PHYSICS OF SENSOR

HOMEWORK: 3

SUBMITTED TO:
SUBMITTED BY:

MR.VINOD KUMAR
JITENDER KUMAR

SECTION OE208

ROLL NO A15
Q1. What are the different types of light sensors? Describe the working and
construction of any two light sensors.
Ans: Types of Light sensors

1. Photodiodes
2. Phototransistor
3. Photoresistors
4. Cooled Detectors
5. Thermal Detectors
a. Golay Cells
b. Thermopile Sensors
c. Pyroelectric Sensors
d. Bolometers
e. Active Far-Infrared Sensors
6. Gas Flame Detectors

PHOTO RESISTOR:

CONSTRUCTION:
A photoresistor is a photoconductive device. The most common materials for its fabrication are cadmium
sulfide1 (CdS) and cadmium selenide (CdSe), which are semiconductors whose resistances change upon
light entering the surface.For its operation, a photoresistor requires a power source because it does not
generate photocurrent; a photoeffect is manifested in the change in the material’s electricalresistance.
Figure shows a schematic diagram of a photoresistive cell. Anelectrode is set at each end of the
photoconductor. In darkness, the resistance of the material is high. Hence, the applied voltage V results
in a small dark current which is attributed to temperature effect. When light is incident on the surface, the
current
ip flows. The reason for the current increase is the following. Directly beneath the conduction band of
the crystal is a donor level and there is an acceptor level above the valence band. In darkness, the
electrons and holes in each level are almost crammed in place in the crystal, resulting in the high
resistance of the semiconductor.

WORKING:

When light illuminates the photoconductive crystal, photons are absorbed, which results in the added-up
energy in the valence band electrons. This moves them into the conduction band, creating free holes in
the valence band, increasing the conductivity of the material. Because near the valence band there is a
separate acceptor level that can capture free electrons not as easily as free holes, the recombination
probability of the electrons and holes is reduced and the number of free electrons in the conduction band
On a command from the control device, the shutter opens and allows the metal
atoms emanated from the molten metal to deposit on the sample. Parts of the sample
which remain free of the film are protected by the mask. The film thickness is
determined by the evaporation time and the vapor pressure of the metal. Hence,
materials with a low melting point are easy to deposit (e.g., aluminum). In general,
vacuumdeposited films have large residual stress and thus this technique is used
mainly for
depositing only thin layers. Because the molten material is virtually a point source of
atoms, it may cause both nonuniform distribution of the deposited film and the so-
called shadowing effect where the edges of the masked pattern appear blurry. Two
methods may help to alleviate this problem. One is the use of multiple sources where
more than one crucible (often three or four) is used. Another method is the rotation of
the target. When using vacuum deposition, one must pay attention to the introduction
of spurious materials into the chamber. For instance, even a miniscule amount of oil
leaking from the diffuse pump will result in the burning of organic materials and
codeposition on the sample of such undesirable compounds as carbohydrates.

1. Spin-Casting
The spin-casting process involves the use of a thin-film material dissolved in a volatile
liquid solvent. The solution is pored on the sample and the sample is rotated at a high
speed. The centrifugal forces spread the material, and after the solvent evaporates, a
thin layer of film remains on the sample. This techniques is often used for the
deposition of organic materials, especially for fabricating humidity and chemical
sensors. The thickness depends on the solubility of the deposited material and the
spin film and typically is in the range from 0.1 to 50 m. Because the process relies on
the flow of the solution, it may not yield a uniform film or can form island (filmfree
areas) when the sample has a nonflat surface. In addition, the material may have
tendency to shrink. Nevertheless, in many cases, it is a useful and often the only
acceptable method of deposition