PROPERTIES OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Soils, building stones, bricks and clay products, lime, cement, concrete, mortar, timber, metals (steel, iron,
aluminum etc.), alloys, etc., may be mainly grouped under civil engineering materials.

Properties of construction materials, which are of use in engineering works, are classified as follows:

 Physical properties
 Mechanical properties
 Electrical properties
 Magnetic properties
 Chemical properties

1.3.1 Physical Properties:

1. Bulk Density: Bulk density is the mass per unit volume of a material in its natural state. This is obtained by
finding the ratio of the mass of the material to the volume of the material. Most of the technical properties such
as strength, conductivity, etc., depend on the bulk density of the material. It is represented by the unit kN/m3.
Bulk densities of some of naturally available materials are granite: 25 to 27 kN/m3, limestone: 18 to 24 kN/m3,
pinewood: 5 to 6 kN/m3.

Mass per unit volume of a homogeneous material is termed as density. Density of steel is 78.5 kN/m3. Density
index is the ratio of bulk density to its density. Evidently the density index of most of the building materials is
less than one.

2. Chemical Resistance

It is the ability of a material to withstand the action of chemicals like acids, alkalis, salt solutions and gaseous
substances.

3. Fire Resistance

Fire resistance is the capacity of a material to sustain the action of high temperature without loosing strength
and change in the original shape of the structure. Wood, one of the building materials, is highly affected by fire.
Such materials should be treated so as to resist high temperature and fire.

4. Frost Resistance

When voids of a building material are filled with water and subjected to sub-zero temperature, it is affected by a
process known as freezing. Thus, the ability of water-saturated material to resist freezing and thawing is known
as frost resistance. It depends on the density of the material and its degree of water saturation. Generally, dense
materials are frost resistant.

5. Spalling Resistance

Materials that could sustain repeated temperature changes is said to be of high spalling resistance. This mainly
depends on the coefficient of linear expansion of the material.
6. Weathering Resistance

It is the capacity of a material to resist alternate wet and dry conditions without getting affected. Weathering
causes a change in shape and decrease in mechanical strength.

7. Porosity

Porosity of a material is the ratio of volume of voids or pores to the total volume of the material. Denser the
material, lesser will be its porosity. Bulk density, water absorption, thermal conductivity, strength, durability,
etc., depend on the porosity of the material.

8. Water Absorption

The ability of a material to absorb and retain water is called water absorption. It depends on the porosity of the
material, the size and shape of the pores.

9. Water Permeability

It is the capacity of a material to allow water to pass through it under pressure. For example, wood may have
high water permeability compared to steel.

10. Hygroscopicity

It is the property of a material to absorb water vapour from the air. It is governed by the porosity of the
material, air temperature and the nature of the substance involved.

11. Coefficient of Softening

It is the ratio of compressive strength of a fully saturated material to that of the same material when dry.
Materials that have a coefficient of softening more than 0.8 are said to be water-resistant material.

12. Durability

The property of a material to resist the action of atmospheric and other factors continuously is called the
durability of the material. For example, the durability of a building depends on the resistance offered by
various materials used to construct it under different conditions.

1.3.2 Mechanical Properties

1. Abrasion

Abrasion is the property of the material which resists the force caused by a moving load.

2. Elasticity

Elasticity is the ability of a material, which under stress, recovers its original shape after the removal of the
external load. If the material regains its original shape then it is said to be perfectly elastic. Steel, copper,
aluminium, etc., may be grouped under perfectly elastic materials within certain limits of deformation. Thus, for
each material, there is a critical value of load, generally known as the elastic limit, which makes for the partial
breakdown of elasticity. Loading the material beyond this point leads to permanent deformation.
3. Plasticity

Plasticity is the property of a material by which a strained material retains the deformed position even after the
removal of the external load which caused the deformation. Under large loads of forces, most materials become
plastic.

4. Ductility

The ability of a material by which it can be drawn into a wire by external forces is known as ductility. Thus, a
ductile material can withstand large deformation before failure. During the process of extension, a ductile
material may show a certain degree of elasticity together with a considerable extent of plasticity. Some of the
ductile materials include copper, aluminium, gold, etc.

5. Brittleness

Brittleness is the property of a material by which it is not capable of undergoing a significant amount of
deformation due to the application of an external load but breaks or ruptures suddenly. This is the most
undesirable property of a construction material. Some brittle materials include glass, porcelain, etc.

6. Malleability

Malleability is the property of a material by which it can be uniformly lengthened or widened by hammering or
rolling without rupture. A malleable material possesses a high degree of plasticity. This property has a wide use
in forging, hot rolling, drop stamping, etc. Some malleable materials are wrought iron, copper, mild steel, etc.

7. Strength

Strength is the property of a material determined by the maximum stress that the material can withstand prior
to failure. Strength is defined based on the nature of loading and the nature of stress. There is no unique value
which can define strength in all cases.

8. Hardness

Hardness of a material is the ability of the material to resist penetration by a hard material or object. The
hardest material is diamond, and the one with least hardness is talcum.

9. Toughness

Toughness is the property of a material which enables the material to absorb energy without fracture. This is a
very useful property of a material, which is applicable in cyclic or instantaneous loading.

10. Stiffness

Stiffness is the property that enables a material to withstand high stress without large deformation. Stiffness of a
material depends on its elastic property. For example, in a structural element, large deformations are
undesirable, and the material should be stiff enough to withstand the load.

11. Fatigue

When a material is subjected to repetitive fluctuating stress, it will fail at a stress well below than that required
to cause a fracture under steady loads. This property is known as fatigue.
12. Stability

Stability is the overall property of a member to maintain the overall equilibrium preventing complete collapse.
For example, a component member made out of a particular material is just long enough to prevent buckling
when subjected to a force acting along its axis.

1.3.3 Electrical Properties

Physical properties and mechanical properties are important for solid materials, which are used as building
construction materials. However, knowledge of electrical, magnetic and chemical properties is also needed to
deal with construction activities of buildings under different environments. Electrical properties of materials
are discussed briefly below.

1. Resistivity

It is the property of the material to resist the flow of electricity through it. It is a useful property of a conductor.

2. Conductivity

Electrical conductivity is that property of a material due to which the electric current flows easily through the
material. It is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.

1.3.5 Chemical Properties

Engineering materials when they come in contact with other substances are likely to react and suffer from
chemical deterioration. Some of the chemical properties of importance are corrosion resistance, chemical
composition and acidity or alkalinity.
BUILDING STONES

The earth’s crust is composed of rocks. Rock is a mineral mass of a more or less uniform composition. It may
consist of a single mineral (monomineralic) or of several minerals (polymineralic). A mineral is a natural body,
homogeneous in chemical composition and physical properties. Further minerals are the products of physical
and chemical processes occurring in the earth’s crust.

According to the geological classification, rocks are subdivided into three large groups, viz., igneous rocks,
sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.

1. Igneous rocks: Cooling and hardening of molten magma result in the formation of igneous rocks.
Depending on the rate of cooling the sizes of crystals are formed. Granites, syenites, diorites and gabbros
have large crystals, while basalts, rhyolites and andesites have small crystals. Igneous rocks are generally
very hard.
2. Sedimentary rocks: Transportation agents like wind, water and ice may move the loose weathered
rock materials and deposit them in the form of layers called sediments. Such sediments when subjected to
heavy pressure undergo compaction and cementation, resulting in sedimentary rocks. Limestone, dolomite,
shale, sandstone, etc., are sedimentary rocks.
3. Metamorphic rocks: Sedimentary rocks and to some extent igneous rocks when subjected to changes
brought about by the combination of heat, pressure and plastic flow (called metamorphism) undergo changes
in the structure, texture and mineral composition, and this results in the formation of metamorphic rocks.
Gneiss, schist, slate, marble, etc., are metamorphic rocks.

The basis for such a classification is the physical properties of rocks, the manner and arrangement of different
particles and mass forming a stone. They are classified as follows:

1. Stratified rocks: They exhibit distinct layers which can be separated. The plane of separation is called
a cleavage plane. Limestone, slate and sandstone are examples of stratified rocks.
2. Unstratified rocks: They are of granular or crystalline structure and become solid on cooling. They do
not show any sign of strata, e.g., igneous rocks like granite, basalt, etc.
3. Foliated rocks: These rocks show definite parallel arrangement of minerals showing a tendency to
split in a specific direction, e.g., metamorphic rocks like gneiss, schist, etc.

The presence of chemical constituents in the rocks is the basis for their type of classification. They are as
follows:

1. Siliceous rocks: In these rocks silica is the main constituent. The presence of silica in the free state is
called sand, and in the combined state is a silicate. Rocks containing silica in the free state are harder, and
those found in the combined form are likely to be disintegrated. Examples of silicate rocks are sandstone,
quartzite, etc.
2. Argillaceous rocks: In these rocks, clay or alumina is the main constituent. Examples of argillaceous
rocks are slate, laterite, etc.
3. Calcareous rocks: Calcium carbonate or lime is the main constituent in these rocks. They are readily
acted upon by dilute hydrochloric acid. Examples are limestone, marble, etc.

PROPERTIES OF GOOD BUILDING STONES

Different civil engineering constructions use stone. It is necessary to find their suitability under different
conditions. The following properties need to be examined before their use:

2.3.1 Appearance and Colour

Stones must look good in appearance and be of uniform colour. Such a quality is essential for stones to be used
for decoration work. Light-coloured stones are preferred as they resist weathering action in a better way. Stones
with iron oxide should not be used as the presence of iron oxide disfigures the stones and brings about
disintegration.

2.3.2 Strength

Stones are used as a compression member and should have sufficient compressive strength. In general, all
stones possess a reasonable degree of strength. The crushing strength of stone should be greater than 100
N/mm2. Igneous rocks have a strength of around 100 N/mm2 and some of the metamorphic rocks also possess
these strengths. But sedimentary rocks have a lower strength.

2.3.3 Weight

In general, good building stones should have a high weight to resist higher compressive forces. Good building
stones must have a specific gravity greater than 2.70. A heavy stone possesses more compactness and less
porosity.

2.3.4 Hardness and Toughness

Stones must be hard and tough so that they can resist wear and tear. Hardness is assessed by scratching and
toughness by hammering. A good building stone should have a wearing resistance less than 3%, and if it is
more than 3% it is not satisfactory. Stones used for road work should be hard to resist wear and tear.

2.3.5 Porosity and Absorption

All stones possess porosity. Stones that have a porosity over a certain percentage are unsuitable for building
purposes. The presence of a higher percentage of pores may absorb rain, which may deteriorate the stone. A
good stone should not absorb water more than 0.6% by weight. It must be capable of withstanding effects of
atmosphere. If stones in a cold climate absorb water, they may freeze and even split.

2.3.6 Compactness

A good stone must have a compact, fine, crystalline structure and must be strong. A compact stone is capable of
withstanding the effects of external agencies effectively.

2.3.7 Fineness of Grain

Stones that are fine grained are suitable for moulding purposes. Such stones are easily carved and dressed. Non-
crystalline structured stones are likely to disintegrate under the action of natural agencies.

2.3.8 Resistance to Fire

Stones must be fire resistant, i.e., they must retain their shape when subjected to fire. Limestone resists fire up
to about 800°C. Sandstone can resist fire in a better way. Although argillaceous stones are poor in strength, they
are highly fire resistant.

2.3.9 Durability

Stones must be durable. Basically, stones that have their natural bed perpendicular to the direction of pressure
are durable. Durable stones are those which are compact, homogeneous, acid resistant and have negligible water
absorption.

2.3.10 Dressing

Dressing is the act of shaping a stone for a decorative purpose or for other purposes. For this, the stone should
possess uniform texture and softness so that they may be easily dressed. Hard stones can not be dressed.
Tests on Building Stones
Following are different tests on building stones:
1. Acid test: This test is carried out to understand the presence of calcium carbonate in building stone. A
sample of stone weighing about 50 to 100 gm is taken. It is placed in a solution of hydrophobic acid
having strength of one percent and is kept there for seven days. Solution is agitated at intervals.A
good building stone maintains its sharp edges and keeps its surface free from powder at the end of this
period. If the edges are broken and powder is formed on the surface, it indicates the presence of
calcium carbonate and such a stone will have poor weathering quality.
2. Attrition test: This test is done to find out the rate of wear of stones, which are used in road
construction. The results of the test indicates the resisting power of stones against the grinding action
under traffic.
3. Crushing test: Samples of stone is cut into cubes of size 40 x 40 x 40 mm sizes of cubes are finely
dressed and finished. Maximum number of specimen to be tested is three. Such specimen should be
placed in water for about 72 hours prior to test and therefore tested in saturated condition. Load
bearing surface is then covered with plaster of paris of about 5mm thick plywood. Load is applied
axially on the cube in a crushing test machine. Rate of loading is 140 kg/sq.cm per minute. Crushing
strength of the stone per unit area is the maximum load at which the sample crushes or fails divided
by the area of the bearing face of the specimen.
4. Freezing and thawing test: Stone specimen is kept immersed in water for 24 hours. It is then placed in
a freezing machine at -12 degC for 24 hours. Then it is thawed or warmed at atmospheric
temperature.
5. Hardness Test: For determining the hardness of a stone, the test is carried out as follows:
 A cylinder of diameter 25mm and height 25mm is taken out from the sample of stone.
 It is weighed.
 The sample is placed in Dorry’s testing machine and it is subjected to a pressure of 1250 gm.
 Annular steel disc machine is then rotated at a speed of 28 rpm.
 During the rotation of the disc, coarse sand of standard specification is sprinkled on the top of
disc.
 After 1000 revolutions, specimen is taken out and weighed.
 The coefficient of hardness is found out from the following equation:
Coefficient of hardness = 20 – (Loss of weight in gm/3)
6. Impact test
7. Water absorption test
8. Microscopic Test
9. Smith’s Test
Deterioration of stones:
The factors considered to be among the leading causes of building stone deterioration include salt
crystallization, aqueous dissolution, frost damage, microbiological growth, human contact, and original
construction.
Factors causing deterioration:
1. Rain.
2. Physical Action.
3. Chemical Action.
4. Frost.
5. Wind.
6. Temperature Changes.
7. Vegetable Growth.
8. Mutual Decay.

Preservation of Stones:
Following are the preservatives which are commonly adopted to preserve the stones:
(1) Coal Tar:
If coal tar is applied on stone surface, it preserves stone. But the colour of coal tar produces objectionable
appearance and surface coated with coal tar absorbs heat of the sun. Hence this preservative is not generally
adopted because it spoils the beauty of stones.
(2) Linseed Oil:
This preservative may be used either as raw linseed oil or boiled linseed oil. The raw linseed oil does not
disturb the original shade of stone. But it requires frequent renewal, usually once in a year. The boiled linseed
oil lasts for a long period, but it makes the stone surface dark.
(3) Paint:
An application of paint on stone surface serves as a preservative. The paint changes the original colour of
stone. It is applied under pressure, if deep penetration is required.
(4) Paraffin:
This preservative may be used alone or it may be dissolved in neptha and then applied on stone surface. It
changes the original colour of stone.
(5) Solution of Alum and Soap:
The alum and soft soap are taken in proportion of about 0.75 N and 0.50 N respectively and they are
dissolved in a litre of water. This solution, when applied on stone surface, acts as preservative.
(6) Solution of Baryta:
A solution of barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2, when applied on stone surface, acts as a preservative. This
preservative is used when the decay of stone is mainly due to calcium sulphate, CaSO4.
Following chemical reaction takes place –
Ba(OH)2 + CaSO4 = BaSO4 + Ca(OH)2
The barium sulphate is insoluble and it is least affected by atmospheric agencies. The calcium hydroxide
absorbs carbon dioxide from atmosphere and forms calcium carbonate CaCO3 which adds to the strength of
stone.
Retardation of Decay of Stones:
Following precautions should be taken to retard the decaying action of the weathering agencies on the
stones:
(1) Compact Silicious Stones:
It is desirable to use only compact silicious stones for the external surfaces of important buildings. These
stones must have a dense crystalline texture. The use of sandstones cemented with silicious binding material
should be made and use of lime stones or calcareous sandstones with open texture should be avoided for the
external surfaces in industrial towns.
(2) External Renderings:
For ordinary buildings, the external renderings such as pointing or plastering should be given to the stone
surface at the time of construction.
(3) Joints:
All the joints in the stone masonry should be completely filled in so as to have a sound and solid structure
without hollows or cavities.
(4) Natural Beds:
The stones should be placed in position on their natural beds.
(5) Qualities of Stones:
The use of finished, polished and well-dressed stones should be preferred to the rough stones.
(6) Seasoned Stones:
The freshly quarried stones contain quarry sap which accelerates the decaying action and hence such stones
should be seasoned for a sufficient time by exposing them before they are placed in position.
(7) Size of Stones:
It is advisable to employ large size stones as far as possible to minimize the number of joints which are signs
of weakness and through which water or moisture gets easy entry.
(8) Washing with Water:

Dressing of stones:
Stones obtained from quarrying do not contain required shapes and sizes. So, they are cut into required sizes
and shapes with suitable surfaces. This process is called dressing of stones. It is preferable that the stones
should be dressed at quarry site which reduces cost of transportation. The weight also gets reduced which is
easy for transportation.
Stones contain soft surfaces at fresh stage directly after quarrying, so, dressing can be easily done. Dressing
of stones provides good appearance to stones and makes them useful for masonry works.
Various types of finishes are available for dressing of stones. Use of each finish depends upon the type of
work and the variety of finishes are as follows:
o Axed finish: The surfaces of hard stones such as granite are dressed by means of an axe. Such a finish
is termed as an axed finish.
o Boasted finish: In this type of finish, the boaster is used to make non-continuous parallel marks on the
stone surface as shown in fig. These marks may be horizontal, inclined or vertical. A boaster is a
chisel having an edge of width Boasted or droved finish about 60 mm.

o Combed finish: In this type of finish, a drag or a comb, which is a piece of steel with a number of
teeth, is rubbed on the surface in all directions and surface, as shown in fig., is obtained. This finish is
suitable for soft stones only.

o Circular finish
o Chisel-draughted margins
o Molded finish
o Furrowed finish: In this type of finish, a margin of about 20 mm width, is sunk on all the edges of stone and
the central portion is made to project about 15 mm.A number of vertical or horizontal grooves about 10
mm wide are formed in this projected portion as shown in fig.

o Plain finish: In this type of finish, the surface of the stone is made approximately smooth with a saw
or with a chisel.
o Polished finish: The surface of the stones such as marbles, granites, etc. can be polished either with
hand or with machine.
o Hammer dressed finish