UNIT - 1

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

The silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is a three terminal semiconductor switching

device which can be used as a controlled switch to perform various functions such as
rectification, inversion and regulation of power flow.

An SCR can handle currents upto several thousand amperes and voltages upto more than
1kV.

The SCR has appeared in the market under different names such as thyristor, thyrode
transistor.

Like the diode, SCR is a unidirectional device,i.e. it will only conduct current in one direction
only, but unlike a diode, the SCR can be made to operate as either an open-circuit switch or
as a rectifying diode depending upon how its gate is triggered.

In other words, SCR can operate only in the switching mode and cannot be used for
amplification.

Hence, it is extensively used in switching D.C. and a.c., rectifying a.c. to give controlled
output, converting D.C. into a.c. etc.

Constuctional Details of SCR

When a pn junction is added to a junction transistor, the resulting three pn junction’s device
is called a silicon controlled rectifier.

It is clear that it is essentially an ordinary rectifier (pn) and a junction transistor (npn)
combined in one unit to form pnpn device.

Three terminals are taken; one from the outer p-type material called anode A, second from
the outer layer of n-type material called cathode K and the third from the base of transistor
section and is called gate G.

In the normal operating conditions of SCR, anode is held at high positive potential w.r.t.
cathode and gate at small positive potential w.r.t. cathode.
Fig.1 (ii) shows the symbol of SCR.

Fig.1 (ii)

Working of SCR

In a silicon controlled rectifier, load is connected in series with anode.

The anode is always kept at positive potential w.r.t. cathode.

The working of SCR can be studied under the following two heads:

1. When gate is open:

Fig.2 shows the SCR circuit with gate open i.e. no voltage applied to the gate.

Fig.2

Under this condition, junction J2 is reverse biased while junction J1 and J3are forward biased.
Hence, the situation in the junctions J1 and J3 is just as in a npn transistor with base open.

Consequently, no current flows through the load RL and the SCR is cut off.

However, if the applied voltage is gradually increased, a stage is reached when the reverse
biased junction J2 breaks down.

The SCR now conducts heavily and is said to be in the ON state.

The applied voltage at which SCR conducts heavily without gate voltage is called Breakover
voltage.

2. When gate is positive w.r.t. cathode

The SCR can be made to conduct heavily at smaller applied voltage by applying a small
positive potential to the gate as shown in fig.3.

Fig.3

Now junction J3 is forward biased and junction J2 is reverse biased.

The electrons from n-type material start moving across junction J3 towards left whereas holes
from p-type towards the right.

Consequently, the electrons from junction J3 are attracted across the junction J2 and gate
current starts flowing .

As soon as the gate current flows, anode current increases.

The increased current in turn makes more electrons available at junction J2.

This process continues and in an extremely small time, junction J 2 breaks down and the SCR
starts conducting heavily.

Once SCR starts conducting, the gate loses all control. Even if gate voltage is removed, the
anode current does not decrease at all.

The only way to stop conduction i.e. to bring the SCR in off condition, is to reduce the
applied voltage to zero.
Conclusion
The following conclusions are drawn from the working of SCR:

1. An SCR has two states i.e. either it does not conduct or it conducts heavily. There is no
state in between. Therefore, SCR behaves like a switch.

2. There are two ways to turn on the SCR. The first method is to keep the gate open and
make the supply voltage equal to the breakover voltage. The second method is to operate
SCR with supply voltage less than breakover voltage and then turn it on by means of a
small voltage applied to the gate.

3. Applying small positive voltage to the gate is the normal way to close an SCR because
the breakover voltage is usually much greater than supply voltage.

4. To open the SCR e. to make it non-conducting, reduce the supply voltage to zero.

Equivalent Circuit of SCR

The SCR shown in fig.4 (i) can be visualized as separated into two transistors as shown in
fig.4 (ii).

Fig.4

Thus, the equivalent circuit of SCR is composed of pnp transistor and npn transistor
connected as shown in fig 4.(iii).

It is clear that collector of each transistor is coupled to the base of of the other, thereby
making a positive feedback loop.

The working of SCR can be easily explained from its equivalent circuit.

Fig.5 shows the equivalent circuit of SCR with supply voltage V and load resistance R L.
 Fig.5

Assume the supply voltage V is less than breakover voltage as is usually the case.

With gate open (i.e. switch S open), there is no base current in transistor TR2. Therefore, no
current flows in the collector of TR2 and hence that of TR1.

Under such conditions, the SCR is open.

However, if the switch S is closed, a small gate current will flow through the base of
TR2 which means its collector current will increase.

The collector current of TR2 is the base current of TR1. Therefore, collector current of
TR1 increases.

But collector current of TR1 is the base current of TR2. This action is accumulative since an
increase of current in one transistor causes an increase of current in the other transistor.

As a result of this action, both transistors are driven into saturation, and hence heavy current
flows through the load RL.

Under such conditions, the SCR closes.

Working of Silicon Controlled Rectifier

The silicon controlled rectifier works in three mode of operations

1. Forward Blocking Mode

2. Reverse Blocking Mode
3. Forward Conduction Mode
4.
Forward Blocking Mode:In this mode of operation, the anode terminal of silicon control
rectifier is connected to positive terminal of the power supply and cathode terminal is
connected at the negative terminal of the power supply. While the zero voltage is an applied
at gate terminal. In this condition the junction J1, J2 would be forward biased and junction J3
would be reverse biased then there would be a small current flow from anode to cathode that
is called leakage current. Due to this leakage current the voltages across anode and cathode
increased until the breakdown the occurred between anode and cathode. The voltage at which
the breakdown is occurred is called breakdown voltage and this mode is called forward
blocking mode.
Reverse Blocking Mode: In this mode of operation the anode terminal is connected to the
negative terminal of the power supply and cathode terminal is connected to positive terminal
to the power supply. In this mode of operation, the current also can’t flows from anode to
cathode and block the voltage this silicon control rectifier. Normally the forward blocking
voltages and reverse blocking voltages are almost same.

Forward Conduction Mode: In this mode of operation the anode terminal is connected at
positive terminal of power supply, cathode terminal is connected at negative terminal of
power supply and positive pulse voltages are applied at gate terminal. When these positive
voltages are applied at gate terminal then the silicon control rectifier is forward biased and
current flows from anode to cathode. This mode is called forward conduction mode. Once it
is forward biased then there is no need of any voltages at gate terminal. It would be in on
state until it would be turned off. Two ways are applied for turned off this silicon control
rectifier either the gate current is reduced by the holding current or anode and cathode are
shorted through any transistor or push button.

DIAC Construction Operation and Applications of DIAC

Diac is a device which has two electrodes. It is a member of the thyristorfamily. It is mainly
used in triggering of thyristor.

The advantage of using this device is that it can be turned on or off simply by reducing the
voltage level below its avalanche breakdown voltage.

Also, it can be either turned on or off for both the polarity of voltages. This device works
when avalanche breakdown occurs.

The figure shows a symbol of diac which resembles the connection of two diodes in series.
Also it can be called as a transistor without base.
Construction of Diac
It is a device which consists of four layers and two terminals. The construction is almost
same as that of the transistor. But there are certain points which deviate from the construction
from the transistor. The differentiating points are-

1. There is no base terminal in the diac.

2. The three regions have almost the same level of doping.
3. It gives symmetrical switching characteristics for either polarity of voltages.

Operation of Diac
From the figure, we see that it has two p-type material and three n-type materials. Also it
does not have any gate terminal in it.

The diac can be turned on for both the polarity of voltages.

When A2 is more positive with respect to A1 then the current does not flows through the
corresponding N-layer but flows from P2-N2-P1-N1.

When A1 is more positive A2 then the current flows through P1-N2-P2-N3.

The construction resembles the diode connected in series.

When applied voltage is small in either polarity, a very small current flows which is known
as leakage current because of drift of electrons and holes in the depletion region. Although a
small current flows, but it is not sufficient enough to produce avalanche breakdown so the
device remains in the non conducting state.

When the applied voltage in either polarity exceeds the breakdown voltage, diac current rises
and the device conducts in accordance with its V-I characteristics.

The V-I characteristics resembles the english word Z. The diac acts as open circuit when the
voltage is less than its avalanche breakdown voltage.

When the device has to be turned off, the voltage must be reduced below its avalanche
breakdown voltage.

Application of Diac
It can be used mainly in the triac triggering circuit. The diac is connected in the gate terminal
of the triac. When the voltage across the gate decreases below a predetermined value, the gate
voltage will be zero and hence the triac will be turned off.

The main applications are-

1. It can be used in the lamp dimmer circuit.
2. It is used in the heat control circuit.
3. It is used in the speed control of a universal motor.

It is used with triac in series combination for triggering. The gate of triac is connected with a
terminal of the diac. When applied voltage across diac increases above the avalanche
breakdown, then only it can conduct. However, when the voltage across diac decreases below
its avalanche breakdown voltage it will be turned off and hence the triac will also remain in
the off state.
TRIAC Construction Operation and Applications of TRIAC

Triac is a three terminal AC switch which is different from the other silicon controlled
rectifiers in the sense that it can conduct in both the directions that is whether the applied gate
signal is positive or negative, it will conduct.

Thus, this device can be used for AC systems as a switch.

This is a three terminal, four layer, bi-directional semiconductor device that controls AC
power.

The triac of maximum rating of 16 kw is available in the market.

Figure shows the symbol of triac, which has two main terminals MT1 and MT2connected in
inverse parallel and a gate terminal.

Construction of Triac
Two SCRs are connected in inverse parallel with gate terminal as common.

Gate terminals is connected to both the N and P regions due to which gate signal may be
applied which is irrespective of the polarity of the signal.

Here, we do not have anode and cathode since it works for both the polarities which means
that device is bilateral.

It consists of three terminals namely, main terminal 1(MT1), main terminal 2(MT2), and gate
terminal G.
Figure shows the construction of a triac. There are two main terminals namely MT1 and MT2
and the remaining terminal is gate terminal.

Operation of Triac
The triac can be turned on by applying the gate voltage higher than break over voltage.
However, without making the voltage high, it can be turned on by applying the gate pulse of
35 micro seconds to turn it on. When the voltageapplied is less than the break over voltage,
we use gate triggering method to turn it on.

There are four different modes of operations, they are-

1. When MT2 and Gate being Positive with Respect to MT1

When this happens, current flows through the path P1-N1-P2-N2. Here, P1-N1 and P2-
N2 are forward biased but N1-P2 is reverse biased. The triac is said to be operated in
positively biased region. Positive gate with respect to MT1 forward biases P2-N2 and
breakdown occurs.

2. When MT2 is Positive but Gate is Negative with Respect to MT1

The current flows through the path P1-N1-P2-N2. But P2-N3 is forward biased and
current carriers injected into P2 on the triac.

3. When MT2 and Gate are Negative with Respect to MT1

Current flows through the path P2-N1-P1-N4. Two junctions P2-N1 and P1-N4 are
forward biased but the junction N1-P1 is reverse biased. The triac is said to be in the
negatively biased region.

4. When MT2 is Negative but Gate is Positive with Respect to MT1

P2-N2 is forward biased at that condition. Current carriers are injected so the triac
 turns on. This mode of operation has a disadvantage that it should not be used for high
(di/dt) circuits. Sensitivity of triggering in mode 2 and 3 is high and if marginal
triggering capability is required, negative gate pulses should be used. Triggering in
mode 1 is more sensitive than mode 2 and mode 3.

Characteristics of a Triac
The triac characteristics is similar to SCR but it is applicable to both positive and negative
triac voltages. The operation can be summarized as follows-
First Quadrant Operation of Triac
Voltage at terminal MT2 is positive with respect to terminal MT1 and gate voltage is also
positive with respect to first terminal.
Second Quadrant Operation of Triac
Voltage at terminal 2 is positive with respect to terminal 1 and gate voltage is negative with
respect to terminal 1.

Third Quadrant Operation of Triac

Voltage of terminal 1 is positive with respect to terminal 2 and the gate voltage is negative.

Fourth Quadrant Operation of Triac

Voltage of terminal 2 is negative with respect to terminal 1 and gate voltage is positive.

When the device gets turned on, a heavy current flows through it which may damage the
device, hence in order to limit the current a current limiting resistorshould be connected
externally to it. By applying proper gate signal, firing angle of the device may be controlled.
The gate triggering circuits should be used for proper gate triggering.

We can use diac for triggering the gate pulse. For firing of the device with proper firing
angle, a gate pulse may be applied up to a duration of 35 micro seconds.
Advantages of Triac
1. It can be triggered with positive or negative polarity of gate pulses.
2. It requires only a single heat sink of slightly larger size, whereas for SCR, two heat
sinks should be required of smaller size.
3. It requires single fuse for protection.
4. A safe breakdown in either direction is possible but for SCR protection should be
given with parallel diode.

Disadvantages of Triac
1. They are not much reliable compared to SCR.
2. It has (dv/dt) rating lower than SCR.
3. Lower ratings are available compared to SCR.
4. We need to be careful about the triggering circuit as it can be triggered in either
direction.

Uses of Triac
1. They are used in control circuits.
2. It is used in High power lamp switching.
3. It is used in AC power control.

What is Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

UJT stands for UniJunction Transistor.

It is a three terminal semiconductor switching device. The Unijunction Transistor is a simple
device that consists of a bar of n-type silicon material with a non-rectifying contact at either
end (base 1 and base 2), and with a rectifying contact (emitter) alloyed into the bar part way
along its length, to form the only junction within the device (hence the name ‘Unijunction’).
The Unijunction Transistor is also known as Double Base Diode.

The unique switching characteristics of UJT makes it different from conventional BJT’s and
FET’s by acting as switching transistor instead of amplifying the signals. It exhibits negative
resistance in its characteristics which employs it as relaxation oscillators in variety of
applications.

Symbol and Construction of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

In Unijunction Transistor, the PN Junction is formed by lightly doped N type silicon bar with
heavily doped P type material on one side. The ohmic contact on either ends of the silicon bar
is termed as Base 1 (B1) and Base 2 (B2) and P-type terminal is named as emitter.
 Fig. 2 – Basic Construction & Symbol of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
The emitter junction is placed such that it is more close to terminal Base 2 than Base 1. The
symbols of both UJT and JFET resemble the same except the emitter arrowhead represents
the direction in which conventional current flow, but they operate differently.

How does a Unijunction Transistor (UJT) works

The simplified equivalent circuit (at Figure 3 below) shows that N-type channel consists of
two resistors RB2 and RB1 in series with an equivalent diode, D representing the PN
junction. The emitter PN junction is fixed along the ohmic channel during its manufacturing
process.

Fig. 3 – Simplified Equivalent Circuit of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

The variable resistance RB1 is provided between the terminals Emitter (E) and Base 1 (B1),
the RB2 between the terminals Emitter (E) and Base 2 (B2). Since the PN junction is more
close to B2, the value of RB2 will be less than the variable resistance RB1.
 A voltage divider network is formed by the series resistances RB2 and RB1. When a voltage
is applied across the semiconductor device, the potential will be in proportion to the position
of base points along the channel.

The Emitter (E) will act as input when employed in a circuit, as the terminal B1 will be
grounded. The terminal B2 will be positive biased to B1, when a voltage (VBB) applied across
the terminals B1 and B2. When the emitter input is zero, the voltage across resistance RB1 of
the voltage divider circuit is calculated by

The important parameter of Unijunction Transistor is ‘intrinsic stand-off ratio’ (η), which is
resistive ratio of RB1 to RBB. Most UJT’s have η value ranging from 0.5 to 0.8. The PN
junction is reverse biased; when small amount of voltage which is less than voltage
developed across resistance RB1 (ηVBB) is applied across the terminal emitter (E).
Thus a very high impedance is developed prompting device to move into non-conducting
state i.e., it will be switched off and no current flows through it. The UJT begins to conduct
when the PN junction is forward biased.

The forward biased is achieved when voltage applied across emitter terminal is increased and
becomes more than VRB1. This results in larger flow of emitter current from emitter region
to base region. Increase in emitter current reduces the resistance between emitter and Base 1,
resulting in negative resistance at emitter terminal.

The Unijunction Transistor (UJT) will act as voltage breakdown device, when the input
applied between emitter and base 1 reduces below breakdown value i.e., RB1 increases to a
higher value. This shows that RB1 depends on the emitter current and it is variable.

Characteristics Curve of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

The characteristics of Unijunction Transistor (UJT) can be explained by three parameters:

 Cutoff
 Negative Resistance Region
 Saturation
 Fig. 4 – Characteristics of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
Cutoff

Cutoff region is the area where the Unijunction Transistor (UJT) doesn’t get sufficient
voltage to turn on. The applied voltage hasn’t reached the triggering voltage, thus making
transistor to be in off state.

Negative Resistance Region

When the transistor reaches the triggering voltage, VTRIG, Unijunction Transistor (UJT) will
turn on. After a certain time, if the applied voltage increases to the emitter lead, it will reach
out at VPEAK. The voltage drops from VPEAK to Valley Point even though the current increases
(negative resistance).

Saturation

Saturation region is the area where the current and voltage raises, if the applied voltage to
emitter terminal increases.

Applications of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

The Unijunction Transistor can be employed in variety of applications such as:

 Switching Device
 Triggering Device for Triacs and SCR’s
 Timing Circuits
 For phase control
 In sawtooth generators
 In simple relaxation oscillators

Application of Unijunction Transistor (UJT) in Relaxation Oscillator

UJT Relaxation Oscillator can be practically viewed by the following circuit.

Fig. 5 – Use of Unijunction Transistor (UJT) in Relaxation Oscillator

The resistance R3 charges the capacitor C1 until the peak point. The UJT’s emitter terminal
has no effect on C1 until peak point is reached.

When the emitter voltage reaches peak voltage point, the lowered emitter base 1 resistance
rapidly discharges the capacitor.

As the capacitor C1 discharges beneath the valley point, the emitter base 1 resistance will
return back to high resistance, thus making capacitor free to charge again.

Application of Unijunction Transistor (UJT) in Speed Control Circuit

Speed Control Circuit is one of the typical applications of UJT to produce set of pulses to
trigger and control Thyristor. We can adjust the speed of universal motors by using UJT as
triggering circuit in combination with SCR and Triacs.
 Advantages of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
The advantages of Unijunction Transistor include:

 low cost
 negative resistance characteristics
 Requires low value of triggering current.
 A stable triggering voltage
 Low power absorbing device

Disadvantage of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

The main disadvantage of Unijunction Transistor is its inability to provide appropriate
amplification