Clearing the Site

When the site is located in a wooded area, the first operation is to clear all timber,
standing or fallen. If camouflage is necessary, trees or brush outside the designated
cleared area should not be removed. Construction equipment operations are usually the
most rapid and efficient means of clearing a site. Use of the equipment is limited only by
unusually large trees and stumps–terrain which hinders their maneuverability and
maintenance requirements. The construction equipment used include bulldozers,
winches, power saws, rippers, motor graders, and scrapers. In addition, hand tools
are used in certain clearing operations. Brush may be disposed of by burning on the site;
however, check to see if a burn permit is required. Timber of suitable dimensions
should be stockpiled at the perimeter of the site. This timber should be saved for
possible use in construction of loading ramps. All stumps, roots, boulders,
vegetation, and rubbish must be excavated and moved clear of the site.

Setting out Processes in

Construction and Civil
Engineering
Setting out is the process by which information is taken from the construction design
drawings, and pegs, profiles or other marks are then set to control the construction
works and ensure that each element of the works is constructed in the right position
and to the correct level.
Learners will work with traditional methods to achieve an understanding of the
essential mathematical and practical skills required for the Setting out process,
including the application of basic principles of techniques to ensure appropriate
levels of accuracy. The use of modern electronic instruments and awareness of
emerging technology will also be addressed.
Construction projects are normally designed on a coordinate grid and calculations are
carried out to convert these into a form useful for setting out. Learners must attain a
reasonable standard of arithmetic and trigonometry in order to successfully complete
this unit. Spreadsheets and dedicated software play an important role in reducing the
calculation load for the engineer.
This is essentially a practical unit, through which learners will come to understand
setting out as a key part of the construction process, and be able to carry out the
standard tasks and calculations involved.

Foundation

Whenever construction workers begin work on a new building, they must first assess where
and how they will build the foundation. The foundation is a structure, commonly made of
concrete for homes, that transfers the weight of the building onto the earth below. There are
different types of foundation designs and each serves a different specific purpose, but
generally, every foundation works to transfer the weight load of a structure to the soil
beneath.

Most small and medium homes are built upon a shallow foundation. These are usually
comprised of concrete strips that are laid about a meter beneath the soil, or of a single large
concrete slab that is also set about a meter beneath the soil. When applicable, the foundation
will extend beneath the frost line. When engineers design the foundation of a building, they
must keep in mind how much the soil will settle beneath the foundation, as well as how much
weight will go on top of the foundation. If calculated incorrectly, the foundation may fail and
place the entire structure in peril.

Larger buildings use a deep foundation rather than a shallow foundation. A deep foundation
uses long pylons of steel or concrete to penetrate deep beyond the weaker surface soils into
the deeper and more stable soils or bedrock beneath. The load from walls above are
transferred deep into the earth, thereby providing support for the intense weight above. Much
like the considerations for a shallow foundation, engineers must consider weight and
settlement, as well as scour -- or, water eroding soil beneath the structure.

For structures being built in colder climates, engineers must consider frost heaves as well.
Frost heaves occur when moisture in the soil freezes, thereby changing the density of the
foundation's support. A frost heave can cause damage to the foundation, thereby
compromising the structural integrity of the entire building. Drier, warmer climates are not
entirely exempt from such worries, however: certain soils will expand and contract when
moisture is added or taken away, and engineers must factor in such movement when
considering where and how to lay a foundation.

Retaining wall

A retaining wall is a structure designed and constructed to resist the lateral pressure of soil
when there is a desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle of repose of the
soil. The active pressure increases on the retaining wall proportionally from zero at the upper
grade level to a maximum value at the lowest depth of the wall. The total pressure or thrust
may be assumed to be acting through the centroid of the triangular distribution pattern, one-
third above the base of the wall.[1]

definition

Retaining walls serve to retain the lateral pressure of soil. The basement wall is thus one form
of retaining wall.

However, the term is most often used to refer to a cantilever retaining wall, which is a
freestanding structure without lateral support at its top. [2]
Terminology.jpg

Typically retaining walls are cantilevered from a footing extending up beyond the grade on one
side and retaining a higher level grade on the opposite side. The walls must resist the lateral
pressures generated by loose soils or, in some cases, water pressures. [3]

The most important consideration in proper design and installation of retaining walls is to
recognize and counteract the fact that the retained material is attempting to move forward
and downslope due to gravity. This creates lateral earth pressure behind the wall which
depends on the angle of internal friction (phi) and the cohesive strength (c) of the retained
material, as well as the direction and magnitude of movement the retaining structure
undergoes.

Lateral earth pressures are typically smallest at the top of the wall and increase toward the
bottom. Earth pressures will push the wall forward or overturn it if not properly addressed.
Also, any groundwater behind the wall that is not dissipated by a drainage system causes an
additional horizontal hydrostatic pressure on the wall.[4]

It is very important to have proper drainage behind the wall as it is critical to the performance
of retaining walls. Drainage materials will reduce or eliminate the hydrostatic pressure and will
therefore greatly improve the stability of the material behind the wall, assuming that this is
not a retaining wall for water.

Earth Pressure Method For Retaining Walls

Cantilever walls

When designing sheet retaining walls it is normal to assume that the

effective lateral stresses acting on the wall are given by simple
RANKINE active and passive zones. Friction on the wall is usually
ignored as this leads to conservative (safe) designs.
Rankine Active and Passive Pressures
The earth pressures acting on the wall are strongly dependent on the
deformations in the surrounding soil. When the wall moves away from
the soil the stress on the wall drops reaching a minimum, the ACTIVE
pressure, with the soil deforming plastically. When the wall moves
into the soil the stress increases, finally reaching a maximum, the
PASSIVE pressure, when again the soil is deforming plastically.
For most retaining walls the long term, fully drained, situation usually
governs the wall stability. For the analysis of fully drained conditions
the Mohr-Coulomb criterion needs to be expressed in terms of effective
stress using the effective strength parameters c´ and ?´. For design it
is also conservative to use the critical state strength parameters, that
is c´ = 0 and ?’ = ?’ v. The effective lateral stresses on the wall are
then
Ka and Kp are known as the active and passive earth pressure
coefficients. For soil at failure the earth pressure coefficients are
simply related by

.
For any vertical wall it is possible to relate the horizontal effective
stress to the vertical effective stress, determined from the vertical
overburden, by an earth pressure coefficient. The coefficient will
depend on the slope of the soil surface and the wall roughness.
Published values are available for many situations.

Stability – Limiting Equilibrium

When assessing the stability it is normal to assume triangular pressure
distributions, and this is in fact quite realistic if the wall is rigid. For a
cantilever wall the stresses acting at failure will then be as shown
below, with the wall rotating about a point just above the toe of the
wall. The stability of the wall depends mainly on the passive force
developed below the excavation.

For design we need to determine the required depth of penetration for

stability and then to size the wall to resist the maximum moment. To
determine the depth of penetration required for a given height H we
need to consider both moment and force equilibrium:
?F=0
 ?M=0
If the soil is dry the pressures and forces are as shown below

We have 2 equations with 2 unknowns, x and d, and hence we can

determine the required depth of penetration for the wall. The
equations can be solved graphically or by computer. Alternatively
simplifying assumptions about the forces below the pivot can be made
to enable analytical solutions to be obtained as described in many text
books.
Serviceability – Design requirements
By considering the stability we can obtain the limiting stresses on the
wall, but the wall would have been considered to have failed from a
serviceability viewpoint well before this, owing to large settlements in
the supported soil. The design approach is to factor the earth
pressures.
There are two main design approaches which are both based on the
knowledge that the earth pressures acting on the wall are strongly
dependent on the deformations in the surrounding soil. The
movements required to reach the active and passive conditions depend
on the soil type and can be quite different. For example, for retaining
walls of height H the movements required are approximately:
Sand Active 0.001H
Passive 0.05H – 0.1H
Clay Normally Active 0.004H
Consolidated Passive Large
Over- Active 0.025H
Consolidated Passive 0.025H
Method 1 – Sands and normally consolidated clay
Assume that sufficient movement occurs to allow active (minimum)
pressures to develop, and then factor the effective passive pressures
by 2. Note that where insufficient movement of the wall occurs the
active pressures will not reach minimum and higher pressures will act
on the wall. These must be allowed for in design as they can influence
the required structural strength.
Consider the same wall as above with H = 1.8, ?d = 19 kN/m3, ?´ =
30o
The pressure diagram looks identical but the passive pressures are
reduced by using a reduced value of the passive earth pressure
coefficient, K*p.
Where K*p = Kp/2 = 1.5 and K*a = Ka = 0.3333 as before.
Hence d = 2.94 m
The total depth of sheet pile required = 1.8 + 2.94 = 4.74 m
Some texts recommend increasing the depth of penetration by a
further 10-20% to allow for uncertainties in the analysis. Alternatively
some design codes recommend assuming the top 0.5 m of the soil
beneath the excavation provides no restraining effect.
Method 2 – Over-consolidated clays
Here both active and passive pressures are developed for similar
movements and both are factored. This is achieved by dividing tan?’
by a Factor F?, and using the reduced angle of friction when calculating
the earth pressure coefficients K*a, K*p. The factor F? can be in the
range from 1.2 to 1.5, depending on the allowable settlement and soil
type, but is usually taken as 1.3.
As for method 1 it is assumed that the shape of the pressure diagram
is similar to that at limiting equilibrium, but in this case the passive
pressures are reduced and the active pressures increased.
Structural strength
Having determined the required depth of penetration, the next stage in
design is to calculate the maximum moment in the wall so that an
appropriate wall thickness and strength can be selected. The position
down the wall of the maximum moment can be found by determining

where the shear stress in the wall is zero. ( )

Consider a free body diagram of a section of the wall

A quadratic equation that can be solved for z using appropriate

(factored) values for Kp, Ka.
Then taking moments
Note that as the factor of safety increases the maximum moment also
increases.
The factor of safety can be dramatically reduced by surcharge loadings
on the supported ground next to the wall. For a uniform surcharge
then the effective active pressure can be increased by Ka ss, while for a
concentrated load from a footing the Coulomb method of trial wedges
can be used to determine the active force on the wall. In the latter
situation allowance must be made for the fact that the point of
application of the load will also change.

Consideration must also be given to the water pressures acting on the

wall.

For economic reasons cantilever walls are usually limited to

excavations less than 6 m deep.
They are often used to support low banks of free draining sand and
gravel soils.
They are not suitable for the long term support of soft clayey soils
(clay or silt)
Corrosion can also be a problem with steel sheet piles

Wall Failure

Walls are commonly used to retain soil on sloping sites, water in a pond or bulk products
within a storage area. There are several limiting conditions which, if exceeded, can lead
to the failure of a retaining wall. Each must be addressed in designing a wall.

1 Overturning - This occurs when the turning moment due to lateral forces exceeds that
due to the self-weight of the wall. The factor of safety against overturning should be at
least two.

2 Sliding - The wall will slide if the lateral thrust exceeds the frictional resistance
developed between the base of the wall and the soil. The factor of safety against sliding
should be about two.

3 Bearing on Ground - The normal pressure between the base of the wall and the soil
beneath can cause a bearing failure of the soil, if the ultimate bearing capacity is
exceeded. Usually the allowable bearing pressure will be one-third of the ultimate value.
Note that the pressure distribution across the base is not constant.

Description
This section is from the book "Modern Buildings, Their Planning, Construction And
Equipment Vol1", by G. A. T. Middleton. Also available from Amazon: Modern
Buildings.

Timbering To Excavations. Continued

Fig. 77.

Excavations To Pier Shafts

When excavating for a shaft a hole is excavated as deep as possible without the earth
falling in. Vertical sheeting from 9 by 1 inch to 9 by 2 1/2 inches, according to the nature
of the soil, is temporally strutted against the faces of the excavation

Walings running right across the excavation are held in position against two opposite
sides and strutted by means of walings forced between them against the other two sides.
Cleats are fixed to the ends of the first pair of walings, so as to prevent the other pair of
walings from being forced out of position.

Another layer of earth is now excavated and a second tier of sheeting is placed with the
upper end overlapping the lower end of the first tier, and a second row of walings is
inserted to secure both tiers together, and uprights are placed tightly between the walings
at the corners of the shaft.
When the shaft is of considerable depth the timbering is prevented from sliding down the
shaft by making one pair of walings to project well beyond the shaft at the top and to rest
upon the surface of the ground, as in Fig. 78, a timber being notched over all the walings
to act as a tie. If the shaft be very deep a pair of the bottom walings is buried in the side
of the cutting, being formed in two pieces with a keyed and scarfed joint in the middle
similar to A (Fig. 251 and Plate VI.).

Excavations to shafts should never be less than 4 feet square, as a man cannot work in a
less space than this.

The above system of timbering may be used for shafts up to about 10 feet square; but if
shafts larger than this have to be sunk, the system shown in Fig. 79 must be used. In this
case the sheeting and waling pieces are inserted as explained with reference to Fig. 78,
and two struts are placed at right angles to one another across the centre of the shaft, one
of these struts being in one piece and the other in two pieces, the ends of the latter being
supported at one end by small pieces of timber placed between the side walings and the
uprights, and at the other end by similar small pieces of timber placed between the central
struts and uprights, as shown by the disjointed details in Fig. 79.

Plan.
Fig. 78.

Excavating Tunnels
It is sometimes far more economical to cut tunnels for such work as drain laying than to
excavate very deep trenches. These tunnels may be of any size; but they are usually just
large enough to enable one man to work, i.e. not less than 4 feet square. The method of
excavating' a tunnel is as follows: If the soil is good, sections from 2 to 3 feet long are
dug out, poling boards are then temporarily-fixed round the opening, a head-piece held in
position, and finally strutted by means of upright struts, as shown in Fig. 80, these latter
being kept in position by spiking them to the head or by having cleats fixed to the head.
Another length of tunnel is excavated and another series of poling pieces is inserted with
the ends overlapping the first series of poling pieces, and another frame composed of
head and struts is fixed against these overlapping ends.
Detail of A.

Fig. 79. Detaill of B.

Failure Of Timbering
Serious accidents happen from time to time owing to the failure of timbering in
excavations. This failure is usually due to one of the following two reasons: -
Fig. 80.

1. The struts fail under the pressure of the earth; or,

2. The struts drop out by the shrinkage of the soil.

1. This is perhaps the most frequent cause of failure, as the pressure from soils is often
underestimated, particularly that of clay soils, which sometimes swell with enormous
force when exposed to the atmosphere. When excavations are made in soft soil in the
vicinity of heavy buildings the lateral pressure of the soil is usually very great.

To prevent such failures the timber should be of ample size, and should be examined
before being inserted in the excavations, and all faulty pieces rejected; while in very deep
trenches the struts in the lower parts of the trenches should be larger than those near the
surface.

2. To prevent struts dropping out of place they should be examined from time to time and
tightened when necessary; but a better plan is to spike them to the walings or to fix cleats
underneath them. The struts supporting stages should always be spiked or fixed in some
way, as they are very likely to become loosened by the weight and motion of the
excavator, who stands upon them to work.

Retaining Walls - Types

By Tim Carter
©1993-2010 Tim Carter

Summary: Retaining walls create level surfaces in sloping areas. Build a retaining wall
improperly and nature will regain her curves! Ancient civilizations have passed on
knowledge of how to build a retaining wall. Four ways of building retaining walls have
been used and improved through time, and these types are discussed here.

Retaining Walls

Many of us live in parts of the country that are not so level. The geography and
topography can range from slightly rolling to mountainous. Those of us who do live in
these regions are quite familiar with retaining walls. These walls allow us to create steps
or level areas on a sloped surface. However, if constructed improperly, the forces of
nature (gravity, water, etc.) will topple a retaining wall in short order.

Retaining walls have been in use for thousands of years. The Romans used retaining
walls to aid in the construction of their famous roads. Many of the castles in Europe
incorporated retaining walls into their design. Hillside rice paddies in Asia have
depended on retaining walls for hundreds of years. Trial and error construction methods
of the past and advancements in engineering knowledge have indicated that four basic
types of retaining walls seem to perform quite well. Each design has its limitations
however. The four basic types of retaining walls are: gravity wall; cantilever wall;
counterfort wall; and buttressed wall.

Gravity Walls

A gravity retaining wall is usually a low height (less than 3 to 4 feet) wall which depends
on its own weight or mass to hold back the earth behind it. This goal is achieved by
constructing the wall with a volume of material so that when stacked together, the weight
and friction of the interlocking material exceeds the forces of the earth behind it. The wall
is thicker at the base than at the top. Also, note that as the front of the wall gets taller it
slants backwards. This is often referred to as 'battering'.

This battering effect creates a visual message of strength, as over time, the wall will
probably succumb to the forces of gravity and begin to tilt outward. By battering the wall
backwards, you extend the visual life of the wall. Retaining walls that appear to be
tipping over, tend to indicate faulty construction and impending failure.

Walls that are battered send a visual message that the wall is 'working' and that it is
continuing to beat the force of gravity. Gravity walls become very cumbersome to
construct as they get higher, because they require vast quantities of materials. The
thickness of a gravity wall at its base should be one half to three fourths its height. So, if
you intend to build a wall 4 feet high, the base should be 2 to 3 feet wide. As the wall
gets higher, it begins to get thinner.

Cantilever Walls

A cantilever retaining wall is one that consists of a uniform thickness wall which is tied
to a footing. A cantilever wall usually is asked to hold back a significant amount of earth,
so it is a good practice to have these walls engineered. A simple example of a cantilever
retaining wall is a typical basement wall of a house.

The width of the footing for a cantilever wall is very important. The footing is designed
to resist tipping or sliding forces which the earth exerts upon the wall. Also, the wide area
of the footer allows the weight of the earth to actually keep the wall from tipping in some
instances.

These walls require significant steel reinforcing in both the footer and the wall structures.
The steel also has to extend from within the footer up into the wall so that the two pieces
actually become one integral unit. As you can see, this is why these walls need to be
designed by structural engineers. If you try to guess yourself at the amount, size and
placement of structural steel in this type of wall, you are gambling.

Also, the thickness of both the footer and the wall is extremely critical. Don't be a fool
and try to become a weekend engineer. Spend several hundred dollars and get it right the
first time!

Counterfort Retaining Walls

A counterfort retaining wall is very similar to a cantilever wall, except that it has one
additional feature. This wall has a triangular shaped wall which connects the top of the
wall to the back of the footer. This added support wall is hidden within the earthen or
gravel backfill of the wall. The footer, retaining wall and support wall must be tied to one
another with reinforcing steel.

If the structure is poured concrete, often the retaining wall section and the support walls
are poured as one unit at the same time. The support walls add a great deal of strength to
the retaining wall. The supports make it virtually impossible for the wall to become
detached from the footer. As with cantilever walls, a counterfort wall should be designed
by a competent structural engineer.

If you decide to attempt to construct this type of wall without approved plans, you are
making a huge mistake. If the wall fails, the cost to remove the failed wall, construct the
new one, etc. could be ten times or one hundred or more times the cost of engineering
services. Remember, engineers have to eat just like you and me!

Buttressed Retaining Walls

A buttressed retaining wall is basically identical to a counterfort wall except for one
thing. The support wall is on the outside of the retaining wall. They are visible. The
buttresses add incredible strength to the wall system. For the retaining wall to fail or tip
over, the buttresses would have to be crushed. The buttress concept was widely used in
the construction of many cathedrals in Europe.
Because of the height of the cathedral walls, the buttresses helped to stabilize them. They
do the exact same thing in a retaining wall. Once again, if you intend to build one of these
walls, you must give serious consideration to hiring an engineer. Situations which
demand this type of wall usually have tremendous loads which bear against the walls.
The buttresses can often be designed to be decorative in nature and covered with stone or
some other material. Depending upon the overall length of the wall, you may have
several buttresses. They can be spaced to create rooms, parking spaces, handball courts or
any other functional space.

Definition:

A half-timbered building has exposed wood framing. The spaces between the wooden
timbers are filled with plaster, brick, or stone.

In Medieval times, many European houses were half-timbered. The structural timbers
were exposed. In the United States, harsh winters made half-timbered construction
impractical. The plaster and masonry filling between the timbers could not keep out cold
drafts. Builders began to cover exterior walls with wood or masonry.

During the 1800s, it became fashionable to imitate Medieval building techniques.

Timbers were applied to exterior wall surfaces as decoration. False half-timbering
became a popular type of ornamentation in many nineteenth and twentieth century house
styles, including: