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Bridge engineering
BRIDGE ENGINEERING

Bridge engineering : - The branch of Civil Engineering which deals with the design,
construction and maintenance of bridges is called Bridge Engineering.

Important technical terms

Bridge :- The drainage structure which facilitates a communication route for carrying road or
railway traffic across an obstruction or depression with or without water, is called a bridge.

River crossing :- A depression with water such as a river, in which case the bridge is known
as river crossing

Viaduct :- A deep valley without perennial water in which case the bridge is known as
viaduct

Grade separation :- Another route of communication passing at lower level in which case the
bridge is called grade separation

Long span bridge :- The bridge having total length more than 120 m is known as long span
bridge

Major bridge :- The bridge having total length varying from 30 m to 120 m is called a major
bridge.

Minor bridge :- The bridge having total length 6 m or less is called a culvert.

Vent-way :- The culvert having total length less than 1 m is called a vent-way.

Foot bridge: - The bridge exclusively used for carrying pedestrians, cycles and animals across
any depression or obstruction is called foot bridge.

Length of a bridge :- The overall length measured along the centre line of the bridge, from
end to end of the bridge deck, is called length of a bridge.

Span: - the centre to centre distance between any two adjacent supports of the bridge
superstructure is called effective span or simply span.

Clear span: - The clear distance between any two adjacent supports of the bridge
superstructure is called clear span.

Total span: - The centre to centre distance between the abutments of a bridge id termed as
total span.

Economic span: - The span for which the total cost of a bridge is minimum is known as
economic spans.
Waterway: - The sectional area at the site of a bridge through which water flows is termed as
waterway.

Natural waterway – The unobstructed sectional area available at the site of bridge for flow of
water is called natural waterway.

Artificial watereay :- The sectional area provided under the bridge superstructure through
which water flows is known as artificial waterway.,

Linear waterway :- The length available between extreme edges of water surface at the
highest flood level, measured at right angles to the abutment faces of a bridge is called linear
waterway.

Effective linear waterway:- The total width of waterway of a bridge minus the effective width
of obstructions in the form of piers is known as effective linear waterway. It is the sum of all
clear spans.

Scour :- The vertical cutting of the river bed is called scour.

Afflux :- The heading up of the water above its normal level while passing under the bridge is
called afflux.

Free board :- The difference between the highest flood level after allowing the afflux. If any,
and the lowest point on the under side of the bridge superstructure is called free board.

Clearance :- the minimum distance between boundaries at specified position of a bridge

structure is called clearance.

Head room :- The vertical distance between the highest point of a vehicle and the lowest
point of projecting member of a through bridge is called head room.

Straight bridge :- The bridge having its centre line at right angles to the axis of river is known
as straight or square bridge.

Skew bridge :- The bridge having its centre line not at right angles to the axis of river is
termed as skew bridge.

Deck bridge :- The bridge having its floor supported at the top of superstructure is called a
deck bridge.

Semi through bridge :- The bridge having its floor supported at some intermediate level of
the superstructure is called semi-through bridge.

Through bridge :- The bridge having its floor supported or suspended at the bottom of the
superstructure is known as through bridge.

Submersible bridge :- The bridge which allows the high flood water to pass over its
superstructure, thereby submerging the communication route, is known as submersible bridge
or low level bridge.
Non- submersible bridge :- The bridge which does not allow the high flood water to pass over
its floor carrying the communication route is known as non-submersible or high level bridge.

Causeway :- The bridge having its floor flush or little above the bed of the stream which
allows flood water to pass always over its floor carrying the communication route is known as
causeway.

Under bridge :- The bridge constructed to enable a road to pass under another land
communication route is called an under bridge.

Over bridge :- The bridges constructed as well as maintained at low cost and have short span
of useful life are known as low cost or temporary bridges.

Permanent bridges:- The bridges constructed as well as maintained at high cost and have
long span of useful life are known as high cost or permanent bridges.

Component parts of a bridge and their functions:-

Super structure :- The upper part of a bridge consisting of structural system in the form of a
bridge consisting of structural system in the form beams, girders, arches, suspension cables,
etc, carrying the communication route is called superstructure. The function of superstructure
is to provide carriageway over which the traffic moves with safety.

Substructure :- The lower part of a bridge consisting of structural system in the form of
abutments, piers, etc, along with their foundations, which support the superstructure is called
substructure. The function of substructure is to support the superstructure and to provide
access to the traffic to the level of bridge superstructure through approaches. Substructure of a
bridge consists of the following component parts:-

(a) Approaches :- The portions of roadway or railway on both the ends, affected by
the design and layout of a bridge, are known as approaches. The function of approaches is to
enable the vehicles running on a road or railway track at normal level to approach the level of
bridge floor

(b) Abutments :- The end supports of a bridge superstructure are termed as abutments.
Functions of the abutments of a bridge are, (1) To support the superstructure, (2) To retain the
earth banks of approaches in which case they are called return wing walls.

(c) Wing walls :- The walls constructed on both sides of abutments to retain the earth
banks of the river or of the bridge approaches are called wing walls. Functions, (1) to retain
the earth banks of approaches in which case they are called return wing walls, (2) to protect
the earth banks of river from the action of water, if necessary.

(d) Piers :- The intermediate supports of a bridge superstructure are known as piers. In
very long arch bridges, some of the intermediate supports are made of thicker section, which
are known as abutment piers, The following are the functions of piers in a bridge :- (1) To
take and transfer the load from the bridge superstructure to the sub-soil lying underneath
through their foundations. (2) To divide the length of the bridge into a suitable number of
spans.
(e) Foundations :-- The lowermost part of the bridge substructure is called
foundation. Bridge Alignment :- The location of centre line of a communication route to be
carried by the bridge at the selected site is called bridge alignment.

Sounding rod :- The rod used for measuring the depth of water at different points along a
stream section is known as sounding rod.

Scouring :- The process of cutting or deepening of river bed due to action of water is called
scouring.

Bridge foundations :- The lowest artificially built parts of abutments, piers and other similar
structures having direct contact with the sub-soil, and supporting the bridge superstructure are
called bridge foundations.

(1) Land foundations :- The bridge foundations constructed on a dry land are known
as land foundations. These foundations are further classified into the following types :- (a)
spread or open foundations (b) raft foundations (c) grillage foundations (d) inverted arch
foundations (e) pile foundations

(2) Foundation constructed in soils charged with water or having water at shallow
depths

Under water foundations :- The bridge foundations constructed under water are known as
under water foundations. These foundations are considered as deep foundations. Under water
foundations are further classified into the following two types :- (a) well foundations (b)
caisson foundations

Shallow foundations :- The foundations constructed at shallow depths below the bed level of
the river, mostly on the hard and firm strata are known as shallow foundations

Deep foundations :- The foundations constructed at deep depths with some artificial
arrangements like poles, wells, caisson, etc, are known as deep foundations. All under water
foundations in addition to pole foundations are the common examples of deep foundations.

Various types of bridge foundations and their suitability :-

(a) Spread or open foundations :- It is best suited in situations where hard soil is
available within 1.50to 3 m below the bed level of the water course and when the scouring is
minimum.

(b) Raft foundation :- This type of bridge foundation is suitable when the bed of the
water course consists of soft clay and silt and the hard soil is not available within reasonable
depth (1.5 to 2.5 m) below the river bed.

(c) Grillage foundations :- This type of bridge foundation is suitable for heavy and
isolated footings of piers where deep foundations are to be avoided. It is best suited where
sub-soil conditions are poor.

(d) Inverted arch foundations :- This type of bridge foundation is suitable when the
depth of excavation for foundation is less. It is best suited where the bearing capacity of the
soil is less, especially when the sub-soil has become soft pockets and there is possibility of
unequal settlement.

(e) Pile foundations :- This type of bridge foundation is suitable when the soil very
soft and the hard bed are not available at a reasonable depth below the bed level of the river.

(f) Well foundations :- This type of bridge foundation is suitable where good soil is
available at about 3 to 4 m below the bed level of the river and the bed consists of sandy soil .

(g) Caisson foundations :- This type of bridge foundation is suitable when a hard
strata bed is available near to the river bed but the depth of water is excessive and it is not
economically possible to exclude water to form a dry bed for sinking the wells to provide well
foundation. Skin friction :- The frictional resistance of the surrounding soil on the outer
surface of staining of the well or caisson is known as skin friction.

Grip length :- The depth of foundation bed below the level of maximum scour depth is known
as grip or grip length. As per I.R.C Standards, the minimum grip length required is
recommended as one-third of the maximum scour depth for roads bridges and one-half of the
maximum scour depth for railway bridges.

Cofferdams :- A temporary structure generally constructed to prevent the water from entering
of area where a permanent structure is to be constructed is known as cofferdam.

Curtain walls :- The masonry walls constructed below river bed on U/S and D/S sides of a
bridge, usually provided with floor in between are known as curtain walls.

Crib :- A framework of horizontal and cross beams, laid in alternate layers is called crib.

Guide piles :- The vertical members embedded in river or stream bed to support sheet lies in
the construction of a single or double wall cofferdam are known as guide piles.

Sheet piles :- The piles which consist of thin sheets, driven into the ground to make the
enclosed area water- tight are known as sheet piles,

Wales :- The horizontal beams usually of square timber which are fixed to guide piles for
connecting the together are known as wales or strings.

Gangway :- The platform laid in between the sheet walls of their top for the movement of
labor gang engaged for the work is known as gangway.

Piles :- An element of construction driven vertically or nearly so in the ground to increase the
bearing capacity of the soil or to take up the load of the structure is known as pile.

Classification of piles :-

(1) According to their uses such as bearing poles, friction piles, batter piles, guide
piles, etc,

(2) According to their material of construction such as wooden piles, concrete piles,
metal piles, etc,
(1) According to use :- Piles are classified according to their use as discussed below
:-

(a) Bearing piles :- The piles which rest on hard strata and act as columns to
bear the load of the structure are known as bearing piles

(b) Friction piles :- The piles which do not rest on a hard strata and bear the
loads on account of their frictional resistance between their outer surface and the soil in
contact are called friction piles

(c) Friction-cum-bearing piles :- The piles which rest on a hard strata and
resist the loads, partly by bearing and partly by their skin friction, are known as friction-cum-
bearing piles

(d) Batter piles :- The piles which are driven at an inclination to resist
inclined loads are known as batter piles.

(e) Guide piles :- The piles which are embedded in river or stream bed to
support sheet piles in the construction of a single or double wall cofferdams are known as
guide piles.

(f) Sheet piles :- The piles which consist of thin steel sheets driven into the
ground to enclose an area are known as sheet piles.

(2) According to material of construction :-

(a) Timber piles

(b) Concrete piles :- Concrete piles nay be further classified into the
following two types :-

1. Pre-cast piles: - Length of such piles varies from 2 to 30 m.

2. Cast-in-situ piles :- This type of concrete pile is constructed at site in a hole

prepared for this purpose. Simplex pile, Pedestal or bulb pile, Franki pile, Raymond concrete
pile, Sand piles, Steel piles etc are the examples for cast-in-situ piles.

3. Pile driving :- The operation of forcing a pile into the ground without previous
excavations is called pile driving. The equipment required for pile driving includes pile frame,
pile hammer, leads, winches, etc.

(1) Pile frame :- A pile frame usually consists of platform for supporting drivers,
engines, winches, etc. Its height varies from 10 to 35 m.

(2) Pile hammer :- It is guided between two parallel steel members, known as leads.

(3) Leads :- These are used for guiding the hammer and the pile

(4) Winches :- These are required to lift the hammer and the pile.
Well foundation :- The foundation constructed by sinking a single large well, a twin well or a
number of small wells close together, under each abutment or pier is known as well
foundation. Types of well foundations :-

(1) Deep foundations:- The foundations in which wells are sunk deeper than the
maximum possible depth of scour are called deep well foundations.

(2) Shallow well foundations :- The foundations in which wells are not sunk deeper
than the maximum possible depth of scour are called shallow well foundations.

Component parts of a well foundation and their functions:-

(1) Well curb :- The structural member which supports the steining and transfers the
load of the well to the soil below after completion of the well foundation is called well curb or
simply curb. The function of a well curbs ids to provide support to the well steining and to
transfer the load of the well to the soil by supporting the structure on completion of the well
foundation.

(2) Well steining :- The masonry or concrete ring of a well foundation is known as will
steining.

(3) Bottom seal :- The layer of concrete provided at the bottom of well after its sinking
is called bottom seal or bottom plug. The function of bottom seal or plug is to transfer the load
from the well steining to the soil lying underneath.

(4) Top seal: - The layer of concrete provided at the top of the well after filling the
sand is called top seal or top plug. The function of sand filling is to transfer the load from the
well cap to the bottom plug economically,

(5) Sand filling :- The process of putting sand in between the bottom and top seal in
the well is called sand filling, The function of sand filling is to transfer the load from the well
cap to the bottom plug economically,

(6) Well cap :- The R.C.C. slab provided over a single or number of wells (2 to 3 ) to
support the abutment or pier is called well cap. The function of well cap is to transfer the
loads and moments from the pier to the well or wells, sunk below the cap.

Shifting of the well :- The horizontal displacement of the well from its true position due to
tilting is known as shift of the well.

Caisson foundation :- The foundation constructed by sinking a caisson to rest on firm base
under water and then filling the same with concrete or stone masonry to act as a pier is known
as caisson foundation.

Types of caissons :-

(1) Box caissons :- The caisson in the form off an air tight vessel without top, floated to the
site and sunk to rest on a firm base is called a box caisson.
(2) Open caisson :- The caisson which is without its top and bottom is called an open caisson.

(3) Pneumatic caisson :- The caisson which is open at bottom and close at top and sunk by
means of utilizing compressed air is known as pneumatic caisson.

Caisson disease :- The disease by which the persons working under compressed air in the
caisson suffer when they return to atmospheric pressure is called caisson disease.