Colburn, Ind. Eng. Chem. 26, 1183 (l934).
3 MUic. Publication 01 Bur. Sta>l(lards, No. 97, 24 (l929).
4 Kaye and Higgins, Proc. Royal Soc. 117, 459 (1928).
5 Smith, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs. 68, 719 (l936).
207
since, while it was felt that the Prandtl number was probably more relia~le, the
Sutherland equation gave lower and consequently more conservative values. In
view of the uncertainties of these extrapolations any refinement beyond the use
of a straight line was unwarranted. Consequently, the chart on page 215 gives the
thermal conductivity of hydrocarbon vapors as a linear function of temperature
for various molecular weights.
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference
In the transfer of heat between two fluids, the log mean temperature difference
applies to flow that is either entirely countercurrent or entirely concurrent. nder
conditions where there is a combination of these two types of flow, such as a heat
exchanger with more tube passes than shell passes, Nagle 6 has shown that a
correction factor should be applied to the log mean temperature difference. This
correction factor is given herein by either one of two types of charts, the first
on page 218 and the second on pages 219 to 221. The chart on page 218 may be
more convenient to use when the factors R and A do not approach unity. If these
factors arc near to unity, it is necessary to use the other charts. The following
example illustrates the application of these charts:
Example 1. Determine the correct temperature difference and the number of
shell passes required in the heat transfer between two fluids having the following
inlet and outlet temperatures:
Shell side: T I (inlet) = 400°F; T 2 (outlet) = 300°F
Tube side: t l (inlet) = 275°F; t 2 (outlet) = 320°F
R = TI - T 2 = 100 = 2.22
t2 - t1 45
t2 - tl 45
m = = - = 0.36
TI - tl 125
From the chart on page 219, it is seen that one shell pass is insufficient since
F is close to O. With two shell pa scs F ~ 0.90, and this arrangement would appear
to be satisfactory.7 The corrected log mean temperature difference is:
0.90(L.M.T.D.) = 0.90 X 47.3 = 42.6°F
The solution of this sample is also illustrated on the chart on page 218.
6 Nagle, Ind. Elly. Chern. 25, 604 (1933).
7While other faclors may enter into the number of shell passes selected for a given
design, allY arrangement which results in a correction factor of less than 0.80 should be rejected.
HEAT LOSS BY RADIATION
COEFFICIENT
MATERIAL OfEMISSIVITY
3.8 IRON OR STEEL
BRIGHT .20-.35
OXIDIZED .60~70
3.6
HIGHLY OXIDIZED .90-.95
COPPER
3.4 POLISHED .10
OXIDIZED .70
BRASS
3.2 BRIGHT .07-.10
DULL .25
ZINC
3.0
BRIGHT .10
DULL .20
ALUMINUM PAINT .50
NON-METALLIC SURFACES
BRICK,WOCO,CLOTH a
PAINT .95
2.6
1.8
THE VALUES OBTAINED FROM THESE
CURVES ARE FOR IDEAL BLACK BODIES
1.6 AND FOR OTHER MATERIALS MUST BE
EMISSIVITY.
1.4
1.2
1.0
.8
100 200 300 400 500 600
209
=
HEAT LOSS TO THE ATMOSPHERE

j .T
BY NATURAL CONVECTION
,1 • t
t
1 ,
. I ..
1
I
" , 1
., I
I 1.6
1.5 1.5
l4
=
1.31iiJ
E
, .
. I,
1.4
1.3
1.2 - .
1
!
. 1.2
,-
-
1.1
., .1 ,f!
• Ilmlli 1.1
I
• ,.. in
1.0
-.
• •
I
- . I
,
I
1.0
,, T1 1 I 1 , I
, t,
~
, . ,
ri' 1,'
.._'1, '-1,•
, ., 'IT" 1'1:.'
~
! 1: .i';":+ Ii ;-rr.- .... ~
.. l·t
, Ttl-·· '+ -f ·1-- ._.~ ~i~ ."., 9
, '.';!' r::i+ tH± . '-'1
:!~i ':*., ::It: ~il ltt. :{-E
_ 1 ~ • ~:: ; .. _ • _ :~i !'~ ~ • i1T! ~ ipi ~ t .-
I "f". .. ." ~ -:: '" ~ Hi T ! itt 'I' .;. .
~~tl, :,If. ~ .r~t _ %'f~~·fl.il 1m lit 8
.8 ' l'r. fl: ;'rittl Wlei, -:..
.. (, 1-"· ~"..Jl' ~f -~.~ _J _ •• !f (n1:i ~i i i ~i Ilr, ~ u.3:1
.7, ,-:"":J:> - :1•. ,. t " >I: ,Itij :Hi 7
--., in !~J:r ·~t . t" -t. f • !tt.,rtt ::tl::' I" _ ""'!'. '! ~J::J-'
.. , , .tt t _.- .- ~l H+ 1i
.6 -, ,, I ,
- -
•
i
I
l
t
:F _
t
~ t'
:1 ,t. -.
I ' - ...
t
I'''''':''.t
~ •
• • ...
6
VALUES FROM THE CHART ARE TO

.5 BE MULTIPLIED BY THE FOllOWING 5
.4
At"
SHAPE FACTORS:
VERTICAL PIPES 1.3
" . 4
HORIZONTAL PIPES 1.3 ±
VERT ICAl PLATES 1.3
.3 HORIZONTAL PLATES
FACING UPWARDS
FACING DOWNWARDS
2.0
1.2
- 3
.2
llIIJ;J _ ' 2
.1
o
,
_PP.
HEILMNI.'TRANS·,
100 200
M4. soc. MECH. ENG. 51, 287 (1929)
240·241. MIC.GmR~~W~'~H~ILiLIIlO~onKdCjOi'tt(~'rn9~42~)~11
300 400 500 600
210
2000 30004000 6000
, , , , ,10000 20000 40000 GOOOO
I
'1.1 II "'I. 11 r H
,1
I,
1,
i 1
,
r
t
I' i Iii -£
, '
eu5,ooo
4,000
I !
! ; I! : 'I '
I .. . I' •
r , ii llil
ItB'F
,I +J ' '
II
f1:, ;J' . f'+H+H .
HEATING AND COOLING
...
IOPOO + 'I" ,11 _', f :II! l- 'poo
8000 II I t I I ; I
800
I 111lJjtl" Ii I 1,- -I
SpOO
- .--1:1
1.
,.
III
d 11'1:1)
rm
l,
_.
.
-
I,! II,Ii- Ii! II,"; I! ]
I I
1'1 ,Ii!
.
I
,', ..,
1~r1":
--
-
-
--
600
500
-
-t~1~~':t~ 1"im!m::lmJ'i:!~jl-f1:;Ifm~-:HI4~Hg-::I;lr!m,jI~;1l#iR'~: :ljli-i'·-~8!1-~mt'+'H-,mf-~H-hH~l-:l~1I'f+~;W"''!~~:I,i!j~,~:! ~,~'~'~i:~;i~~!;Hi~:I;t-mffi~liTtm~lllffi -

400
I - 300
-Ttl!
Fcl!-i'IIi+!-1:¥.'-P'-;.'f,lfH1!j-' I i iIll . I:t I' - 200
:- ::1 H::!:ii 1 ~j I Iii . "r~.. 'II-++J1+HJ- \'
tiI_
014
H+-\-H-j+i+l-r!-+-HtH-l-H-H-8If.lll+I+++I+H+f-'--H+!A:, '1I',"·P! h = K (CKZ) 3(ZZW) • ¢ (OZG)
_: ~
04'
-
I-t+t" ,t" lli;l IIW *I!iii O
100 r ' I I' , t. , . . . ,:\_ 100

80 ,.,
1+"
" ","
-t-
, ...-r' .,.
l.J.. ',/1 t
""Ii' "WI!' 'oJ "lll 1111
0
80
.\+ Ii'! 1 I II, 4 f ; 'rlt" h = FILM COEFFICIENT - a.l.U. /HR ./SQ. FT./ F.
_j_
60 j)- I 'I .iJ.rlI(i, j.rH i,' il? I :)-r:-- /" K' THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY - B.T.U.!HR/SO. FT.!(OF PER FT.l 60
50 . II" :. ~ , ' , L :HEATED TUBE LENGTH ·fEET 50
40 j.: I-t lU fit1 "':,.i.f' 'I, Jl. I I,· L' :.J' I' 0' INSIDE TUBE DIAMETER· INCHES
40
U:- ITfW1 ,;; ,!:;.-H-; :;)0 1+ I I II!! r G,MASS VELOCITY -LB,/SEC /SO.FT.
I~ n- ,::. ~"",n .. -r- II , :I I-i i,
r
0-
30 , • I< . " " ... 'i" , 'I:: C' 30
~ <::. i _::, :::: l:~: 0;:: ~ I+~ .
20 ·ll'f:.:.;.; 4;:, ;, i: iii I::: ; II:
,. , .
+'1: :;
t Z =ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY-CENTIP()SES AT AV. TEMP. OF FLUID
r .Til! 'ZW'ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY-CENTIPOlSES AT AV. TUBE WALL TEMP.
.: SPECiFIC HEAT OF FLUID AT AV, FLUID TEMP.-BT.U./LB.I,¥
20
, iil"/ "~'I'ili!iril'I:Il;!'! II!: ".iUI HI! .l'i1I:!'I!1f:l:-:,:I::;:I:'.;.III:I':"-O:::J.,.rmillUCllI=II:liI:Jlilll::l-T
l+H:tt'ti'rtJ-I' ': ,I "I.! .;. REFERENCe: S I EDER AND TATE, I NO, ENG, CHEM, 28, 1429 (1936)
/0
I
- ilJI, iili
2 3
[ I!;j Iii: 1111111
4 5 6 8 10
fiiUH1il~!Jl~il!H]liWltnrilllfH-'-lmrllllllif.lrrm
20 30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300400 GOO 800 1000
10
211
•
10 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 8001000 2000 4000 6000
1000011
8000 8000
6000 ~~# t~.:H:H. :~ ~;;1 l:-=l: ~ -r I' r 6000
5000 CH 1LTON AND COLBURN. IND. ENG. CHEM. 26. 1183 (L934) - 5000
4000 .,: -j- .... ::t"
t::l -':" -r- .. , ---,..--<-- ...,i::rn:;- LiC
lEEEIEEm]4000
3ooo~mWi
HEAT TRANSFER TO 3000
FLUIDS OUTSIDE TUBES
=-crlffil2000
1000
800
600
"'0= OUTSIDE FILM COEFFICIENT· O:r.U./HR.lSQ.FTjOF
500 K :: THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF FLUID -
400 atU'/SQ.FT.!HR./(OF PER FT.)
00= OUTSIDE TUBE DIAMETER - INCHES
300 C ::; SPECIFIC HEAT OF FLUID - 8.T.U.lLB./°F
Zr::; FILM VISCOSITY - CENTIPlEES
#jffitl1ltm 300
200 {THROUGH MINIMUM FREE CROSS-SECTIONAL A~EAl
- +J-'- .200
111,00 80
60
50
-. -i
40
MULTIPLY he BY A NeUNDLE FACTOR" AS
FOLLOWS:
30
o.~o fOR SQUARE PITCH - TUBES IN LINE

0.55 FOR SQUARE PITCH - TUBES AT 45° 20
10 10
.01 .02 .03 .04 .06 .08 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5.6 .8 2 3 4 5 6 8 10
212
o 13 g:Sg:2:~8 8'" '" 0...
o
o
0
§ § § §§ ~-88
8 8
-""
'"
o \00 200 300 «Xl 500 600 700 800 900 1000
s
_,::-r
I ~t oj
.
1
i
•
. .
"
,40
:tl
-"'f
:1z: tn '. • •
·
.1f I; . . 1
, .. t
,. .• ,t
;
,
.39
='0'
I .. !
d t .t "
..
;!,; : l f
II!l •
.38
t
• •
j ~ 1
,~
h
o I It ,
1 I J It·
. , . IJt l! 1 ' •
,.
I
.37
. I j •
.
~I
1 t,
-
11
. i'r; 1 .. .
.' • . o•
1HlH+H
,
f 1 • ; ~ .
.36 1
I
;
,
. .
,35
1
I I .1. o ,
•
filii
T THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
.34 - 1 1
OF LIQUID WATER
.33
1 ,I:I:H1I
•
f •
.32 +
. r
,3 I
MIlImn
.'30
t
t
.29 •
I ,
I ,• • WI
.28 l I.
i
It f t
j
'I f.l
.27 I
I ..
t
t
t
.26
1
, I
. m
I
.25 J
,
,
+
1 I
BEALE. 'THE SCIENCE OF PETROLEU M' • VOL. II. P, 1261, OXFORD UNIVERSITY
.
1
, ·0
., PRESS ( 1938)
.... HH
••
, • , . ., IflllI
o 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
214
I I P , , I
, '1
'I1 - llr
,. l~ .-1 i:
, f
,
,
1
j'j
,
1
,1
,.r ,
- !~ I-
I ;t~ 1:1" n
t I' , T ., -
, ,
I
,,'
I' , , L t f - , 00)0
, ,
I r -r -I
-~
"
~.J ~:t: ~:
.;
1 1 I
i, 8
: 1 t~ ~
I t-
1.'
,-
-
"
,
.rr· i
[
, 8to
~I!j~lni
r.:
1 hi
r
I j - , , ,
)T ,",
1'i', >- lQ ,!il i
['
If! I Hl i ' . I ' , !~ 1
i , q If I ~llfl
, ,m I- <J. Wi 1 j t' ,: t llii, I ; "
T , I i51i
liB ~ (!) ~f.1r r1, ~'I 1+ J atl1 0
1IH1!H*-i
LL1• (.) .I;i,
Effffltfrrf:'l => co .:l: :
5 " I , 1 p' oe E-Iffi: 1 J
~
,ii °2 0:: ::7

3 ,,: i", 1
j ttl
"t
j
I i'!i
-coo
l,j i ,
1fffH-'n-::;n: 0 <t _.. ' I " , r ,;'l
1II. (.) (.) :Hi.. t; " [' 'f I .. W, 1 I 7
Ifl±it,fi-,l,ei. 0
'0:: 'I' i lu
l~ ji : <f. 0 ~:.: Iii l rl. .f r L t 1 0
~
/ :~f: :!: >- f,1: :IT)i 11- ._ I1 i
~! ,';: ffi ~ mil 11 I , j i l Il ',L'OO! "
lil .-. .;
;0 .,/ I-:I: 0 1'"
:t-fi~
1
~ r .J,'. ,'IH
, I~ ~ l!lll ~!
.. I. + l~: ,. I ~H ~l~l 1M! f-P
, /-., ,I j ,m M:til L
;. I ' "
, 'I', HJ 1
.1
I 1.
I,~
IJJ
-, /
j I .
I ! III I
.~I
l'
, 'jiliI1+' 1,
i ,
~ .p-'"[
r
..
q
N
q
215
8
!!!
o o
o
!!! ~
o
o
!l!.
o
o
o·
(/)
>ow
.-(/)
-ct
.-2:e>
O(/)
::l::l 8.,
°0
Zw
Oz
Oct
...J...J
ct...J
::E~
a:(/)
w-
J:::E
.-
o 0
o 0
<t <t
f ,'il;;
1
• 8
fFj:,' 1: ; r..! hi !t'".L.
_ • I. I. '"
i' 1:Jt .i';
,~.~!. ,1. 11, II' .:t 1
. ,> •
• j;~; : .:
d-I :t:..
~1'-
t~
; I ,\ i ' t
o
It)
q <t
q o
216
LOGARITHMIC MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
100 100 100
90 90 ~ 90
80 80 80
70 70 70
60 60 60
55 55 55
w
50 !i 50 50
w
45 ::i 45
... 45
40 5 40 40
w
35
30
,:"
<3
~
~
a:
w 30
35
..
~
35
Q. <l 30
~
w
~
25 25 25
...zw
~
20 I.' 20 20
:IE
J:
t:
15 ...
a:
15 15
'"
0
..J
10 10 10
5 5 5
M.T.D.: .0.TI- ATz
LOG .o.T,
E ATZ
WHEN Ll.T, AND Ll.Tz ARE NOT WITHIN THE CHART RANGE,
THESE VALUES MAY BE MULTIPLIED BY A FACTOR, AS 0.5,
2,10, OR 100. ETC.
FOR EXAMPLE:
GIVEN Ll. T, (ACTUAL): 200, AND Ll.TZ (ACTUAL): 20.
USE 0.5 AS FACTOR, AND Ll.T,' , '00, AND .Ll.TZ: 10.
FROM THE CHART, M.T. D." 39.5
OR M.T.D. (ACTUAL): 0'.5 X 39.5' 79.
REFERENCE: POWER PLANT ENG. 35. 937 (1931)
217
a .02
...
04 .06 .08 J .2 .3 4 S .6 .7.8.9' 4 5 6 7 ~~.IO 20
'1" I
r
,,, ,'"
iJ+;:rorh; l,m
-_....,r,
:;:C:I T
LOG MEAN TEMPERATURE

DIFFERENCE CORRECTION
FACTOR
IIIIIII '-~~1
,H
:~
t.:>
~
"" :1
EXAMPLE:
T2'300 T,'400 .t
" '275 '2' 320 .
A' 300-275 TI :: TEMPERATURE AT WHICH HOT FLUID ENTERS
400-320 T2 ' TEMPERATURE AT WHICH HOT FLUID LEAVES
, 0.312 t l • TEMPERATURE AT WHICH COLO FLUID ENTERS
'la II TEMPERATURE AT WHICH COLD FLUID LEAVES
F II CORRECTION FACTOR BY WHICH L~.T.O. IS
MULTIPLIED
jf!
I
.01 .02 .04 D6 .08 .1 2 .3 .4 .6 B 45678910 29
10.0
9.0 I SHELL PASS 2 SHEL L PASSES
ao 2,4,6 ETC. TU8E PASSES 4,8,12 ETC. TU8E PASSES
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0 -
3.0,
"
i·
2.0 -
1.0'11
0.9~
0.8.
0.7t'lJI:Mm
0.61;1;
0.5• •
0.411
0.3
0.1
0.2 0.3 0.4 OS 0.6 0.8 1.0 02 0.3 0.4 OS 0.6 0.8 1.0
219
3 SHELL PASSES 4 SHELL PASSES
6,12,18 ETC. TU8E PASSES 8,16,24 ETC. TU8E PASSES
4.011"
3.0 ".
0.2 "
0.2 0.3 0.4 05 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.3 0.4 05 0.6 os LO
220
I~.~ m~mw'''''""~~~~:HE~L~L:=;P~A;SS~E~S~~ 6 SHELL PASSES
8.0 : 10,20,30 ETC. TUBE PASSES III~ 12,24,36 ETC. TUBE PASSES
JmllM
7.0
6.0111
5.0
4.0 lttl±Htl+ltt
3.01fm~m
2.0 ~FfHtttl*
119331
"
0.1
02 03 0.4 Q5 0.6 08 1.0 0.2 0.3 04 0.5 06 0.8 1.0
221
Section 13
EQUILIBRIUM FLASH VAPORIZATION
The vapor-liquid equilibrium relations for hydrocarbon mixtures of known
analysis can be determined by trial and error from the equilibrium relations of
the individual components and a material balance. For any component, i(i = 1,
2· .. , n) ,
Yi = Kixi (1)
and Xi = xiL + y;(100 - L) (2)
where Yi = mole fraction of i in the equilibrium vapor

Xi = mole fraction of i in the equilibrium liquid
Ki = equilibrium constant of i
Xi = total moles of i per 100 moles of total mixture
L = moles of equilibrium liquid per 100 moles of total mixture
Substituting Kixi for Yi in equation (2) and rearranging

Xi
Xi = -L-+--'--K-i ("--l'""""OO---L-) (3)
At equilibrium, the sum of the mole fractions in the liquid phase, x, + X2 +

... + x., must equal 1.00. While two variables, Land K" appear in the right-hand
mcmber of equation (3), there are actually three variables involved sinec K, is a
function of both pressure and temperature. To predict the equilibrium conditions,
any two of these variables must be known and successive values oj the third
assumed until the sum of the x's equals 1.00. Usually, temperature and pressure
are the two variables specified, and then the trial and error involves L.
Flash Vaporization of Petroleum Fractions

Although the foregoing method applies to complex petroleum fractions as
well as to hydrocarbon mixtures of a comparatively few known components, it has
little practical significance for petroleum fractions because of the laborious cal-
culations ...required even when component analyses are available, which is
rarely the case. As a result, empirical correlations have been developed for pre-
dicting equilibrium flash vaporization curves from distillation data on crudes and
petroleum fractions. The flash vaporization curve is a plot of temperature against
liquid volume percent vaporized, the total vapor being in equilibrium with the
unvaporized liquid at constant pressure.
222
EQUILIBRIUM FLASH VAPORIZATION 223
/ :
A number of empirical correlations for determining the atmospheric flash

vaporization curve have appeared in the literature, but only a relatively simple
correlation would seem to be justified in view of the discrepancies between the data
of various investigators. The present correllition is of the same general type as
those of Piroomov and Beiswenger l and Nelson z and applies to both petroleum
fractions and whole crudes. For petroleum fractions, either the 100/0 (ASTM)
distillation of the fraction itself or the portion of the crude assay (True Boiling
Point) distillation corresponding to the fraction may be used for predicting the
flash curve. For whole crudes, the crude assay distillation should always be used
in preference to the 100/0 distillation. The latter should never be used if the
distillation curve flattens out below the 70'1'0 point in the neighborhood of 700°F
since this is indicative of cracking.
In extrapolating the atmospheric flash curves to higher or lower pressures it
is suggested that the parallel method proposed by Piroomov and Beiswenger be
used up to pressures of 15 psig for whole crudes and wide cuts, and up to pressures
of 50 psig if the slope of the flash reference line of the fraction is not greater than
2°F/ro. By this method the atmospheric flash curve is shifted parallel to it-
self by a temperature interval equal to the extrapolation of the 40'1'0 point 3
on the flash reference line (FRL) as a pure compound on a vapor pressure
chart.
This parallel method is unsatisfactory for higher pressures, since it is known
that the flash curve becomes more horizontal with increasing pressure until its
slope is zero at the true critical pressure. Beyond the pressure limits recommended
in the preceding paragraph for parallel extrapolation, it is suggested that a varia-
tion of the method of Watson and Nelson' be used, since no very elaborate method
appears to be justified by the data. The 40'1'0 point on the FRL is extrapolated on
a vapor pressure chart to a temperature 150°F above the critical temperature of
the normal paraffin having the same boiling point as the 40'1'0 point. This extra-
polated tempera:tur~ and corresponding vapor pressure is then used as a focal
point through which straight lines are drawn on a redilinear vapor pressure chart
(page 42) from the atmospheric flash temperatures for various percents vapor-
ized. The flash curve at any pressure is determined from the temperatures at
which the given pressure ordinate intersects these constant percent off (or quality)
lines. These linear extrapolations do not apply if the true critical point of the
fraction is approached since the copstant percent off lines become curved and
converge to the true critical temperature and pressure.
1 Piroomov and Beiswenger, Proc. API 10, No.2, Section II, 52 (1929).
2 Nelson, "Petroleum Refinery Engineering," pp. 242-243, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York, N.Y. (1941).
3 This i3 a slight modification of the Piroomov and Beiswenger method as they use the
point of intersection between the flash and distillation curves for extrapolation.
• Watson and Nelson, Ind. Eng. Chern. 26, 880 (1933).
Reduced Crudes
Perhaps the most direct method of predicting the atmospheric flash curve of
a reduced crude (or .any reduced stock) which at the same time is reasonably
accurate is the following:
(1) Construct an atmospheric flash curve for the original crudc.
(2) Determine the number of moles of both original crude and reduced crude
per given volume of original crude.
(3) At the dew point (lOOro vaporized) of the original crude, assume that the
reduced crude vapors are at their dew point at a partial pressure equal to
their mole fraction in the total vapors (moles of reduced crude/moles of
original crude) multiplied by 1 atm.
(4) Extrapolate the 40% point on that portion of the flash curve corresponding to
the yield of reduced crude from the partial pressure computed by (3) to 1 atm.
(5) If the reduced crude has been stripped of light ends, its atmospheric flash
curve is drawn through the extrapolated point parallel to the flash curve of
the original crude between the abscissas corresponding to the yield of
reduced crude.
(6) If the reduced crude has not been stripped of light ends, a smooth curve is
drawn from the split point on the flash curve of the original crude to the 20%
point on the flash curve constructed by (5) to approximate the front end of
the flash curve of the reduced crude. Establishment of the 20ro point as the
point above which unstripped light ends cease to affect the reduced crude
flash curve is, of course, entirely arbitrary but, at the same time, fairly
representative.
While the method outlined above is empirical to a large extent, it does have
some theoretical justification. If all but one drop of reduced crude were flashed,
this last drop of liquid would be in equilibrium with the reduced crude vapors
at 1 atm. It is then assumed that if 100% original crude were flashed at 1 atm, the
last drop of liquid would have the same composition as the last· drop of
reduced crude, and the latter vapors would be at a partial pressure corre-
sponding to their mole fraction multiplied by one atmosphere. The basis for
this assumption is that the temperature difference between the boiling range of
the last drop and 'that of the vapors romoved in reducing the crude is usually so
great that these vapors can be considered the equivalent of steam or gas in so far
as the equilibrium relations of the last drop is concerned. Making the flash curves·
of reduced crudes parallel to the flash curves of their original crudes was originally
suggested by Piroomov and Beiswenger and appears to be fully justified by
their data.
Example 1. Determine the atmospheric flash vaporization curves of an East
Texas crude and its 35% bottoms (both stripped and unstripped) from the follow-
ing data taken from an assay workup of t.he crude:
•
Assay (T.B.P.) Distillation Gravity Lbs/Gal

I.B.P., of °API
5% 122 Crude 37.4 6.98
10% 177 Overhead (0-65%) 47.7 6.57
20% 262 Bottoms (65-100%) 20.9 7.73
30% 350
40% 443
50% 538
60% 636
70% 752
80% (905)
752 - 177
Slope of DRL* = 60 = 9.6°F/%
• DisLillaLion reference line-through 10% and 70% points.
50% Point (DRL) = 177 + (50 - 10)9.6 = 561°F

The slope and 50% point of the flash reference line are determined from the
chart on page 228:
Slope (FRL) = 6.4°F/%; 50% Point (FRL) = 561 - 40 = 521°F
The atmospheric flash curve is derived from its reference line by lIsing the
relation on page 229.
Assay Distillation (OF) Ratio Flash Vaporization (F)

Percent
Vaporized t>t' of (t>t')'s t>t'
Curve DRL FRL Curve
5 122 129 -7 0.40 -3 233 230
10 177 177 - - - 265 265
20 262 273 -11 .36 -4 329 325
30 350 369 -19 .34 -6 393 387
40 443 465 -22 .34 -7 457 450
50 538 561 -23 .34 -8 521 513
60 636 656 -20 .33 -7 585 578
70 752 752 - - - 649 649
80 (905) - 848. +57 .33 +19 713 .732
The flash reference line and the atmospheric flash curve of the original crude
are-shown on Figure 1. Proceeding from (1), the flash curve of the original crude,
the atmospheric flash curves of the stripped and unstripped reduced crudes are
derived by the method outlined in the text:
(2) Vol. Av. B.P. of whole crude =

262 + 538
3
+ 905 = 568°F
Mean Av. B.P. of whole crude = 568 - 70 = 498°F (Section 2)

Molec. wt. of whole crude = 197 (Section 3)
Vol. Av. B.P. of 65% overhead =

203 + 373
3
+ 558
= 378°F
495 - 139
Slope of DRL (65% overhead) = 60 = 5.9°F/%
Mean Av. B.P. = 378 - 38 = 340°F

Molec. wt. of 65% overhead = 139
Per 100 Gal
of Crude
Moles of crude = (6.98 X 100)/197 = 3.55
Moles of overhead = (6.57 X 65)/139 = 3.07
Moles of reduced crude 0.48
(3) Partial pressure of reduced crude at the dew point of the original crude
0.48
= - X 1 = 0.135 atm.
3.55
(4) The 40% point on the reduced crucle flash curve corresponds to 65 + 0.40
X 35 = 79% or 722°F on the flash curve of the original crude.
By extrapolation from 0.135 atm. to 1 atm., the 40% point on the
atmospheric flash curve of the reduced crude is 900?F.
(5) The atmospheric flash curve of the stripped reduced crude is drawn through
the extrapolated point parallel to the 65-100% portion of the flash curve
of the original crude. This reduced crude flash curve may be converted
to percent on reduced crude by proportioning the 65-100% yield on
original crude to 0-100% on reduced crude. Both curves are shown in
Figure l.
(6) The front end of the atmospheric flash curve on the unstripped reduced
crude is constructed by drawing a smooth curve from the 65% point on the
flash curve of the odginal crude to the 20% point on the flash curve of the
stripped reduced crude as shown in Figure 1. This curve is also given on
the basis of 0-100% reduced crude.
GENERAL REFERENCES
Edmister and Pollock, Chem. E7l{J. Progress 44, 905 (1948).
Katz and Brown, Ind. E7l{J. Chern. 26, 1373 (1933).
Packie, Trans. Am. Inst. Chern. Engrs. 37, 51 (1941).
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
!lOO
400
300
200
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
FIGURE 1
PREDICTION OF FLASH REFERENCE LINE
--JfJ-
7 FROM DISTILLATION REFERENCE LINES 7
5 ~
1 .. ~. g
.•r
w
4
3
If i li 3
. FLASH AND DISTILLATION REFERENCE
LINES (FRL AND DRLl ARE STRAIGHT
2
I LI NES THROUGH THE 10% AND 70%
, POINTS. THE TEMPERATURES AT THE
50% POINTS REFER TO THESE ~
~
m
2
- REFERENCE LINES. E I
.... ;~~ : ... RE~G~l~it!fI:~:':I~-'~ 1 .

o o
2 3 6 7 8 9 10 II 12
,,' t 60
.~ I~ •
40 T
U- i ~If !'iii R,f;f,Et EN' ~... !; - . -
4 S 6 7 8 9 10 II 12
40
11- - ..
20
O
II BI
-20
-40 -40
-60
2 3 5 6
228
tl±I
. ~
. ,
~
,
,
; .
, : t
I tmI, , 1.
..
Mm
1 c
,
,
• PREDICTION OF FLASH CURVE
too FROM ITS REFERENCE LINE
lm!l
I
1'-'-
100
1.00 I.. •
fmII mIl
tmn II
.80
,
11UlI
•
_ 11$ CRUDE ASSAY (T.B.P.) DIS TlLLATION
.60 , .
'gmj
,20
10
t"
20
11m!
-,,",p .. I:J±
30 40
II 50
11m
60 70
•• • II 80 90 100
1.00
,
lEE
·lmJU
'
10% (A.s:tM.) DISTILLATION
.
.JI#J:
"* lIV IS THE DEPARTURE OF THE ACTUAL
FLASH AND D1STI LLATION CURVES FROM
I
.80
THEIR RESPECTIVE REFERENCE LINES.
n5
.60 f:fk,'ll
WHILE THE INDIVIDUAL (lIl')'S MAY BE
EITHER PLUS OR MINUS, THE RATIO IS
, ALWAYS POSITIVE.
~
!l0
, ' '. ~l'mIJ
..
.20
o 10
Iflill
W 30 40
·w_ • ~ 60 ro ~ 90 100
.1
229
Section 14
FRACTIONATING TOWERS
In order to simplify the work involved in making stepwise calculations for
the rectification of binary and multieomponent systems, Gilliland' has presented
an empirical correlation between theoretical steps and reflux ratio. To use the
Gilliland correlation to predict the number of theoretical plates for a given reflux
ratio, the minimum number of steps at total reflex and the minimum reflux ratio
are required.
Minimum Number of Theoretical Steps

When a separation is specified with respect to only two components of a multi-
component mixture, the lower boiling of these two components is designated the
light key component and the higher boiling the heavy key component, and the
minimum number of steps can be calculated by the well-known Fenske equation 2
as follows: a
log (XXLKlV
LKD) (X HKlV)
XHKD
8 Af= (1)
log aLK
or [aLK]SM = (XXLKlV
LK D) (X HKlV)
XHKV
(1 a)
After equation (1) is solved for 8M , the latter may be substituted in this
equation along with the distribution of either key component to prcdict 4 the distri-
bution of the other components, or
XX
log ( -
!-IV
(X
,.D) X HKlV) = 8 M log aL
11 K D
(2)
Likewise,
LK
log (X lilY) (X LKD) = 8 M log (a ) (3)
XlID XLKlV all
In any of the above equations, moles per 100 moles of feed may be replaced
by total mo)es, or volume or weight units since in any of these conversions the
multiplying factors cancel out.
1 Gilliland, Ind. Eng. Chern. 32, 1220 (1940).
2 Fenske, Ind. Eng. Chern. 24, 482 (1932).
S A table o( nomenclnture is given on page 243.
• This equation may be used (or any pair o( component8.
230
FRACTIONATING TOWERS 2H1
When the dcgree of separation is specified for more than two components,
equation (1) must be applied to all critical combinations of these components and
the maximum SJ/ determincd for the most difficult case. If the separation is spec-
ificd with respect to the total quantity of two or more components, as in the
case of Examplc 1, trial and eITor is required for thc solution of SjJ.
It should be pointed out that the concentrations calculated by equations
(2) and (3) actually apply only to the separation at total rcflux and, with the
exception of the two key components, there will be some variation of thc degrec
of separation with the reflux ratio. As the rcflux ratio decreases, there is some
improvement in separation betwecn light and heavy componcnts boiling outside
the range of the kcy components and some deterioration in the separation of com-
ponents boiling intermediate bctween the kcy components. However, in so far as
the present procedure is concerned, the distillate and bottoms compositions for
other reflux ratios are assumed to be thc Same as those calculated for total reflux.
Minimum Reflux Ratio

Gilliland 5 has proposed several diffcrent formulas for predicting minimum reflux
ratio and all have the disadvantage of being composcd of a number of complex
terms in addition to requiring trial and error for solution. Although all these
equations appeal' to give satisfactory rcsults, the tcrms are so complcx that it is
difficult to bc ccrtain that therc arc no numerical crrors in thcir application.
In order to apply the Gilliland method with greater facility, the following
equation was developcd for predicting the minimum rcflux ratio of a multicom-
ponent system:
(O/Dhf + 1= (aLKTf.FC + 1) (XLKD - XIIKD)

('(LK - 1 ILK
(4)
(O/D)M can be calculated for two arbitrary states of feed vaporization:
1. "Liquid" feed, cOITesponding to vaporization of the feeu equivalcnt to the

fraction of the feed lighter than the light key component. For the components
lighter than the light key, h = ZL/aL and for the light key and heavier com-
ponents, ILK = ZLK, and III = Zfl.6
5 Gilliland, Ind. Eng. ehe",. 32, HOI (1940).
8 ]£ components, intermediate between the two key components, are present, they are
considered ei her light or heavy componen'" depending upon which key their volatility more
nearly approaches. In the case of "liquid" feed, I L = Zl. and I II = ZH for these intermedi-
ate components; in the case of "vapor" feed, I L = ZL/aL and I II = ZuaH/aLK.
2. "Vapor" feed, corresponding to vaporization of the feed equivalent to the

fraction of the fecd consisting of the hcavy key component and lighter. For the
components lighter than the heavy key, If_ = ZL/CtL and ILK = ZLK/aLK and
for the components heavier than the heavy key, 1/1 = ZI/.6
After the minimum reflux ratios have been calculated for "liquid" and "vapor"
feeds, the minimum rcflux ratio for the actual vaporization of the feed can be cal-
culated by direct interpolation or extrapolation. However, extrapolation beyond
50% of the difference between "liquid" and "vapor" feed may lead to serious
deviations.
The first term of the right-hand side of equation (4) is the same as for binary
mixtures, and the equation reduces to the cquivalcnt of a binary mixture whon
all light components other than the light key have infinite volatility and all heavy
component other than the heavy key have zero volatility. Under these circum-
stances the equation is exact when hK is taken as the ratio of the two components
in the liquid phase of the feed. That is, if the feed is introduced as a liquid at its
bubble point, hK = ZLK, which is the ratio of the two components in the feed;
if the feed is introduced as a vapor at its dewpoint, hK = Z',K/OtLK, which is the
ratio of the two components in the cquilibrium liquid. For intermediate stages
of vaporization hK can be calculated from the flash vaporization formula, al-
though direct intcrpolation of the minimum reflux ratio on the basis of percentage
vaporization between thc sat urated liquid and saturated vapor feeds gives values
only slightly in error on the conservative side.
In the case of multicomponent mixturcs, equation (4) is semi-empirical since

it was necessary to make simplifying approximations in its derivation. Further-
more, the exact values of the various 1's cannot be calculated directly from the
composition and state of vaporization of the feed, since the liquid on the feed
platc is not identical to the liquid phase of the fecd as in the case of a binary
mixture. As a result, it was necessary to define the 1's empirically for two states
of fced vaporization, arbitrarily choscn to simulate a binary mixture of the two
key components, and then intcrpolatc or extrapolatc to the minimum reflux ratio
corresponding to the actual vaporization of the fced.
Equation (4j has been checked for a number of multicomponent systems on

which the minimum reflux ratio was determined by stepwise trial and error cal-
culations. Generally, unusual systems were chosen with respect to composition and
relative volatility in order to reveal the maximum deviations ever likely to be
encountercd in practice. The agrecment was quite satisfactory as the average
deviation was less than -+-5% and the maximum about lOra. The latter occurred at
the limit of extrapolation relative to the arbitrary feed states.
•
FRACTIONATING TOWERS 233
Also, the minimum reflux ratio was calculated for these same systems by the
Colburn method 7 with about the same degree of accuracy. It should be pointed
out that the latter gave better results than equation (4) when the relative volatili-
ties and compositions were not so abnormal as the systems selected. However,
under these circumstances both methods were quite accurate as the deviations
seldom exceeded a few percent, and the present equation has a distinct advantage
in that it is explicit and does not require trial and error.
Both methods are quite sensitive to the selection of key components, and
the selection of the wrong key components can lead to a much greater error than
is inherent in either method. If the desired separation is between adjacent com-
ponents, there is usually no doubt about selecting these as the key components.
However, if there are additional specifications relative to other components, it
may be necessary to try two or more combinations of key components to make
sure that the minimum reflux ratio is sufficient to fulfill all specified conditions.
Correlation of Theoretical Steps with Reflux Ratio
As mentioned at the beginning of this section, Gilliland correlated the results
of a large humber of stepwise calculations on various binary and multicomponent
mixtures by plotting
[S-SM) I[ S + 1] ~</> (S) against [(OlD) - (OID))f)/[ OlD + 1)-F (OlD)
and found that all points could be represented by a single curve irrespective of the
type or degree of separation. These points, along with about half again as many
additional points, were replotted, and the best curve through them was essentially
the same as Gilliland's original correlation.
In arriving at the coordinates for the additional points the minimum reflux
ratio was calculated by equation (4); therefore these points are a criterion of the
present method as well as the curve itself. In no case did the deviations exceed
either 3 theoretical steps or 15%, and the average deviation was less than 1
theoretical step and also less than +50/0. To take care of the maximum deviation
it is recommended that in any design the number of theoretical steps predicted
~ from the correlation on page 244 be increased by either 3 theoretical steps or
100/0, whichever is greater.
Plate Efficiency
Because of the large number of factors which undoubtedly influence the
plate efficiency of a fractionating tower, any fundamental formula accounting
for even the most important variables must necessarily be quite involved. For this
reason, a simple empirical correlation of the limited data on hydrocarbon mixtures
seemed to be the most promising method of predicting plate efficiency.
7 Colburn, Trans. Am. Inst. ehem. Engrs. 37, 805 (1941).
Gunness 8 correlated the results of several tests on petroleum mixtures on the

basTs of vapor pressure of the liquid. As he points out, this is a method of indirectly
correlating plate efficiency with liquid viscosity since viscosity of pure hydro-
carbons and narrow boiling fractions is an approximate function of vapor pressure
over a fai,rly wide range of vapor pressures.
In view of the consistent results obtained by Gunness, pla.te efficiency was

plotted directly against fluidity (reciprocal viscosity) for a number of tests on
commercial towers including those upon which Gunness based his curve. The curve
on page 245 represents this correlation. While the overall plate efficiency exceeds
10070 at fluidities greater than 9 Cp-1, this is not inconsistent as the flow of the
liquid across the plates results in concentration gradients which may achieve a
greater degree of fractionation than predicted by stepwise calculations in which
the liquid is assumed to leave the plate in equilibrium with the composite vapor.
Lewis 9 has shown theoretically that different combinations of liquid and vapor
concentration gradients across the plate may give overall plate efficiencies as
high as 200--300'10 when based on stepwise calculations.
There is no reason to believe that this correlation applies to mixtures other
than hydrocarbons, and with the exception of alcohol-water mixtures there are
too little data available to afford a comparison. Although there is considerable
variation in the alcohol-water data, there is some indication that plate efficiencies
are somewhat greater than for hydrocarbons of the same viscosity.
Location of the Feed Plate

As a simple approximation for locating the feed plate, it may be assumed that
the proportion of actual plates above the feed will be the same as that required to
effect the same separation between the key components at total reflux. That is, the
number of theoretical steps at total reflux is calculated for the concentration
change in the key components between the feed and distillate compositions. It is
then assumed that the ratio of this to the total number of theoretical steps at an
infinite reflux ratio is the same as the ratio of actual plates above the feed is to
the total number of plates. Application of this method is illustrated by Example 1.
In some cases where there are oritical components other than the two key
components, it may. be necessary to check the total reflux steps above and below
the feed on the basis of these components, since the optimum location of the
feed plate will be different with each pair of components. Usually the separation
of components other than the key components is so complete that only the latter
need be considered.
8 Gunness, Sc.D. Thesis, Mass. Inst. Tech. (1936).
9 Lewis, Ind. Eng. Chern. 28, 399 (1936).
Packed Towers
The charts on pages 246 to 248 giving the H.E.T.P., capacity and pressure
drop in packed towers are self-explanatory. Since practically all of the H.E.T.P.
data were on towers less than 12 in. in diameter, caution should be used in the
design of larger towers. One of the greatest sources of inefficiency in a packed tower
is poor liquid distribution. If good distribution can be achieved by efficient dis-
tributors, the extrapolations may be used for larger towers with reasonable
assurance.
Example 1. At an operating pressure of 100 psig determine the number of
plates and reflux ratio required to separate the mixture given below so that the
bottoms contain at least 90ro of the butenes-2 present in the feed and at the
same time have an isobutene content not greater than 5%:
Feed
Component (Mole %)
i-C,H lo 40.0
i-C,H s 20.0
C,H s-1 15.0
C.H IO 5.0
t-C,H s-2 10.0
c-C,H s-2 10.0
100.0
(1) Dewpoint of Distillate and Bubble Point of Bottoms
In order to calculate the average volatilities, the dewpoint of the distillate

and bubble point of the bottoms must be found by trial and error using assumed
compositions. These are tabulated below.
-
Moles Per 100 Moles of Feed Mole Fraction
Component
Feeti Distillate Bottoms Distillate Bottoms
i-C.H LO 40.0 39.3 0.7 0.530 0.027
i-C.H, 20.0 18.7 1.3 .253 .050
C.H...1 15.0 13.0 2.0 .176 .077
C.H,o 5.0 1.0 4.0 .014 .154
t-C.H,·2 10.0 1.5 8.5 .OW .327
.,.C.H...2 10.0 0.5 9.5 .007 .365
100.0 74.0 26.0 1.000 1.000
As a first trial, assume the dewpoint of the distillate is 14tl°F at 7.8 atm (114.7
psia) .
First Trial
Component YD a'D· Pt :i;
HO°F 140°F "yiP
':"C,H IO 0.530 1.29 8.4 0.493
i-C,H, .253 1.155 7.5 .263
C,H,-I .176 1.13 7.35 .187
C,H,o .014 1.00 6.5 .017
t-C,H...2 .020 0.97 6.3 .025
c-C,H ...2 .007 0.91 5.9 .009
1.000 0.994
• Relative volatilities to C 4H 10 or (0")'8 aTC used as a matter of convenience; then, the

(a'.,.)'s are converted to (a••)'s, the relative volatilities to t-C,H,-2, which will be seleetcd as
the heavy key component.
t Computed from the fugacity function of butane multiplied by the relative volatilities.
Since the sum of the x's is 0.994 instead of 1.000, the assumed temperature
should be lowered slightly, but the difference would be so small (less than l°F)
that the change in the (a'Jl) 's would be imperceptible. Consequently, 140°F will
be used as the dewpoint of the distillate.
The bubble point of the bottoms is assumed to be 165°F at 8.0 atm 10 for the
first trial.
First Trial Second Trial

Component XIV
a' w· pt Y a'w· Pt
165°F 165°F Pxl.. 160°F 160°F Y
i-C,H,o 0.027 1.26 10.7 0.036 1.265 10.25 0.035

i-C,H, .050 1.14 9.7 .061 1.145 9.3 .058
C,H ... I .077 1.115 9.5 .091 1.12 9.1 .088
C,H,o .154 1.00 8.5 .164 1.00 8.1 .156
t-C,H ...2 .327 0.97 8.25 .337 0.97 7.85 .321
c-C,H,-2 .365 0.915 7.8 .356 0.915 7.4 .338
1.000 1.045 0.996
• Relative volatilities to C~HIO or {«')'8 are used ns a mnttcr of convenience; then, the
(a'av)'S are converted to (aU\')'s, the relative volatilities to t-C IH:;-2, which will be selected as
the heavy key component.
t Computed from the fugacity funet:on of hutane multiplied by the relative volatilities.
The bubble point of the bottoms wiil be taken as 160°F. The relativ~
volatilities are averaged and converted to t-C~ H s -2 as the heavy key in the fol-
lowing table:
\0 After allowing 3 Ib/sq in. as the approximate pressure drop through the tower.
aD
, ,
aw
,
aA ,
a a.
Component 140°F 160°F 150°F aa.
(a' Da'wa'.A.)~!l
7.8 at.m 8.0 atm 7.9 atm
i-C,H ID 1.29 1.265 1.275 1.275 1.315
i-C,H. 1.155 1.145 1.15 1.15 1.185
C,H.-l 1.13 1.12 1.125 1.125 1.16
C,H ID 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.03
t-C,H8-2 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97 1.00
c-C,Hg-2 0.91 0.915 0.91 0.91 0.94
(2) Minimum Theoretical Steps (Total Reflu:t)

The minimum number of theoretical steps by which the desired separation can
be accomplished is calculated as follows:
Let t = moles of t-C 4 H s-2 in the distillate per 100 moles of feed
10 - t = moles of t-C 4 H s-2 in the bottoms per 100 moles of feed
Since 90% of the butenes-2 must be.retained in the bottoms, the cis-butcne-2
content of the distillate and bottoms will be:
(2 - t) moles in the distillate per 100 moles of feed
and (8 + t) moles in the bottoms per 100 moles of feed
Using the previously assumed values of 18.7 moles of isobutene in the dis-
tillate and 1.3 moles in the bottoms, the following equations must be satisfied:
C1~;) CO t- t) = (1.185)8 M
18.7) (~)
M
= (1.185)8
( 1.3 2- t 0.94
A trial and error solution of these equations shows that they are satisfied by
SM = 25.5 and t = 1.62.
The distribution of the other components can be calculated from SM and the
distribution of t-C 4 H s -2.
i-C 4 H IO : Let u = moles of i-C 4 H IO in bottoms
(
40 -
u
1') (8.38) = (1.315)25.5 = 1075
1.62
= 0.19 moles of i-C4 H IO in the bottoms
C 4H s-1: Let v = moles of C4 H s-1 in the bottoms
(
15 -
v
v) (838)
1.62
= (1.16)25.5 = 44
v = 1.58 moles of C 4 H s-2 in the bottoms

C.H IO : Let w = moles of C.H IO in the bottoms
(
5-
W
W)(8.38) = (1.03)25.5 = 2.12
1.62
W = 3.55 moles of C.H 10 in the bottoms
The percentage of i-C.Hs in the bottoms will be:
(0.19 + 1.3 + 1.58 ~33.55 + 8.38 + 9.62) 100 = 5.3%

In order to meet a maximum of 5.0ro i-C 4 H s specified for the bottoms, it is
necessary to reduce the 1.3 moles to 1.22 moles in the bottoms. This would require
an increase in SM to 25.8 which would modify the distribution of the other com-
ponents. However, the latter change is so slight that it can be neglected. The
composition of the overhead and bottoms will then be:
Moles Per 100 Moles of Feed Mole Fraction

Component
Fecd Distillate Bottoms Distillate Bottoms
i·C,H,o 40.0 39.81 0.19 0.528 0.008
i·C,H, 20.0 18.78 1.22 .249 .050
C,H..1 15.0 13.42 ·1.58 .178 .064
C,H IO 5.0 1.45 3.55 .019 .145
/·C,H,-2 10.0 1.62 8.38 .021 .342
.,.C,H..2 10.0 0.38 9.62 .005 .391
75.46 24.54 1.000 1.000
(3) Minimum Reflux Ratio

Since the critical separation is between isobutene and the butenes-2, the
former is naturally selected as the light key component and trans-butene-2, since
it is more volatile than the cis-butene-2, as the heavy key component. Butene-l is
considered a light intermediate component because of the proximity of its relative
volatility to that of isobutcne; normal butane is considered a heavy intermediate
component since its relative volatility is nearer to the heavy key than the light
key. The following tabulation gives the necessary information for calculating the
minimum reflux ratios for the two arbitrary states of feed vaporization:
Mole Fraction
Component Type "'BV
HLiquid tl lIVapor"
Feed Distillate Bottoms
Feed Feed
':-C,H,o L 0.400 0.528 0.008 1.315 3.04 3.04
i-C,H, LK .200 .249 .050 1.185 2.00 1.69
C,H ..1 L .150 .178 .064 1.16 1.50 1.29
C,H IO H .050 .019 .145 1.03 4.00 3.48
t-C,H,.2 HK .100 .021 .342 1.00 - -
.,.C,H..2 H .100 .005 .391 0.94 2.00 2.00
1.000 1.000 1.000
"Liquid" jeed-40% vaporized
(O/D)
M
+1 = 1.185 X 2.00 + 1.0 (0.249 _
1.185 _ 1.0 2.00 ° 1)
.
02
+ 01. 31 5 (0.528 - 3.04 X 0.021) + 1.16 (0.178 - 1.50 X 0.021)

.315 0.16
1.03 (0.249 ) 0.94 (0.249 )

+ 1.185 - 1.03 4.00 - 0.019 + 1.185 - 0.94 2.00 - 0.005
(O/Dhf = 1.88 + 1.94 + 1.07 + 0.29 + 0.46 - 1 = 4.64

"Vapor" jeed-90% vaporized
1.185 X 1.69 + 1.0 (0.249
(O/D) M +1 = - - - 0.021 )
1.185 - 1.0 1.69
1.16 (
+ 1.94 + 0.16 0.178 - 1.29 X 0.021)
1.03 (0.249 )
+ 1.185 - 1.03 3.48 - 0.019 + 0.46
(O/D)M = 2.06 + 1.94 + 1.10 + 0.35 + 0.46 - 1 = 4.91
Assume that the feed is sufficiently preheated to vaporize a percentage
equivalent to the distillate or 75.4670. By interpolation, the minimum reflux ratio
corresponding to this feed vaporization is:
75.46 - 40)
(O/D)M = 4.64 + ( 90 _ 40 (4.91 - 4.64) = 4.83
(4) Theoretical Steps vs. Reflux Ratio

Using the values determined in preceding sections for minimum theoretical
steps,. 25.8, and for minimum reflux ratio, 4.83, the number of theoretical steps
for various reflux ratios can be predicted from the correlation on page 244:
OlD F(OID) </>(8) 8 Theoretical Platea-

4.83
5.25
-
0.067
-
0.570
.
61.3
.
60.3
5.75 .136 .502 52.7 51.7
6.50 .223 .430 46.0 45.0
.
7.50 .314
-
.366
-
41.3
25.8
40.3
24.8
- The reboiler i. considered the equivalent of one theoretical step. With a partial instead
of a total condenser, a second theoretical step also could have been deducted.
(5) Number of Actual Fractionating Plates
To predict the number of actual plates it is necessary to determine the average
viscosity of the liquid on the plates. Since the temperature difference between the
top and bottom of the tower is so small, the average viscosity may be taken as
the viscosity at the average temperature. For this purpose the viscosity of butane
at 150°F will be used.
Viscosity of C.H IO @ 150°F = 0.216 cs "" 0.216 X 0.523 = 0.113 cp
Fluidity = 1/0.113 = 8.9 Cp-l j Plate efficiency = 99%
Using a plate efficiency of 99% the number of actual plates is computed for
various reflux ratios:
OlD S Theoretical Steps Actual Plates

4.83 ., ., .,
5.25 61.3 60.3 60.9
5.75 52.7 51.7 52.2
6.50 46.0 45.0 45.5
7.50 41.3 40.3 40.7
., 25.8 24.8 25.0
The number of actual plates is plotted against reflux ratio in Figure 1.

A reflux ratio of 6.50 to 1, or 1.35 times the minimum, is selected. The number
of actual plates corresponding to this reflux ratio is 45.5 so that a 50-plate tower
would be required.
(6) Location of the Feed Plate
The number of plates above the feed is based on the proportion of theoretical
steps at total reflux which would be required to effect the change in concentration
of the key components between the feed and distillate. This proportion is applied
to the actual number of plates (including the reboiler) to determine the number
above the feed plate.
In order to take into account any appreciable difference in relative volatility
above and below the feed, the relative volatility used for calculating the steps at
total reflux between feed and distillate is the geometric mean of aD and a" or,
1.155 1.15)~i
an =( 0.97 X 0.97 = 1.19
The number of total reflux steps which would be required between the feed
and distillate is calculated by the following equation:
l8.78) (~) = 1.19n = 5.79' n = 10.1

( 20 1.62 '
FRACTIO ATING TOWERS 241
50
40
30
4 5 6 7 8
FIGUllE 1
Number of actual plates above the feed would then be:
10.1 (50 + 1) = 20
25.8
The vaporization of the feed can be taken into account by adding the fraction
vaporized to n since 10010 vaporization would be equivalent to a theoretical step
at total reflux. This would change the proportion of plates above the feed as
follows:
10.1 +
• 0.75) ( +)
00" I
1 = 21.4 pates above the feed
( 20.8
Feed lines would probably be installed above the 2'!th, the 28th and 32nd
plates from tile bottom of the tower.
GENERAL REFERENCES
Atkins and Franklin, Refiner Natural Gasoline Mfgr. (Jan. 1936).
Brown, Sanders, Nyland and Hesler, Ind. Eng. Chem. 27, 383 (1935).
Brown and Souders, Oil and Gas J. 31, 34 (1932).
Chilton llnd Colburn, Trans. Am. Inst. Chern. Engrs. 26, 178 (1931).
Elgin and Weiss, Ind. Eng. Chem. 31, 435 (1939).
Fenske, Lawroski llnd Tongberg, Ind. Eng. Chern. 30, 227 (1938).
Fenske, Unpublished data, Pennsylvania State College.
Gilliland, Ind. Eng. Chent. 32, 918, 1101, 1220 (1940).
Gunness, Ind. Eng. Chern. 29, 1092 (1937).
Lewis and Wilde, Trans. Am. Inst. Chern. Engrs. 21, 99 (1928).
Perry, "Chemical Engineers' Handbook," pp. 829-832, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,
N.Y. (1941).
Sherwood, Shipley and Holloway, Ind. Eng. Chem. 30, 765 (1938).
White, Tram. Am. Imt. Chem. Engrs. 31, 390 (1935).
.vomenclature
X moles of any component in distillate or bottoms per 100 moles of feed
x mole fraction of any component in liquid
y mole fraction of any component in vapor
D moles of distillate per 100 moles of feed
o moles of reflux per 100 moles of feed
OlD reflux ratio
(OIDhl minimum reflux ratio corresponding to S = 00
S number of steps from still to distillate
8,1/ minimum number of steps corresponding to OlD = 00
P number of theoretical plates; with a partial reboiler and partial con-
denser, P = S - 2, and with a partial reboiler and total condenser,
P=S-l
ratio of mole fraction of any light component to heavy key component
in the feed
ZH ratio of mole fraction of light key component to any heavy component
in feed
aD relative volatility of any component to heavy key at the dew point of
the distillate
alV relative volatility of any component at the bubble point of the bottoms
relative volatility of any component at the arithmetic average tempera-
ture of the dew point of the distillate and the bubble point of the
bottoms
mean relative volatility of any component, (aD' alV . a.4)fi
LK used as a subscript to refer to the light key component
HK used as a subscript to refer to the heavy key component
L used as a subscript to refer to any light component
H used as a subscript to refer to any heavy component
D used as a subscript to refer to the distillate
W used as a subscript to refer to the bottoms
n used as a subscript to refer to the plates above the feed
m used as a subscript to refer to the plates below the feed
1IIIriCORRELATION OF THEORETICAL
STEPS WITH REFLUX RATIO
MULTICOMPONENT AND BINARY MIXTURES
.9
.8
.6
.5
.4
.3
.2
.1
244
OVERALL PLATE EFFICIENCY vs.
FLUIDITY OF LIQUID ON PLATES
120
1.11111 120
110
100 100
90 90
80· 80
70 70
ONLY DATA 00 HYDROCARBON MIXTURES WERE
USED IN THIS CffiRELATION, AND THERE WERE
60 INSUFFICIENT DATA ON OTHER TYPES TO JUS- 60
TIFY A MORE GENERAL USE. HOWEVER, THERE
40_
WERE SOME EVIDENCE THAT THE CURVE IS A
50 50
LITTLE CONSERVATIVE FOR ALCOHOL - WATER
MIXTURES.
40
30
: :• •ll!IIflE:IJffi 20
10
_ _ _ _ _ '0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14
245
2 3 45678910 20 30
.:_. :t';
HEIGHT EQUIVALENT
TO A THEORETICAL PLATE
4a!f11i1
(I) WHILE THIS CORRELATION WAS DE'

VELOPED fROM DATA ON RASHIG
RINGS AND 8ERL SADDLES, IT PR08-
ABLY APPLIES TO OTHER SIMILAR
TYPES OF HOLLOW PACKING.
(2) VALUES OF H.E.lP. FROM THIS CHART
CORRESPOND TO THE MAXIMUM TOWER
CAPACITIES GIVEN BY THE CHART ON
THE OPPOSITE PAGE. FOR THE VALUES
OF HE.T.P. AT CAPACITIES BETWEEN 80%
AND 100% OF THE MAXIMUM, DIVIDE
H.E.T.P. FROM CURVES BY THE FRACTION
OF ULTIMATE CAPACITY (.80-1.00) AT
WHICH THE TOWER WILL OPERATE.
mIR~12ioll~3IoI14~oll~ 60 7'08090 I
•
246
·1
~-d
* USE VALUES OF S/F 3 FROM CUR\IE
FOR RASCHIG RINGS. BERL SADDLES
W PACKING UP 10
.2
2 INOiES IN SIZE. FOR SIZES GREAT-
.,.,, ER'THAN 2 INCHES, USE INDIVIDUAL
~li
VALUES OF SAND F.
.1 lilt! 1) r r 1111 I 1 I ltllllltltrTl1111
1000
'r-
~ ;~':+fTo"", . 800
.08 jj ,I';r.j
.06 600
. e:l3 ~~i:-:'l:::.Jx·
.....···'11:;::;:1-0-
.05 .f+ "t~ ""'-:1=
500
.04 ••I"4T'
·r.... '· ....
tI 400
~
~ =
'J="~J';+:
-j:,l
300
r, rt~'·-I--t"""'
'it " .200

SUPERFICIAL MASS vaoCITY OF VAPOR-L8SISEC/SO.FT. m.
f"'";
L- .. • n "llOUIO- "
80 - reNSlTY OF VAPOR - LeS/CU· FT.
100
8L - .. fl L1QUIO- "
+
"'. 'n
Uo-SUPERFICIAL VAPOR VELOCITY AT INITIAL FLOODING-FT/SEC. 80
S*-SURFACE AREA OF PACKING- SO. FT./CU.FT. TOWER VOLUME
60
F*-F'RACTION OF FREE VOLUME IN PACKING
.M -VISCOSITY OF LIQUID - CENTIPOISES
9 -GRAVITY CONSTANT-32.2 FT./SEC~
.002,
- ...
SHERWOOu
_......
~MlrLEY
..mI·;,·;:; I ;'i-;t:;:-..J:,
AND HOLLOWAY. IND . ENG. DiEM. 30. 765 (1930)
~
rF!¥:tJ~ lii r:'~
•., !
."
·/+l!;I"·'
I' I .,
001
.01 .OZ .03.04 .06 .08 .fO .2 .3 .4.5.6.7.8.910 2 3
· ~
AP/H <KFLA· 15 eo· 85 uI.85

DL50
.,I( < VISCOSITY OF VAPOR - CENT'POISES
eo < DENSITY OF VAPOR - LBS.lCU. FT.
U 'VAPOR VELOCITY - FT.lSEC.
o < SIZE OF PACKING - INCHES
FL "LIQUID RATE FACTOR
K <1.25 FOR BERL SADDLES
<I. 75 FOR RASCHIG RINGS
_1lI4.0
o
1.5
1.0
1 20
248
CONVERSION FACTORS
TEMPERATURE
To Convert
From To °C OF OR ox:
°e . 1.8(OC) + 32 1.8(OC) + 459.7 °C + 273.2
OF . (OF - 32)/1.8 of + 459.7 (OF + 459.7)1.8
oR . (OR - 491.7) /1.8 OR - 459.7 °R/1.8
oK . oK - 273.2 1.8("K) - 459.7
LENGTH
To Convert
From To Cm Meters Inches Feet
Multiply By
Centimeters . 1.000 0.0100 0.3937 0.03281
Meters __ 100.0 1.000 :19.37 3.281
Inches .......................•......•.. 2.540 0.0254 1.000 0.08333
Feet.............•......•.............. 30.48 0.3048 12.00 1.000
AREA
To Convert
From To Sqem Sq m Sq in. Sq ft
M ullilJ/Y by
Sq em ......................•. 1.000 1.000 X10- 4 O. J550 1.076 XI0- 1
·.0 Sqm . 10,000 1.000 1,550 10.76
Sq in . 6.451 6.451 XIO- 4 1.000 6.944 X10-1
Sq ft. ............•........... 929.0 0.09290 144.0 1.000
VOLUME
To Convert
:0 From To Cu in. Cu ft US gal Imp g&~ eu em Liters Dbl (42's)
l>h,/liply by
5 Cu in 1.000 5.787 X 10- 4 4.329 X 10-3 3.607 X10-3 16.39 0.01639 1.031 XIO-4
Cu ft. 1,728 1.000 7.481 6.232 2.832XI0 4 28.32 0.1781'
US gal 231.0 0.1337 1.000 0.8326 3,785 3.785 0.02381
Imp gal. .. 277.3 0.160.~ 1.200 1.000 4,543 4.54a 0.02857
.0
o Cu em 0.06102 3.531 XIO-' 2.642 X 10- 4 2.201 XIO- 4 1.000 1.000 X 10-3 6.290XIO-&
Liters 61.02 0.03531. 0.2642 0.2201 1,000 1.000 6.290 X 10- 1
Bbl (42'S). 9,700 5.614 42.00 34.97 1.590XIO' 159.0 1.000
FORCE
To Convert
From To Poundals Pounds Dynes Grams
Multiply by
Poundals . 1.000 0.03108 I a,830 14.10
Pounds . 32.17 1.000 4.448 X 10' 453.6
Dynes . 7.233XltJ' 2.248 X10-' 1.000 1.020XltJ"
Grams . 0.07093 2.205 X 10-3 980.7 1.000
249
DENSITY
To Convert
From To Sp gr Lo/gal Lb/eu ft
Multiply by
Sp gr . 1.000 8.3'17 62.43
Lb/gal. . 0.1108 1.000 7.481
Lb/eu ft . 0.01602 0.1337 1.000
PRESSURE
To Convert
In. of Mmof Ftof H,O
From To Lb/sq in. Lb/sq ft AIm Kg/sq em Hg Hg (60°F)
Multiply by
Lb/sq in... 1.000 144.0 0.06804 0.07031 2.036 51.70 2.307
Lb/sq ft ... 6.944 X10-3 1.000 4.726XIo-' 4.882 XIO-' 0.01414 0.3592 0.01602
Atm ....... 14.70 2,116 1.000 1.033 29.92 760.0 33.90
Kg/sq em .. 14.22 2,048 0.9678 1.000 28.96 735.5 32.81
In. of Hg .. 0.4912 70.73 0.03342 0.03453 1.000 25.40 1.133
Mm of Hg 0.01934 2.785 1.316 XlO- 3 1.360 X10- 3 0.03937 1.000 0.04461
Ft of H,O 0.4335 62.43 0.02950 0.03048 0.8826 22.41 1.000
(60°F)
RATE OF FLOW
To Convert
Liters Gal Gal Cu ft Cu ft Cu ft Bbl Bbl
From To per sec per min
per sec per min per hr perhr per hr per day
M,diiply by
Liters/sec 1.000 15.85 951.2 0.03532 2.110 127.1 22.66 543.8
Gal/min. 0.06308 1.000 60.00 2.228XIO- 3 0.1337 8.010 1.429 34.30
Gal/hr .. 1.052XI0-3 0.Ol667 1.000 3.713XIO-' 2.228 X 10-3 0.1337 0.02382 0.5716
Cuft/see 28.30 448.9 2.693 XlO' 1.000 60.00 3,600 641.1 1.538 XIO'
Cuft/min 0.4717 7.481 448.9 0.01667 1.000 60.00 10.69 256.5
Cu ft/hr. 7.862 X 10- 3 0.1246 7.481 2.778 X 10-' 0.01667 1.000 0.1781 4.272
Bbl/hr .. 0.04415 0.6997 42.00 1.560 X 10- 3 0.09359 5.615 1.000 24.00
Bbl/day. 1.840XlO- 3 0.02917 1.750 6.498XlO-' 3.899XIO- 3 0.2340 0.04167 1.000
ENERGY. HEAT. AND WORK

To Convert
From To BTU Gm-cal Ft-Ib Hp-hr Kw-hr
Multiply by
BTU ........... 1.000 252.0 777.5 3.928 X10-' 2.928 Xio-'
Gm-eal ......... 3.968XlO- 3 1.000 3.086 1.558 X 10-' 1.162 Xio-'
Ft-lb ........... 1.286 X 10-3 0.3241 1.000 5.050 X 10-' 3.767 Xio-'
Hp-hr.......... 2,547 6.417XIO' 1.980 XI0' 1.000 0.7457
Kw-hr ......... 3,415 8.605XIO' 2.655XIO' 1.341 1.000
CONVERSION FACTORS 251
POWER
To Convert
BTU Ft-Ib Ft-Ib Kg-cal G-cal Tons of
From To per hr per min per sec Hp Kw per sec per sec refrig
Multiply by
BTU/hr .. 1.000 12.96 0.2160 3.928X1O-' 2.92SX10-' 6.999X1O- 5 0.06999 8.333X1o-'
Ft-Ib/min 0.07715 1.000 0.01667 3.033X1O- 5 2.260X1O-' 5.402X10-· 5.402X1O-' 6.431X1O-'
Ft-Ib/sec 4.630 60.00 1.000 1.820X1o-' 1.356X10- 3 3.241 X 10-' 0.3241 3.858X1O-'
Hp...... 2,547 33,000 550.0 1.000 0.7457 0.1782 178.2 0.2122
Kw. . . . .. 3,415 44,250 737.6 1.341 1.000 0.2390 239.0 0.2845
Kg-cal/sec 1.428X10' 1.851 X10 5 3,086 5.610 4.183 1.000 1,000 1.191
G-cal/sec 14.28 185.1 3.086 5.610 X10-3 4.183 X 10-3 0.0010 1.000 1.191 X1o-"
Tons of 1.2ooX10' 1.555X10 5 2,592 4.712 3.514 0.8400 840.0 1.000
refrig
INDEX
Acetylenes, physical constants of, 4 Butadiene-1,3, relative volatility of, 65
Activity cOF!'f5cien~J 48 spccific gmvity of the saturated liquid,
for light h)-d:ocubons b absorber oils, 67 141
Adiabatic comp;'0mion of gases, 82-87 v::.por pressure of, 36
Air, enthalp:i of, 182-183 Butane, enthalpy of, 101
specific }'ea.t cf, 88 fugacity function of, 55
t,hermal conductivity of, 216 latent heat of vaporization of, 94-95
viscosity of, 176 Mollier diagram for, 135
Alcohols, physical constants of, 6 physical constants of, 2
Aldehydes, physical constants of, 7 relative volatility of C. hydrocarbons to,
Amagat's l,fr", 136-137 65-66
Area, conversion table for, 249 specific gravity of the saturated liquid,
Aromati~s (see al~o individual compounds) 140
physicai constants of, 5 specific heat of vapor, 89
specific gravity of saturated liquids, 142 vapor pressure of, 30
vapor pressure of Cs, 38 viscosity of, 161
viscosity of liquid, 162 Butene-I, enthalpy of, 110
A,S.T.M. distillation of petrolcum fractions, physical constants of, 3
11 relative volatility of, 65
average boiling points frOID, 15 specific gravity of the saturated liquid,
equilibrium flash vaporir.ation curve 141
from, 223, 228·-229 specific heat of vapor, 89
Avcrage boiling point3 of petrolcum frac- vapor pressurc of, 30
tions, 10-15 Butene-2, cis- and trans-, enthalpy of, 111
from crude ass"y (T,B.P,) distilhtions, physical constants of, 3
11 relative volatility of, 65
from 10% (or A.S.T.M.) distillations, i5 specific gravity of the satur:l.ted liquid,
141
Benzene, enthalpy of, 112 I specific heat of vapor, 89
latent heat of vaoorization of, 77 vapor pressure of, 30
physical constants of, 5
specific gravity of the satnrated liql\id. Capacity of packed towers, 247
1·12 Carbon dioxide, enthalpy of, 182-183
vapor ?ressure of, 37 physical constants of, 9
viscosity of, Ift2 specific heat of, 88
Berl saddles. 246-248 ·~b.ermn.l conductivity of, 216
Blending index, viscosity, 156, 173 viscosity of, 176
Boiling point, of hydrocarbons, 2-5 Cnrbon monoxide, enthalpy of, 182-183
of miscellaneous gases, 9 physical constants of, 9
of miscellaneous organic compounds, 6-7 specific heat of, 88
of petroieum fractiallS, cubic average, 11 thermal conductivity oi, 216
menu avern.ge, 10, 1<1-15 viscosity of, 176
molal average, 10, 14-15 Chn.racterization factor, definition, 12
proper average for correlating physical from gravity and boiling point, 16
data, 10 of typical crude fractions, 12, 17
volume average, 10-11 Columns (see Fractionating towers)
weight average, 10, 14-15 Combustion (see also Flue gas)
Bubble-cap towers (see also Fractionating heat of, fuel oils, 178, 180
towers) hydrocarbons, 2-5
overall plate efficiency, 233, 245 miscellaneous gases, 9
Butadiene-1,3, physical constants of, 3 miscellaneous organic compounds, 0-7
253
254 INDEX
Combustion, heat of, paraffin and olefin Crude fractions, classification of various, 13
gases, 178, 181 typical, characteriz:Ltion factor of, 12, 17
petroleum fractions, 178, 180 gravity, °A.P.I., 1:·
refinery gases, 178-179 molecular weight of, 22-23
heat available from, fuel oils, 186-188 viscosity index of lube fractions of, 12
refincry gases, 184-185 Cubic average boiling of petroleum frac-
Compressibility, of gases (see P-V-T re- tions, 11
lations) Cyclohexane, physical constants of, 5
of liquid petroleum fractions, 136, 143- vapor pressure of, 39
147 Cycloparaffins (see also individu:Ll com-
Compression, adiabatic, 82-87 pounds)
Conductivity, thermal (see Thermal con- physical constants of, 5
ductivity) vapor pressure of, 39
Constants, physical (see Physical constants) Cyclopent:Lne, physical constants of, 5
Contraction, friction loss in pipes uue to, vapor preSSlll'e of, 39
204
Convection, heat 10SR by natural. 210 Dalton's L:Lw, 45, 136
Conversion, of °A.1'.I. to specific gravity Density (s('e also Specific gravity)
and pounds per I';allon, 138-139 conversion table for, 250
of °Engler to kinematic viscosi ty, 159 nitieal, hydrocarbons, 2-5
of Redwood seconus to kinematic vis- miscellaneous gases, 9
cosity, 15X miscell:Lneous oq;anic compounds, 6-7
of Saybolt Furol seconus to kineml\tic Dimethylacetylene, physical const:Lnts of, 4
viscosity, 15~-159 vapor pressure of, 36
of Saybolt Thermo viscosity to kine- Diolefins (-,ee also individual compounds)
lIultie viscosity, J 60 physical constants of, 3-4
of Saybolt Lniversal seconds to kine- specific 1\1'lwity of satumted liquids, 141
matic viscosity, 15X Distillation (see A.S.T.M., Crude assay,
tables [or, area, 2'19 lind Tme boiling point distillations)
density, 250
energy, heat, anel work, 250 Efficiency of bubble-cap towers, 233, 245
force (weight), 249 Emissivity, radiant heat coefficients of, 209
lenl\th, 249 Energy, conversion table for, 250
power, 251 En~lel', degrees, conversion to kinematic
pressure, 250 visco!$ity, 159
rate of flow, 250 Elliargement, friction loss in p;pes due to,
temperatlll'e, 249 201
volume, 249 Enthalpy of, :IiI', 182-183
Critical pressul'C, of hydrocarbons, 2-5, 74 benzene, I 12
of miscellaneous gases, 9 butane, 101
of miscellaneous organic compounds, 6-7 butene-I, 110
of normal paraffins, 71 butene-2, cis- and tl'ans-, III
pseudo-, of light hydrocarbon mixtllres, ethane, 99
71 ethylene, 10~
of petroleum frael-ions, 73 flue gas components, CO" CO, T, etc.,
true, of pet.roleulll fractions, 74 182-183
Critical telllpemture, of hydrocarbons. 2-5, heptane, 104
69-70 hexane, 103
of light hydrocarbons, 70 hydrocarbon vapors, eh:Lnge with pres-
of miscellaneous gases, 9 sure, 92
of mis('ellaneous organic compounds, 6-7 isobutane, 106
of petroleum fractions, 72 isobutene, 110
Crude assay distillation, definition, 1, isopentane, 107
average boiling points of petroleum frac- methane, 98
tions from, 14 mixtures of light hydrocarbons, 78
equilibrium flash vaporization curve pentane, 102
from, 223-229 petroleum fractions, 80-82, 114-127
INDEX 255
Enthalpy of, propane, 100 Fractionating towcrs (see also Fractiona-

propylene, 109 tion)
toluene, 113 bubble cap, overall efficiency of, 233, 245
Entropy (see ;\10Ilier diagrams) optimum feed plate, 234
Equilibrium flash vaporization, of known packed, capacity of, 247
mixtures, 222 H.E.T.P., 2·16
of pctroleum fractions, 222-229 prcssurc drop in, 248
Ethanc, cnthalpy of, 99 Fractionation, minimum reflux ratio, 231-
fugacity function of, 51 233
latent heat of vaporization of, 94-95 minimum theoretical steps (Fenske equa-
MollieI' diagram for, 131 tion), 230-231
physical constants of, 2 theoretical steps and reflux ratio, cor-
specific gravity of the saturated liquid, relation of, 244
140 Francis formula for rectangular weirs,
specific heat of vapor, 89 205
vapor pressurc of, 28 Friction factor, for flow of fluids in pipes,
Ethers, physical constants of, 7 193, 198
Ethylacetylcne, physical constants of, 4 Fuel oils, heat available from combustion
vapor pressure of, 36 of, 186-188
Ethylene, cnthalpy of, 108 heat of combustion of, 178, 180
fugacity function of, 50 Fugacity, of hydrocltJ'bon vapors, 62-63
latcnt hcat of vaporization of, 94-95 of light hydrocarbons in absorber oils,
Mollicr diagram for, 130 activity cocfficient, 67
physical constants of, 3 function of, butane, 55
specific gravity of the saturated liquid, ethanc, 51
141 ethylcnc, 50
specific heat of vapor, 89 heptaue, 59
vapor prcssure of, 28 hexane, 58
hydrogcn, 61
Feed pbtc, optimum, fractionating towers, isobutanc, 54
234 isopcntanc, 56
Fenske cquation, mllumum theoretical mcthane, 49
steps at total reflux, 230 octane, 60
Fittings, equivalent lengths of, 193-194, pentane, 57
202-203 propane, 53
Flash vaporization, equilibrium, of known propylene, 52
mixtures, 222 .
of petrolcum fractions, 222-229 Gas(es) (see also Fine gas, Refinery gas,
Flow of fluids, across wcirs, discharge and individual compounds)
characteristics, 205 miscellancous, enthalpy of, 182-183
friction factor for, 193, 198 physical constants of, 9
friction loss, contraction and enlarge- spccific hcat of, 88
ment, 204 thermal conductivity of, 216
pressurc drop across tubc banks, 206 viscosi ty of, 176
streamlinc, prcssure drop in pipes, 198 Gasolines, vapor prcssure of, 44
turbulent, equivalent Icngths of fittings, Glycols, physical constants of, 6-7
202-203 Gravity, convcrsion from °A.P.I. to specific
friction factor for, 193, 198 gravity and pounds per gallon, 138-
pressurc drop in pipes, 193, 198-201 139
Flow of hcat (sec Heat tmnsfer) of typical crude fractions, 18
Flue gas, components, enthalpy of, 182- specific (sec Specific gravity)
183
percent CO, in, 189 Heat, available from combustion (see Com.
pounds per pound of fuel, 190 bustion)
thcrmal conductivity of, 192 capacity (see Spccific heat)
viscosity of, 191 content (see Enthalpy) .,
Force, convcrsion table for, 249 latent (see Latent heat of vap0rlZatlon)
256 INDEX
Heat, loss, by no.tural convcction, 210 Isopen~ane, rel'!'tive volatility of, 66

by radiation, 209 speCific gravIty of the saturated liquid
transfer, to fluids insidc tubes, 211 140 '
to fluids outside tubes, 212 vapor pressure of, 31
Height equivalent to tI theoret,ir.otl phte,
p:teked towers, 24(J Ketones, physical constants of, 7
Heptane, enthalpy of, 10·1 Kinematic viscosity, blending index Irom,
latent hetlt of vaporization of, 94-95 conversioll to, 15.1-156, 158--160
physical constants of, 2 definition of, 155
specific gravity of the saturated liquid, temperature charts, 166-167
140
specific heat of vapor, 89 Latent heat of vtlporization, 76-77
vapor pressure of, 33 of hydrocarbons, 76-77
viscosity of, 161 of low boiling hydrocarbons, 94-95
Hydroe:lrbon(s) (see also individual com- of miscellaneous organic compounds, 6-7
pounds an,l Arom"tics, Olefins, etc.) of p"raffin hydroc:lrbons, 96-97
critic"l temperature of, 69 of petroleum fractions, 76-77
light, eritic"l temperature of, 70 Length, conversion t"ble fur, 249
latent heat of vaporization of, 94-95 Log:lrithmie mean temperature diO'erence,
liquids, specific heat of, 93 208, 217
physical constants of, 2-5 correction fotctors for lllulti-pas.~ ex-
vapors, chauge in enthalpy with pressure, ch:lngers, 208, 218-221
92
fugacity of, 62-63 Mean average boiling point, of pet,roleum
P-Y-T relations of, 136-137, 148- fractions, 10-11, 14-15
154 Melting point, of hydroc:lrbons, 2-;;
specific hcat of, 89, 91 of inisr.ell,meous gases, 9
vapor IJre8sure of, 40 -·12 of miscelbncous organic compounds,
Hydrogen, fugacity function of, 61 6-7
physical constants of, 9 Methane, enth:llpy of, 98
specific heat of, 88 fugacity function of, 49
thermal conductivity of, 216 latent he:lt of v:lporiz:ltion or, U1-95
viscosi ty of, 176 MollieI' diagrams for, 128-129
physic:ll constants of, 2
Isobutane, enthoJpy of, 106 specific gravity of thc satnrated liquid,
latent heat of vaporization of, 94-95 specific heat of vapor, 89
physical constants of, 2 V:lpor pressure of, 27
relative volatility of, 66 Methy1:lcetylene, physical coustllnts of, 4
specific gravity of the saturated liquid, v:lpor pressure of, 35
140 Methylcyclopentane, physical cOIl.;tants of,
vapor pressure of, 30 5
Isobutene, cnth:llpy of, 110 vapor pressure of, 39
physical constants of, 3 Minimum, reflux ratio, 231.-233
relative volatility of, 65 theoretical fmctionating steps, 230-231
specific gravity of the satur:lted liquid, Molal avemge boiling point, of petroleum
141 fractions, 10-11, 14-15
specific heat of vapor, 89 Molecular weight (see also Physical con-
vapor pressure of, 30 stants)
Isoparaffins (see also individual compounds) of p:lraffins, 20
molecular weight of, 20 of petroleum fractions, 21
physical constants of, 2-3 of typical crude fractions, 22-23
Isopenlane, enthalpy of, 107 Mollicr diagram (s) for, butane, 135
fugacity function of, 56 ethane, 131
lat~nt heat of vaporization of, 94-95 ethylene, 130
pbysical constants of, 2 methane, 128-129
•
INDEX 257
Momer diallram(s) for, propane, 133-134 Pentane, fugacity function of, 57
propylene, 132, 134 latent heat of vaporizntion of, 94-95
phYSICal constants of, 2
Natural convection, heat loss to atmosphere specific gravity of the snturated liquid,
by, 210 140
Nitrogen, enthalpy of, 182-183 specific heat of vapor, 89
physical constants of, 9 vapor pressure of, 31
specific heat of, 88 viscosity of, 161
thcrmal conductivity of, 216 Petroleum fractions (sce also Crnde frac-
viscosity of, 176 tions and Hydrocarbons)
average boiling points of, 10-11, 14-15
Octane, enthalpy of, 105 critical temperature of, 72
fugacity function of, 60 enthalpy of, 80-82, 11'1-127
latent hcnt of vaporization of, 94-95 equilibrium 11,,"h vaporizntion of, 222-229
physical constants of, 2 hent of combustion of, 178, 180
specific gravity of the saturated liquid, Intent heat of vaporization of, 76-77
140 liquid, thermal conductivity of, 213
specific hcat of vapor, 89 thermal ~xp:lllsion of, 136, 143-147
vapor pressure of, 34 pseudo-critical pressure of, 73
viscosity of, 161 pseudo-critical temperntuI'C nf, 72
Oil(s) (sec also Crude fractions and Petro- viscosit.y-temperature charts for, 166-167
leum fractions) Physicnl conRt'lnts of (sec also individual
fuel, heat "vailable from combustion of, compounds)
186-1 8 acetylenes, ,1
hent of combustion of, 180 alcohols, 6
lube, viscosity index of, 156, 168-172 aillehydes, 7
Olefins (sec also Hydrocarbons and indi- aromatics, 5
vidunl compounds) cycloparaffins, 5
critical temperature of, 69 diolefins, 3-4
hent of combustion of, 181 ethers, 7
physical constants of, 3 glycols, 6-7
specific gravity of, 141 isoparaffins, 2-3
Olefins-acetylenes, physical constants of, ketones, 7
4-5 normal paraflins, 2
Optimum fccd point, fractionating towers, olefins, 3
234 ' olcfins-ncetylcucs, 4-5
Organic compounds, miscellaneous, physi- Pipe, steel, dimCllBions of, 202
cal constants of, 6-7 Plate efficiency of buhble-cap towers, 233,
Oxygen, enthalpy of, 182-183 245
physical contitants of, 9 Power, conversion tahle for, 251
specific hent of, 88 Pressure, conversion tahle for, 250
thermal conductivity of, 216 critieat ('Pc Critic,d pres"ul'e)
viscosity of, 176 drop, across tube hanks, 206
due to fittings, 202
Packed towers (see Fractionating towers, for streamline flow in pipes, 198
packed) for turbulent flow in pipes, 198-201
Paraffins (sec also Hydrocarbons and indi- in commercial pipr.s, 193, 199-201
vidual compouuds) effect of, on enthalpy of hydrocarbon
critical tcmperature of, 69 vapors, 92
heat of combustiou of, lSI on viscosity of gases, 177
molecular weight of, 20 vapor (sec "apor.pressure)
normal, critical pressure of, 71 Pl'Opadiene, physical constants of, 3
latent heat of vaporization of, 96-97 specific gravity of the saturated liquid,
viscosity of, 16! 141
physical constants of, 2-3 vapor pressure of, 35
specific gravity of, 140 Propane, enthalpy of, 100
Pentane, enthalpy of, 102 fugacity function of, 53
258 INDEX
Propane, latent heat of vaporization of, 94- Saybolt, seconds Universal, conversion to
95 kinematic viscosity, 158
MollieI' diagrams for, 133-134 Thermo viscosity, conversion to kine-
physical constants of, 2 matic viscosity, 160
specific gravity of the saturated liquid, 140 Specific gravity, conversion from 0 \ PI
specific heat of vapor, 89 138-139 , .. "
vapor pressure of, 29 conversion to density, 250
viscosity of, 161 of aromatics, 5, 142
Propylene, enthalpy of, 109 of diolefins, 3-4, 141
fugacity function of, 52 of hydrocarbons, miscellaneous gases and
latent heat of vaporization of, 94-95 organic compounds, 2-9
Mollier diagrams for, 132, 134 of olefins, 3, 141
physical constants of, 3 of paraffins, 2-3, 140
relative volatility of, 64 Specific heat of, crude fmction vapors, 90
specific gravity of the satumted liquid, hydrocarbon liquids, 93
141 hydrocarbon and petroleum fraction
specific heat of vapor, 89 vapors, 91
vapor pressure of, 29 light hydrocarbon vapors, 89
Pseudo-critical pressure, 68 miscellaneous gases, 88
of mixtures of light hydrocarbons, 71 Steam, enthalpy of, 182-183
of petroleum fractions, 73 specific heat of, 88
Pseudo-critical tempemture, 68 thermal conductivity of, 216
of mixtures of light hydrocarbons, 70 viscosity of, 176
of petroleum fractions, 72 Steel pipe, dimensions of, 202
P-V-T rel:,tions of, hydrocarbon vapors, Streamline flow of fluids, pressure drop in
136-137, 148-154 pipes, 198
mixtures of gases, 137
Temperature, conversion table for, 249
R, gas constant, numerical values of, 137 Theoretical stops, fractionating towers, 230,
Radiation, heat loss by, 209 233, 244
Raoult's Law, 45 Thermal conductivity of, flue gas, 192
Raschig rings, 246-248 hydrocarbon gases, 215
Rate of flow, conversion table for, 250 liquid petroleum fractions, 213
Rectification (see Fractionation) miscellaneous gases, 216
Redwood viscosity, conversion to kinematic water, 214
viscosity, 158 Thermal expansion of liquid petroleum
Refinery gas, heat available from combus- fractions, 136, 143-147
tion of, 184-185 Tolnene, enthalpy of, 113
heat of combustion of, 178-179 physical constants of, 5
Reflux ratio (scc Fractionation) specific gravity of the saturated liquid, 142
Reid vapol' pressure, conversion to true vnpor pre"sure of, 37
vapor pressure, 4-1 viscosity of, 162
Relative volatility of, C, hydrocarbons, Towers (.,cc Fractionating towers)
65-66 Tme boiling point distillation (<ee Crude
ethylene-ethane, 64 assay distillation)
isopentane-pentane, 66 Tube banks, heat tmnsfer film coefficients,
propylene-propane, 64 212
Reynold's number, e01'l'ection for equivalent pressure drop ncross, 206
lenl-(th of fittings from, 203 Turbulent flow of fluids (see Flow of fluids,
friction factor from, inside pipes, 198 turbulent)
across tube banks, 206
heat trnnsfer film coefficient from, inside Units, conversion of (see Conversion, tables
tubes, 211 for)
across tube banks, 212
Valves, equivalent lengths of, 202
Saybolt, seconds Furol, conversion to kine- Vapor pressure of, benzene, 37
matic viscosity, 158-159 bu tadiene-I ,3, 36
•
INDEX 259
Vinylacetylene, physical consta nts of,

Vapor pressure or. butane, 10
butene -I, 30 4
butene-2, cis- nnd trans-, 30 vapor pressure or, 36
cyclohexane, 39 Viscosity, or aromatics, 162
cyclopentane, 39 of California crude fractions, 165
dimethylacetylene, 36 conversion of (see Conversion)
ethane, 28 or flue gas, 191
ethylacetylen~, 36 of gases at high pressures, 177
ethyl benzene, 38 of hydroc arbon vapors, 174-175
ethylene, 28 of Mid-C ontine nt oils, 164
gasolines, 44 of miscellaneous gasf's, 176
heptane, 33 of normal paraffins, 161
hexane, 32 of Pennsy lvania crude fractions, 163
hydrocarbons, 40-42 Viscosity blending index, 156, 173
isobutane, 30 Viscosity index of lube oils, 156, 168-
isobutene, 30 172
isopentane, 31 Viscosity-Temperature charts, 166-167
methane, 27 Volume, conversion table for, 249
methylacetylene, 35
methylcyclopentane, 39 Water therma l conduc tivity ot, 214
octane, 34 Weight, average boiling point of petroleum
pentane, 31 fractions, 10-11, 14-15
propadicne, 35 conversion table for, 249
propane, 29 Weirs dischal'i~e characteristics of, 205
propylene, 29 Work; converSIOn tables for, 250
toluene, 37
vinylncetylene, 36 Xylenes, ]lhysi~al consta nts of, 5
xylene s,38 specific grltvlty of the satura ted liquid,
Vaporizatiun, eqnilibrium flash (see Equi- 142
librium flash vaporization) vapor pressure of, 38
latent he:lt of (see Latent heat of vapor- viscosity of, 162
izatiun)

Data Book On Hydrocarbons PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Data Book On Hydrocarbons PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DATA BOOK ON

ROBERT E. KRIEGER PUBLISHING COMPANY

Printed and Published by

All rights reserved. No reproduction in any form

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Reprint of the 9th printing published in 1968 by Van

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF PETROLEUM FRACTIONS... . . . . . . . .. 10

3. MOLECULAR WEIGHT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. ... ... . . . . . . . . . 19

CONVERSIOX FACTORS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 249

C,H" 72.1 49.0 + 2.1

Pentanone-2 (Methyl Propyl

* Calculated or estimated with a probable accuracy of ±2%. "'-J

Nitrogen ............ N2 28.0 -320.5 -346.0 - - - -232.8 33.5 .31 - -

Oxygen ............. Oz 32.0 -297.4 -362.0 - - - -181. 9 49.7 .43 - -

Weight average True critical temperature

Molal average Pseudo-critical temperature

Mean average Molecular weight

Since a distillation curve is usually available and a volume average boiling

Characterization Factor = yt T B/Sp Gr

Characterization factor is given on page 16 as a function of gravity in °API

Typical Crude Fractions

Characterization Viscosity Index of

lS See page 156.

West Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. III III

i:J...~t-L_; of i....... .ly.......H-t~.

FOR WHOLE CRUDES:

VS BOILING POINT AND GRAVITY

12.6 , . :i '. >-

GRAVITY ~ BOILING POINT

50 IHB111lHlIIII1l1l1J 1111 II tlHIIJIlJI IlIllIIlIIlIHt"KINI!'N:"lIIJilJIIH1I1lIlit11J»111 1111111111111111 111I111l"KlOIIJ II i1II1III1II1IJIIJLLIUHlIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII11II11111111 flll150

600 MOLECULAR WEIGHT n BOILING POINT 600

NORMAL PARAFFINS AND ISOPARAFFINS

-100 a 100 200 300 400

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 aoo

CHARACTERIZATION VISCOSITY INDEX

200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

460 MOLECULAR WEIGHT ~ GRAVITY 460

320 CHARACTERIZATION VISCOSITY INDEX 320

-300 -200 o 100 200

-200 -tOO o 100 200 300 400

VAPOR PRESSURE OF -- ~ ...

.5 ~ PENTANE AND ISOPENTANE

.8 . =-= ::::.C ·=--==~~-:'~';'_~c~"=§=:l~F-=~. . _--< =:h:b-~-

-I- ' ':,::J

3 ,~-. -'-" -, _I-~-~.

. - '-~:j=~~ -Ej ~I= --,..~

.B.P. CRITICAL PT.

* ESTIMATED v VAPOR PRESSURE CURVE

.4 COMPOUND B.P. CRITICAL POINT

m-XYLENE 282.4 655" 36 V

.f"!--1-:- VAPOR PRESSURE

1100 LOW PRESSURE RANGE, 0.00001-1.0 ATMOSPHERES .00002

60 . VAPOR PRESSURE . I, -tY.~ "~..." . ' ,. 60

40 ,~I I , I : '~ 4.0

~ -+-~., • .'7'<~ ~" ~ ' , , ,~W ~

~ ~ ~. d='-=' -~--i:-.""'~~" ~ ,~v

;:',~,A ~'~~~K~~I/ ,,~. ,=.t~::::a:

v TE~PERATURE -OF A '/

100 200 300 400 ·500 600 700 900

REFERENCE: COORDINATING RESEARCH COUNCIL (CRC) HANDBOOK. PP. 244-254 (1946)

where fi = fugaci·ty of i in either phase of the system

Generalized correlations have been developed for the r-atio of fugacity to

;:',~,A ~'~KI/ ,,~. ,=.t~::::a: