Chapter Report of Intructional Design Course

Compiled to fullfill one of Intructional Design Course Assignment

Lecturer : Drs. Dian Kardijan, M.Pd.

By :

Akhiria Hadiningrum 172122039

Ela Laelasari 172122015

Gita Noor Aliza 172122005

Shasti Oktavia Mulyani 172122008

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND TEACHER TRAINING

SILIWANGI UNIVERSITY

2019

Introduction to Intructional Design

 Instructional Design (ID) is a powerful tool, and it’s not just for instructional designers.
ID is an approach that helps e-learning developers, trainers, and (of course!) instructional
designers create effective and efficient learning experiences for learners of all ages. The
purpose of instruction is to arrange external events that support these internal learning
processes. Instructional Design is the creation of learning experiences and materials, and
material in a manner that results in the acquisition and application of knowledge and skills.
Intructinal design consists of determining the needs of the learners, defining the end goals
and objectives of instruction, designing and planning assessment tasks, and designing
teaching and learning activities to ensure the quality of instruction. So, Intructional Design is
important, why? Because Intructional Design makes learning efficient , makes learning
enganging, and makes leaning more effective. Instructional design is much more likely to be
effective if it is planned toengage students in those events and activities that facilitate
learning.

 Basic Assumptions

Learning is a part of basic assumption that very important to design as the following
definition by Shuell (as interpreted by Schunk, 1991) incorporates these main idea: “Learning
is an enduring change in behaviour, or in the capacity, to behave in a given fashion, which
results from practice or other forms of experience”. There is no best way to teach everything,
and the conditions for learning that are appropriate to the type of outcomes we desire will
affect our thinking about the design of learning activities and materials.

 Some Learning Principles

General Learning Theoris:

1. Behaviorism: equates learning with changes in either the form or frequency of

observable performance. Learning is accomplished when a proper response is
demonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus.
Behaviorism focuses on the importance of the consequences of those performances
and contens that responses that are followed by reinforcement are more likely to recur
in the future.

2. Cognitivism: like behaviorism, emphasizes the role that environmental conditions

play in facilitating learning. Instructional explanations, demonstrations, illustrative
examples and matched non-examples are all considered to be instrumental in guiding
student learning. They use various strategies to process and construct their personal
understanding of the content to which they are exposed. Students are not consider
anymore as recipients that teachers fill with knowledge, but as active participants in
the learning.

3. Constructivism: learners do not transfer knowledge from the external world into their
memories; rather they build personal interpretations of the world based on individual
experiences and interacts. There are certain essential concepts that students need to
learn, such as understanding cause and effect, critically analyzing documents, or
inquiry-based exploration. Lessons in constructivist classrooms are built to encourage
mastery of these essential concepts or big ideas. Which theory is the best? I think this
theory depends on you, depending on what kind of content will be given to
 students.Why the theory is important? Because theories provide a basis to understand
how people learn and a way to explain, describe, analyze and predict learning.

 The Conditions of Learning

According to Gagne (1985) it appears that instruction must take into account a whole set
of factors both external and internal to the learner that collectively may be called the
conditions of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a
chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must
be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments. Gagné suggests that learning
tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus
recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of terminology, discrimination,
concept formation, rule application, and problem solving. The primary significance of the
hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each
level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task.
Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.

In addition, According to Ragan & Smith (1996) that the theory outlines nine
instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes:

1. Gaining attention (reception)

2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
6. Eliciting performance (responding)
7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)
8. Assessing performance (retrieval)
9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)

There are five categories of learning which influenced by Gagne, there are:

1. Verbal Information
2. Intellectual Skills
3. Cognitive Strategies
4. Motor Skills
5. Attitudes

To this we would add that we also need adaptive learners who are able to function well
when optimal conditions do not exist, wen situation are unpredictable and task demands
change, when the problems are messy and ill formed and the solutions depend on
inventiveness, improvisation, discussion, and social negotiation.

Needs Analysis

The purpose of the Needs Analysis is to help produce the desired changes. Changes to the need for
improvement of several types such as attitudes, knowledge, and skills which need to be improved. It
is generally the job of an instructional designer to help determine exactly what changes need to
occur. The instructional designer uses the needs analysis process to get the source of needs. To do
this, specific information is needed. This information is collected by instructional designers through
various means, such as interviews, observations, and reviews of available artifacts.

 Formal and Informal Needs Analysis

Requirements analysis provides information that requires designer instructions to get to the heart of
the matter. If little or nothing is known about the problem, a full scale needs analysis is needed. But
if it needs to be designed it doesn't need to scale analysis on the device where the client has clearly
determined what to do. If this is published, then the instructional designer does not need to do a
formal needs analysis because the information that will be obtained needs to be large will be a
waste of resources.

 Popular Approaches to Needs Analysis

There are various questions that can be used for needs analysis. Robert F. Mager is an instructional
design text writer who has been popular for several editions. Mager (1988) describes the process for
determining "appropriate action in cases where people do not do what must be done" (p. 24).

 Needs Analysis Procedure

Needs analysis is done using various data tools to help answer fundamental questions. Determine
the Desired Change the client is the best source of information to determine the desired change. In
most cases, it will be very clear where changes will be needed for example at school and at work.

Needs analysis is carried out using various data collection tools to help answer fundamental
questions:

1. Determining the Desired Change

The first step in needs analysis is to determine what changes are requested. The client is the best
source of information to determine the desired change. This information can be collected through
an interview process.

2. The Request for the Desired Change

Who identified the problem or requested this change? Often it is the client's desire that hires you for
change to occur. It is important to remember that there may be additional stakeholders who might
be interested in making changes. However, to clarify how they feel about the problem or change
that may occur is difficult.

3. Implementation Location of the Desired Change.

Where do solutions or changes need to be made? Once again, the client is the source of information
to answer this question. In most cases, it will be very clear where changes will be needed (eg,
schools, workplaces). This can be very helpful when visiting locations where changes occur to help
you gain a solid understanding of environment. However, this is not always possible. If not, it's
important to research the environment.
4. The Intervention

It is important to remember that you might want to offer more than one type of intervention to your
client. Allow your client to be part of the decision making process, but know that your client will rely
on your expertise to make the final decision.

 Evaluating the Success of a Needs Analysis

The methods used to evaluate the success of needs analysis are summative and formative.
Summative methods are "all or nothing" methods. This helps determine whether you succeed or fail.
Formative evaluation activities are important to use in ongoing communication between you and the
client during the entire needs analysis process. Data collected must be shared with clients during this
process. This formative evaluation activity helps ensure that you collect accurate data by providing
opportunities to clients and give feedback.

Task Analysis

This chapter explains various methods for gathering information about content and / or activities
that need to be included in the instructions.The purpose of Task Analysis is to gather information
about content or tasks that need to be part of the instructions being developed.

 Popular Approaches to Task Analysis

Most approaches have similar elements although their procedures may be slightly different. Popular
approaches to task analysis include those described by Dick et al. (2011), Jonassen et al. (1989,
1999), Morrison et al. (2006), and Smith and Ragan (2004) namely analyzing assignments including
the use of subject matter experts (SMEs), which help the teaching designer provide guidance on the
scope and sequence of content and assignments that need to be included in instruction.

 Task Analysis Procedures

1. Involving a Subject Matter Expert

There is an additional element that is emphasized by all approaches, namely the need for expert
subject matter which is called SME. The task of SME is to help instructional designers to gather
information about content or assignments that will be used to develop instructions.

2. Task Analysis Documents

This document can take several forms. While the most common are content outlines or flowcharts
which illustrate the different tasks and subtasks that must be completed by students.

3. Influencing Factors

The main factor influencing this approach is the purpose of instruction. The purpose of the
instruction will relate to the type of content or task that will form the instruction.

 Evaluating the Success of a Task Analysis

one of the most effective methods for determining the success of your task analysis during the
design and development of instructions is formative evaluation. This formative evaluation activity
will provide a valuable perspective that you can use to compare with the data that you have
collected during your task analysis. Another method for evaluating the effectiveness of your task
analysis is to compare other available information that has been collected during the design of the
learning process such as needs analysis and student analysis.

 Task Analysis and the Instructional Design Process

Task analysis can help a teaching designer to identify assignments or guide developed
instruction.

Needs Analysis

The purpose of the Needs Analysis is to help produce the desired changes. Changes to the need for
improvement of several types such as attitudes, knowledge, and skills which need to be improved. It
is generally the job of an instructional designer to help determine exactly what changes need to
occur. The instructional designer uses the needs analysis process to get the source of needs. To do
this, specific information is needed. This information is collected by instructional designers through
various means, such as interviews, observations, and reviews of available artifacts.

 Formal and Informal Needs Analysis

Requirements analysis provides information that requires designer instructions to get to the heart of
the matter. If little or nothing is known about the problem, a full scale needs analysis is needed. But
if it needs to be designed it doesn't need to scale analysis on the device where the client has clearly
determined what to do. If this is published, then the instructional designer does not need to do a
formal needs analysis because the information that will be obtained needs to be large will be a
waste of resources.

 Popular Approaches to Needs Analysis

There are various questions that can be used for needs analysis. Robert F. Mager is an instructional
design text writer who has been popular for several editions. Mager (1988) describes the process for
determining "appropriate action in cases where people do not do what must be done" (p. 24).

 Needs Analysis Procedure

Needs analysis is done using various data tools to help answer fundamental questions. Determine
the Desired Change the client is the best source of information to determine the desired change. In
most cases, it will be very clear where changes will be needed for example at school and at work.

Needs analysis is carried out using various data collection tools to help answer fundamental
questions:

1. Determining the Desired Change

The first step in needs analysis is to determine what changes are requested. The client is the best
source of information to determine the desired change. This information can be collected through
an interview process.
2. The Request for the Desired Change

Who identified the problem or requested this change? Often it is the client's desire that hires you for
change to occur. It is important to remember that there may be additional stakeholders who might
be interested in making changes. However, to clarify how they feel about the problem or change
that may occur is difficult.

3. Implementation Location of the Desired Change.

Where do solutions or changes need to be made? Once again, the client is the source of information
to answer this question. In most cases, it will be very clear where changes will be needed (eg,
schools, workplaces). This can be very helpful when visiting locations where changes occur to help
you gain a solid understanding of environment. However, this is not always possible. If not, it's
important to research the environment.

4. The Intervention

It is important to remember that you might want to offer more than one type of intervention to your
client. Allow your client to be part of the decision making process, but know that your client will rely
on your expertise to make the final decision.

 Evaluating the Success of a Needs Analysis

The methods used to evaluate the success of needs analysis are summative and formative.
Summative methods are "all or nothing" methods. This helps determine whether you succeed or fail.
Formative evaluation activities are important to use in ongoing communication between you and the
client during the entire needs analysis process. Data collected must be shared with clients during this
process. This formative evaluation activity helps ensure that you collect accurate data by providing
opportunities to clients and give feedback.

Task Analysis

This chapter explains various methods for gathering information about content and / or activities
that need to be included in the instructions.The purpose of Task Analysis is to gather information
about content or tasks that need to be part of the instructions being developed.

Popular Approaches to Task Analysis

Most approaches have similar elements although their procedures may be slightly different. Popular
approaches to task analysis include those described by Dick et al. (2011), Jonassen et al. (1989,
1999), Morrison et al. (2006), and Smith and Ragan (2004) namely analyzing assignments including
the use of subject matter experts (SMEs), which help the teaching designer provide guidance on the
scope and sequence of content and assignments that need to be included in instruction.

Task Analysis Procedures

1. Involving a Subject Matter Expert

There is an additional element that is emphasized by all approaches, namely the need for expert
subject matter which is called SME. The task of SME is to help instructional designers to gather
information about content or assignments that will be used to develop instructions.

2. Task Analysis Documents

This document can take several forms. While the most common are content outlines or flowcharts
which illustrate the different tasks and subtasks that must be completed by students.

3. Influencing Factors

The main factor influencing this approach is the purpose of instruction. The purpose of the
instruction will relate to the type of content or task that will form the instruction.

Evaluating the Success of a Task Analysis

one of the most effective methods for determining the success of your task analysis during the
design and development of instructions is formative evaluation. This formative evaluation activity
will provide a valuable perspective that you can use to compare with the data that you have
collected during your task analysis. Another method for evaluating the effectiveness of your task
analysis is to compare other available information that has been collected during the design of the
learning process such as needs analysis and student analysis.

Task Analysis and the Instructional Design Process

Task analysis can help a teaching designer to identify assignments or guide developed instruction.

Analyzing Learners

This chapter explains the methods for determining and reciting students' tendencies, knowledge,
and skills while learning. Understanding and being able to predict learners beforehand is an
important element of every teaching plan. The purpose of learning analysis is to understand and
interpret student characteristics by helping in the design of effective instruction.

Human Needs

Basic human needs must be addressed before instructional interventions are tried. Although this is
not the role of the instructional designer, everyone is at least accustomed to measuring individual or
group instructional readiness at the most important level. the designer must determine what
content is prepared by the student and the best way to deliver the content to keep participants
active and interested.

Captive Audience or Willing Volunteers?

In teaching activities, participants can be divided into two categories, namely captive audiences and
willing volunteers. Captive audiences are people who accept the mandate to develop instructions.
Willing Volunteers participate in teaching activities because they are motivated to do so without a
mandate. Determining and recognizing students' motivation to participate in the developed
instructions can greatly increase their effectiveness. Motivation can be divided into two namely
intrinsic and extrinsic. intristik ie students can enjoy instructions and activities for their own
interests. Whereas extrinsic namely students participate in instruction because they anticipate some
prizes outside the instructions.

Learning Styles

According to Arthur Ellis (2005) explains that most people who advocating for a focus on learning
styles that emphasize the ideas that all people receive and process different information; Therefore,
the teacher must try to find out how each of their students is learn the best. According to supporters
of learning styles, problems arise if only one or several forms of presentation are used for
instruction, because they support students with auditory learning styles.

Universal Design for Education

Universal design for education seeks to create teaching environments and contexts that provide
equal access to the Internet and the resources needed for academic success. Then it provides
appropriate teaching opportunities for all students in a way that goes beyond the "additional"
activities after teaching design is complete.

User-Centered Design

An important part of user-centered design is usability testing. Usability testing is an analytical

method where the observer supervises an individual or the group uses the product to complete the
set of tasks specified. User-centered design helps avoid common mistakes. When confronted with
designing instructions for the first time, people often develop and apply lessons based on their
memories of how they taught or more deeply experienced when he learned.

Popular Approaches to Analyzing Learners

According to (Mager, 1988), there are several important things that must be done when conducting
student analysis, namely: take care to describe the learner as it is, not as you wish; describe people,
not institutions or policies; describe the differences between students and similarity; remember that
you are creating work documents that can be changed during the development process. A general
approach to the problem of student analysis is to ask students themselves by producing and
distributing surveys or questionnaires.

Learner Analysis Procedures

There are two possibilities for creating documents that describe the audience, namely: 1. a chart of
learner characteristics data This activity must decide what data will be collected and create a chart
that illustrates the various abilities of students. 2. a fictitious profile of the average member of the
target audience. To develop a learner profile in general, consider what learners might say about
himself, what other people say about him, and what evidence is available about the target audience.

Evaluating the Success of a Learner Analysis

What about the right analysis results? Of course, by comparing the results of student analysis with
the information of students who participated in the instructions and listening to students about the
instructions after they finish it. Furthermore, with summative evaluation activities that will help in
determining the best course of action for student analysis. Then by checking members. If the check
is the same member, then it can be declared successful.

Instructional System Design

Instructional system has a function to facilitate the learners to achieve people goals
into the personal development based the human capabilities. It could be as a form or
procedures to reach the goals itself in a public schools, military schools and other schools. To
achieve the goals or purposes, it could be divide in many ways. The face-to-face meeting,
internet-based meeting and the uses of the technology. Meanwhile, there is the instructional
system design as well.

Instructional system design (ISD) is a process how the instructional system were
made. This both system are systematic and reliable, so it also predict the outcomes. The ISD
is divided into two parts, the micro level that includes lesson plan and the macro level that
includes curriculum. Moreover, ISD involves the physchology that will bring out the learner
environment and the learner achievement to achieve the goals of the systems. ISD isnot
always have the larger scope but it also the smaller scope and the focus is the piece of
instruction itself rather than the total instructional system. On this chapter, there are two
models in illustrate the systems itself. But, here there are 3 important assumtions to be
considered.

a. Assumtions

An instructional system can also be called a learning environment because the phrases
refers the set of elements that interact in the process of promoting and supporting learning
activities. On instructional system, it is focus on the learner, how they explore their
capabilities and develop their potential. Besides, it also toward on the learner self-discovery
andintellectual development. Second, ISD does not imply a particular pedagogy or learning
theory. The ISD using other theory in developing the systems. The theory could say as
stimulus, response and reward. In other hand, it plays the phsychological aspects. The last,
ISD is a special case of a larger process called human performance technology (HPT). ISD
need a long processess that also need the solution.

b. The Basic Process: The ADDIE Model

The ADDIE model is basically a generic, systematic, step-by-step framework used by

instructional designers, developers and trainers to ensure course development andto make
sure the learningprocess are in the structured way. Moreover, it is designed to ensure
thelearners will achieve the goals of the course,it allows for the evaluation of learner’s needs
and the design of training materials. Further, it is also designed for the evaluation of
effectiveness of the training program using specific and measurable outcomes. The ADDIE
model is from Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation. Here is the
following explanation:

1. Analysis

Before starts in making a course design, we are as a designer must analyze are the
course important for the students or not. Designer should look into the constructed form for
the future. Moreover, in the instructional situations, the context includes such things as the
availability ofresources, administrative requirements, and the incoming skills of the learners.
It also should instruction to the solution.After find the needs of the students, it must conduct
an instructional analysis to determine the target cognitive, affective, and motor skill goals for
the course. Besides, we should know how much time that needed for the course in order to
achieve the goals.

2. Design

After knows the students needs, the designer will make the plan of how the course
design going to work. An instructional designer usually work together with the subject matter
experts to designed it based on their scope. In other hand, the designer must translate course
goals into performance outcomes, and major course objectives (unit objectives). And then
determine the instructional topics or units to be covered, and how much time will be spent on
each. Moreover, the designer specifying the learning outcomes for each unit and divide into
lessons and the learning activities.

3, Development

Development refers to the preparation of materials to be used in the

learningenvironment.First of all, designers make decisions regarding the types of learning
activities and materials.Then, try out the materials and activities with target audience
members. It is challenging because it can be approach from several objectives, materials
objectives and how delivery the materials. There are four approaches dependeing the
situation. It can be use from the working curriculum, repurposing the material, incorporating
elements into a new course and the last is building a new course.

4. Implementation

Five principles that apply to implementation planning are in the areas of learning:

a. Develop a learning management system that is adequate for the requirements of the
situation.
 b. Provide for student guidance and support.
c. Plan for change.
d. Plan for delivery environment.
e. Plan for maintenance of the system. Instructional designers may be called upon to
include a course maintenance plan.

5. Evaluation

Evaluation is the final stage in the ADDIE model. This placement reflects its logical
function as the point at which you determine whether your proposed solution to a problem
has succeeded. There are 5 types of evaluation. The first one in material evaluation, it begins
with reviews by the subject matter experts. The second one is process evaluation, It consists
of quality reviews of how well eachphase of the ISD process has been conducted. At the end
of each phase,members of the project team, or an outside evaluator, can review
documentsand answer questions about how effectively and efficiently that phase of workwas
conducted and whether there are things that could be done to make itbetter. The third one is
see the learner reactions evaluation is by far the most commonly used one, and itgenerally
consists of a self-report survey conducted at the end of a coursemodule. It can be checked
through the questionnaire. The fourth is learner achievements, students comprehend could
check through tests. It also could check students performance and obtain the feedback. The
last one is instructional consequences.

The Outcomes of Instruction

Basic Assumption

Learning outcomes are broad statements of what is achieved and assess at the end of a
course of study (Harden Ronald,M 2002). Each institution must have a goals and expect
outcomes that macth with a goals, as well as educational institutions. In educational
institutions there is what is called instructional design that aims to achieve a learning goals. In
designing and develop a instruction, determain learning goals is important to construct
appropriate learning outcomes. According to Gagne, M.at al. (2005) that “Basic reason for
designing instruction is to make possible the attainment of a set of educational of training
goals”. Instruction is a purposeful activity, that is, it is, a means to an end. The ends are often
described as the goals or objectives of instruction.” (Gagne, M.at al. (2005). So, learning
goals can achived through a intstructions in learning activity.

Differents between goals and objectives

 Goals
A statement that use to describe a course with a general goals. As cited in Gagne,
M.at al. (2005) that “Goals describe the intention of the instruction”. A goals is a
statement describing a broad or abstact intent, state or condition (Mager, 1984,p. 33).
 Objectives

Spesific statement that use to describe a course or curriculum was extensive and more
detailed. In make objectives in learning activity is do not ambiguity. As cited in
Gagne, M.at al. (2005) that Ambiguity in the meaning of courses with tide or topic
designation can readily be avoided when courses are described in terms of the course
objectives (Mager, 1975; Popham & Baker, 1970).

Categories of Learning Outcomes

As cited in Brown (2016) Gagne states that there are five possible types of learning outcome :

1. Intelectual skill

Intelectual skill is the ability to distinguish, combine, classify and analyze. Intelectual
skills are best describe as thing we do with symbols, like putting things into categories,
applying rule and principles, and solving problem (Gagne, M.at al. 2005).

2. Cognitive Strategy

Cognitive strategy is some instruction to develop the thinking skills that will make
students strategic and flexible learners. As cited in Gagne, M.at al. (2005) that classified five
strategies students use in retrieving information from the web : browsing, analytical,
empirical, known site, and similarity (M Pejtersen, Dunlop, and Fidel, 1999)

3. Verbal Information
 Gagne, M.at al. (2005) State that “Verbal information is the kind of knowlwdge we
are able to state”. Verbal information happens when we have to review something we already
know beforehand.

4. Attitude

Attitude is some manner, disposition, ability that do by person to other person or

thing, orientation especially in the mind. According to Gagne, M.at al. (2005) State that “ A
student learns to have preferences for various kinds of activities, preferring certain people to
others, showing an interest in certain events rather than others.

5. Motor skill

Motorik skill is a term used to describe what someone can do. In addition, The
acquisition of a motor skill can be reasonably inferred when students can perform the act in
variety of context. (Gagne, M.at al. 2005)

Designing Intruction Using Human Capabilities

Need Analysis

To determain what is needed by an individual in the learning process is to do a need

analysis. Need analysis involves doing some kind of activity with a learner in order to find
out what their leaening needs are. Need analysis is an important concept because it not only
identifies desirable goals, but it also attempts to quantify the current state of affairs so that
progress towards meeting the goals can be measured.
 Reference

Gagne, Robert M, wager, Walter W Golas, Katharine C. Keller, John M (2005). Principles of
Instructional Design. (5th ed.) Thomson.

Harden, Ronald M (2002). Learing outcomes and instructional objectives:Is there a

difference?. ResearchGate.

Schunk, D.H (1991). Learning Theories: An Educational Research.

Gagne, R.M (1985). The Conditions of Learning and Theory of Intruction (4th ed.).New
York:CBS College Publishing.

Smith, P.L., & Ragan, T.J. (1996). Impact of R.M. Gagne’s work on intructional theory.
Association for Educational Communication and Technology.