Remote Sensing Assignement

REMOTE SENSING AND GIS
BY;
Prof. Md khaja moniuddin
The sun is a source of energy or radiation, which provides
a very convenient source of energy for remote sensing. _______________________________________________
The sun's energy is either reflected, as it is for visible _______________________________________________
wavelengths, or absorbed and then reemitted, as it is for
thermal infrared wavelengths. _______________________________________________
There are two main types of remote sensing: _______________________________________________
Passive remote sensing and _______________________________________________
Active remote sensing.
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1-Passive sensors detect natural _______________________________________________
radiation that is emitted or _______________________________________________
reflected by the object or
surrounding area being observed. _______________________________________________
Reflected sunlight is the most _______________________________________________
common source of radiation
measured by passive sensors. ____________________________________
Examples of passive remote ____________________________________
sensors include film
photography, infrared, and ____________________________________
radiometers. ____________________________________
2-Active remote sensing, on the other ____________________________________
hand, emits energy in order to scan objects
and areas whereupon a sensor then detects ____________________________________
and measures the radiation that is reflected ____________________________________
or backscattered from the target. RADAR is
an example of active remote sensing where ____________________________________
the time delay between emission and return ____________________________________
is measured, establishing the location,
height, speeds and direction of an object.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM ______________________________________________
There is a wide range of frequency ______________________________________________
encountered in our physical world, ranging ______________________________________________
from the low frequency of the electric ______________________________________________
waves generated by the power transmission ______________________________________________
lines to the very high frequency of the ______________________________________________
gamma rays originating from the atomic ______________________________________________
nuclei. These wide frequency ranges of ______________________________________________
electromagnetic waves constitute the ______________________________________________
Electromagnetic Spectrum. ______________________________________________
The electromagnetic spectrum can be ______________________________________________
divided into several wavelength (frequency) ______________________________________________
regions, among which only a narrow band ______________________________________________
from about 400 to 700 nm is visible to the ______________________________________________
human eyes. ______________________________________________
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1-Gamma Rays <0.30 nm: This range is completely ________________________________________________
absorbed by the upper atmosphere and not available for ________________________________________________
remote sensing. ________________________________________________
2-X-Rays 0.03—30.0 nm: This range is completely ________________________________________________
absorbed by the atmosphere and not employed in remote ________________________________________________
sensing. ________________________________________________
3-Ultraviolet: 0.03—0.40 μm ________________________________________________
i-Hard UV 0.03—0.3 μm: This range is completely ________________________________________________
absorbed by the atmosphere and not employed in remote ________________________________________________
sensing. ________________________________________________
ii-Photographic UV 0.30—0.40 μm: This range is not ________________________________________________
absorbed by the atmosphere and detectable with film and ________________________________________________
photo detectors but with severe atmospheric scattering. ________________________________________________
4-Visible Light: This narrow band of electromagnetic ________________________________________________
radiation extends from about 400 nm (violet) to about 700 ________________________________________________
nm (red). It„s Available for remote sensing the Earth, can be ________________________________________________
imaged with photographic film. ________________________________________________
Violet: 400 - 430 nm ________________________________________________
Indigo: 430 - 450 nm ________________________________________________
Blue: 450 - 500 nm: Because water increasingly absorbs ________________________________________________
electromagnetic (EM) radiation at longer wavelengths, band ________________________________________________
1 provides the best data for mapping depth detail of water- ________________________________________________
covered areas. It is also used for soil-vegetation ________________________________________________
discrimination, forest mapping, and distinguishing cultural ________________________________________________
features. ________________________________________________
Green: 500 - 570 nm: The blue-green region of the ________________________________________________
spectrum corresponds to the chlorophyll absorption of ________________________________________________
healthy vegetation and is useful for mapping detail such as ________________________________________________
depth or sediment in water bodies. Cultural features such as
roads and buildings also show up well in this band. ________________________________________________
Yellow: 570 - 590 nm ___________________________________________________
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Orange: 590 - 610 nm ___________________________________________________
Red: 610 - 700 nm: Chlorophyll absorbs these ___________________________________________________
wavelengths in healthy vegetation. Hence, this band ___________________________________________________
is useful for distinguishing plant species, as well as
___________________________________________________
soil and geologic boundaries
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5-Infrared: 0.7 to 300 μm wavelength. This region is
___________________________________________________
sensitive to plant water content, which is a useful
___________________________________________________
measure in studies of vegetation health. This band is
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also used for distinguishing clouds, snow, and ice,
mapping geologic formations and soil boundaries. It ___________________________________________________
is also responsive to plant and soil moisture content. ___________________________________________________
This region is further divided into the following ___________________________________________________
bands: ___________________________________________________
a-Near Infrared (NIR): 0.7 to 1.5 μm. ___________________________________________________
b-Short Wavelength Infrared (SWIR): 1.5 to 3 μm. ___________________________________________________
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d-Mid Wavelength Infrared (MWIR): 3 to 8 μm.
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e-Long Wavelength Infrared (LWIR): 8 to 15 μm. ___________________________________________________
f-Far Infrared (FIR): longer than 15 μm. ___________________________________________________
The NIR and SWIR are also known as the Reflected ___________________________________________________
Infrared, referring to the main infrared component of ___________________________________________________
the solar radiation reflected from the earth's surface. ___________________________________________________
The MWIR and LWIR are the Thermal Infrared. ___________________________________________________
6-Microwaves (Radar) 1 mm to 1 m wavelength. ___________________________________________________
Microwaves can penetrate clouds, fog, and rain. ___________________________________________________
Images can be acquired in the active or passive mode.
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Radar is the active form of microwave remote
___________________________________________________
sensing. Radar images are acquired at various
wavelength bands,. ___________________________________________________
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7-Radio and TV Waves: 10 cm to 10 km ___________________________________________________
wavelength. The longest-wavelength ___________________________________________________
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. ___________________________________________________
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EMR INTERACTION
Any EMR reaching the Earth surface will undergo any of ___________________________________________________
the following ___________________________________________________
1.Absorption (A) ___________________________________________________
2.Reflection (R) ___________________________________________________
3.Transmission (T) ___________________________________________________
4.Scattering (S) ___________________________________________________
(Incident Ray) = A+R+T+S ___________________________________________________
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Absorption
•The absorption of EMR by a particular material occurs ___________________________________________________
because the selected frequency of the wave matches the ___________________________________________________
frequency at which electrons in the atoms of that material ___________________________________________________
vibrate. ___________________________________________________
Reflection ___________________________________________________
•It is the change in direction of a wave at an interface
between two different media so that the wave returns into ___________________________________________________
the medium from which it originated. The reflection can ___________________________________________________
be ___________________________________________________
1.Specular Reflection ___________________________________________________
2.Diffused Reflection (Scattering) ___________________________________________________
•a) Specular reflection is the mirror-like reflection from ___________________________________________________
a surface, in which an EMR ray from a single incoming
direction is reflected into a single outgoing direction. ___________________________________________________
•b) Diffuse reflection (Scattering) is the reflection from ___________________________________________________
a surface such that an incident ray is reflected at many ___________________________________________________
angles rather than at just one angle as in the case of ___________________________________________________
specular reflection.
EMR INTERACTION contd...
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Transmission ___________________________________________________
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Transmission of radiation occurs when
radiation passes through a substance ___________________________________________________
without significant attenuation. For a ___________________________________________________
given thickness, or depth of a substance, ___________________________________________________
the ability of a medium to transmit ___________________________________________________
energy is measured as transmittance (t). ___________________________________________________
t = Transmitted radiation ___________________________________________________
Incident radiation __________________________________________ ________
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Scattering ___________________________________________________
Atmospheric scattering is the process by which ___________________________________________________
small particles in the atmosphere diffuse a portion ___________________________________________________
of the incident radiation in all directions. There is ___________________________________________________
no energy transformation while scattering. But the ___________________________________________________
spatial distribution of the energy is altered during ___________________________________________________
scattering.
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There are three different types of scattering: ___________________________________________________
 Rayleigh scattering __________________________________________ ________
 Mie scattering ___________________________________________________
 Non-selective scattering ___________________________________________________
Rayleigh scattering ___________________________________________________
Rayleigh scattering mainly consists of scattering ___________________________________________________
caused by atmospheric molecules and other tiny ___________________________________________________
particles. This occurs when the particles causing ___________________________________________________
the scattering are much smaller in diameter (less ___________________________________________________
than one tenth) than the wavelengths of radiation ___________________________________________________
interacting with them. ___________________________________________________
Smaller particles present in the atmosphere scatter ___________________________________________________
the shorter wavelengths more compared to the ___________________________________________________
longer wavelengths. ___________________________________________________
The scattering effect or the intensity of the ___________________________________________________
scattered light is inversely proportional to the ___________________________________________________
fourth power of wavelength for Rayleigh ___________________________________________________
scattering. Hence, the shorter wavelengths are ___________________________________________________
scattered more than longer wavelengths. ___________________________________________________
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Rayleigh scattering is also known as selective ___________________________________________________
scattering or molecular scattering.
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Molecules of Oxygen and Nitrogen (which are
dominant in the atmosphere) cause this type of ___________________________________________________
scattering of the visible part of the electromagnetic ___________________________________________________
radiation. ___________________________________________________
Within the visible range, smaller wavelength blue light ___________________________________________________
is scattered more compared to the green or red. A
"blue" sky is thus a manifestation of Rayleigh scatter. ___________________________________________________
The blue light is scattered around 4 times and UV light ___________________________________________________
is scattered about 16 times as much as red light. This ___________________________________________________
consequently results in a blue sky.
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However, at sunrise and sunset, the sun's rays have to ___________________________________________________
travel a longer path, causing complete scattering (and
absorption) of shorter wavelength radiations. As a ___________________________________________________
result, only the longer wavelength portions (orange ___________________________________________________
and red) which are less scattered will be visible. ___________________________________________________
The haze in imagery and the bluish-grey cast in a color
image when taken from high altitude are mainly due to ___________________________________________________
Rayleigh scatter. ___________________________________________________
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Mie Scattering
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Another type of scattering is Mie scattering, ___________________________________________________
which occurs when the wavelengths of the energy
is almost equal to the diameter of the atmospheric ___________________________________________________
particles. ___________________________________________________
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In this type of scattering longer wavelengths also
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get scattered compared to Rayleigh scatter .
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In Mie scattering, intensity of the scattered light
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varies approximately as the inverse of the
___________________________________________________
wavelength.
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Mie scattering is usually caused by the aerosol
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particles such as dust, smoke and pollen.
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Gas molecules in the atmosphere are too small to
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cause Mie scattering of the radiation commonly
___________________________________________________
used for remote sensing.
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Non-selective scattering
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A third type of scattering is nonselective scatter,
which occurs when the diameters of the ___________________________________________________
atmospheric particles are much larger ___________________________________________________
(approximately 10 times) than the wavelengths ___________________________________________________
being sensed. ___________________________________________________
Particles such as pollen, cloud droplets, ice ___________________________________________________
crystals and raindrops can cause non-selective ___________________________________________________
scattering of the visible light.
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For visible light (of wavelength 0.4-0.7μm),
non-selective scattering is generally caused by ___________________________________________________
water droplets which is having diameter ___________________________________________________
commonly in the range of 5 to 100 μm. ___________________________________________________
This scattering is nonselective with respect to ___________________________________________________
wavelength since all visible and IR wavelengths ___________________________________________________
get scattered equally giving white or even grey ___________________________________________________
color to the clouds.
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ENERGY INTERACTION WITH ATMOSPHERE
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 All electromagnetic radiation detected by ___________________________________________________
a remote sensing has to pass through the ___________________________________________________
atmosphere twice, before and after it ___________________________________________________
interacts with earth‟s atmosphere. ___________________________________________________
 This passage will alter the speed, ___________________________________________________
frequency, intensity spectral distribution
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and direction of the radiation.
 As a result atmospheric scattering and ___________________________________________________
absorption occurs, these effects our most ___________________________________________________
severe in visible and infrared wavelength, __________________________________________ ________
the range very crucial in remote Sensing. ___________________________________________________
 During the transmission of energy ___________________________________________________
through the atmosphere, light interacts ___________________________________________________
with gases and particulate matter in a
process called atmospheric scattering. ___________________________________________________
 The two major processes in scattering are ___________________________________________________
selective scattering and Non-selective ___________________________________________________
scattering. ___________________________________________________
Selective Scattering: ___________________________________________________
*Rayleigh Scattering ___________________________________________________
*Mie Scattering ___________________________________________________
**Atmospheric Properties: ___________________________________________________
The main part of radiance measured from high ___________________________________________________
flying aircraft or satellite teams for multiple ___________________________________________________
scattering in the atmosphere. ___________________________________________________
Therefore, the remaining signal can be ___________________________________________________
interpreted in terms of suspensions only after ___________________________________________________
careful correction from the atmospheric
contribution ___________________________________________________
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ENERGY INTERACTION WITH ATMOSPHERE contd…..
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**Absorption of Ozone: ___________________________________________________
Ozone is a trace gas in the atmosphere mil ___________________________________________________
confined to stratospheric heights between 20 km
and 40 km with a maximum concentration near 25 ___________________________________________________
km. ___________________________________________________
At these levels, ozone dominates the short wave ___________________________________________________
radiation budget, while at other heights its ___________________________________________________
influence is nearly negligible. ___________________________________________________
The transmission of chlorophyll fluorescence to the ___________________________________________________
top of atmosphere is hindered through the __________________________________________ ________
absorption by the water vapour and molecular
oxygen in their vibration action bands. ___________________________________________________
Atmospheric spectral turbidity variations are ___________________________________________________
caused by variations in aerosol concentration, ___________________________________________________
composition and size distribution. ___________________________________________________
The phase function of aerosol are nearly ___________________________________________________
wavelength independent within the visible and near ___________________________________________________
infrared. ___________________________________________________
The range of atmospheric turbidity of value used to
study the effect of aerosol scattering on the ___________________________________________________
measured spectral radiances correspond to the ___________________________________________________
horizontal visibilities at at the surface between 6 ___________________________________________________
and 88 km. ___________________________________________________
**Atmospheric effects on Spectral Response ___________________________________________________
Patterns: ___________________________________________________
The atmosphere influence the radiance recorded by ___________________________________________________
a sensor in two ways, namely,
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(a) it reduces the energy eliminating a ground ___________________________________________________
object and,
(b) the atmosphere acts as a reflector itself adding ___________________________________________________
the path Radiance to the signal detected by the ___________________________________________________
sensor. ___________________________________________________
ENERGY INTERACTION WITH ATMOSPHERE contd…..
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Where, ___________________________________________________
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Ltot= total spectral raidance measured by the sensor
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Lp= path radiance from the atmosphere ___________________________________________________
ρ= reflectance of object ___________________________________________________
E- irradiance on object or incoming energy ___________________________________________________
T= transmitted energy ___________________________________________________
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The irradiance (E) is caused by directly reflected ___________________________________________________
„sunlight‟ and diffused „skylight‟ which is the sun ___________________________________________________
light scattering by the atmosphere. ___________________________________________________
The amount of irradiance depends on seasonal ___________________________________________________
changes, solar elevation angle, and distance between ___________________________________________________
the earth and Sun. ___________________________________________________
ENERGY INTERACTIONS WITH EARTH’S SURFACE
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When electromagnetic energy is incident on any ___________________________________________________
feature of earth‟s surface, such a a water body, ___________________________________________________
various fractions of energy get reflected, ___________________________________________________
absorbed, and transmitted. ___________________________________________________
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Applying the principle of conservation of energy ___________________________________________________
the relationship can be expressed as : ___________________________________________________
EI (λ) = ER (λ) +EA (λ) +ET (λ) ___________________________________________________
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Where, EI (λ) = Incident energy
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ER (λ)= Reflected energy
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EA (λ)= Absorbed energy
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ET (λ) = Transmitted energy
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All energy components are functions of ___________________________________________________
wavelength, (I). In remote sensing, the amount of ___________________________________________________
reflected energy ER (λ) is more important than ___________________________________________________
the absorbed and transmitted energies.
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ENERGY INTERACTIONS WITH EARTH’S SURFACE …contd.
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Therefore, it is more convenient to rearrange these terms ___________________________________________________
like ___________________________________________________
ER (λ) =EI (λ) –[ EA (λ) +ET (λ) ] is called balance ___________________________________________________
equation. ___________________________________________________
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are called reflectance, absorbance and transmittance
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denoted as ___________________________________________________
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Spectral reflectance ρ(λ) is expressed as ___________________________________________________
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SPECTRAL SIGNATURE
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• Spectral signatures are the combination of ___________________________________________________
reflected, absorbed and transmitted or ___________________________________________________
emitted EMR by objects at varying
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wavelengths, which can uniquely identify an
___________________________________________________
object.
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• When the amount of EMR (usually intensity
___________________________________________________
of reflected radiation or reflectance in
percentage) coming from the material is ___________________________________________________
plotted over a range of wavelengths, the ___________________________________________________
connected points produce a curve which is __________________________________________ ________
known as spectral signature of the material ___________________________________________________
or in other words spectral response curve. ___________________________________________________
• To interpret remote sensing images, it is ___________________________________________________
absolutely important to start with a basic ___________________________________________________
understanding of spectral signature, which ___________________________________________________
means how different terrain features such as ___________________________________________________
water, rock, soils, and vegetation, interact ___________________________________________________
with the different wavelengths (bands) of the ___________________________________________________
EMR. ___________________________________________________
• The spectral signature of an object is a ___________________________________________________
function of the incident EMR and that part of ___________________________________________________
electromagnetic (EM) spectrum in which ___________________________________________________
they are interacting. ___________________________________________________
• The energy reflected back from the object is ___________________________________________________
measured by instruments such as task ___________________________________________________
specific spectrometer. ___________________________________________________
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SPECTRAL SIGNATURE ….contd
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PECTRAL SIGNATURE OF VEGETATION
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• In case of vegetation, reflection of green ___________________________________________________
light is due to the presence of the ___________________________________________________
chlorophyll pigment in plant leaves. ___________________________________________________
• Presence of the chlorophyll pigment ___________________________________________________
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results in unique spectral signature of ___________________________________________________
vegetation that enables us to distinguish ___________________________________________________
it easily from other types of land cover ___________________________________________________
(non-living) features in an optical/near- __________________________________________ ________
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infrared image. ___________________________________________________
• The reflectance of vegetation is low in ___________________________________________________
both the blue and red regions of the EM ___________________________________________________
spectrum, due to absorption of blue and ___________________________________________________
red wavelengths by chlorophyll for ___________________________________________________
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photosynthesis. ___________________________________________________
• It has a peak reflectance at the green ___________________________________________________
region that gives green colour to ___________________________________________________
vegetation. ___________________________________________________
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• In the near infrared (NIR) region, the ___________________________________________________
reflectance is much higher than that in ___________________________________________________
the visible band due to the cellular ___________________________________________________
structure in the leaves. Hence, vegetation ___________________________________________________
can be easily identified in the NIR region ___________________________________________________
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of spectrum. ___________________________________________________
SPECTRAL SIGNATURE OF VEGETATION ……contd.
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SPECTRAL SIGNATURE OF SOIL
In general, soil surfaces appear brown to the human ___________________________________________________
eyes. Brown colouring is a product of green and red ___________________________________________________
EMR such that „brown‟ surfaces absorb more blue ___________________________________________________
wavelength than either green or red. ___________________________________________________
Furthermore, very little energy is transmitted through ___________________________________________________
soil; the majority of the incident flux is absorbed or ___________________________________________________
reflected. The technical term for these types of surface ___________________________________________________
is single scatterer. ___________________________________________________
In the case of soil surfaces, the level of reflectance ___________________________________________________
gradually increases with wavelength in the visible and __________________________________________ ________
NIR spectral regions. ___________________________________________________
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SPECTRAL SIGNATURE OF SOIL ….contd.
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As water is relatively strong absorber of all ___________________________________________________
wavelengths, particularly those longer than ___________________________________________________
the red part of the visible spectrum. ___________________________________________________
Therefore, as the moisture content of the soil ___________________________________________________
increases, the overall reflectance of that soil ___________________________________________________
tends to decrease. Soil rich in iron oxide ___________________________________________________
reflects proportionally more of the red than ___________________________________________________
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other visible wavelengths and therefore __________________________________________ ________
appears red (rust colour) to the human eyes. ___________________________________________________
A sandy soil, on the other hand, tends to ___________________________________________________
appear bright white in imagery because ___________________________________________________
visible wavelengths are more or less equally ___________________________________________________
reflected; when slightly less blue ___________________________________________________
wavelengths are reflected, it results in a ___________________________________________________
yellow colour. ___________________________________________________
Following are the four most important ___________________________________________________
characteristics of a soil that determine its ___________________________________________________
reflectance properties: ___________________________________________________
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• moisture content
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• organic matter content ___________________________________________________
• texture and structure ___________________________________________________
• iron oxide content ___________________________________________________
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**Soil Moisture Content ___________________________________________________
The presence of soil moisture reduces the surface ___________________________________________________
reflectance of soil at all visible wavelengths (Jensen, ___________________________________________________
1983). This occurs until the soil is saturated, at which ___________________________________________________
point further additions of moisture have no effect on
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reflectance.
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Reflectance at NIR wavelengths is also negatively
related to soil moisture; an increase in soil moisture will ___________________________________________________
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result in a particularly rapid decrease in reflectance due
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to water (H2O) and hydroxyl (OH) absorption features
at 0.9 µm, 1.4 µm, 1.9 µm, 2.2 µm and 2.7 µm. ___________________________________________________
The effect of water and hydroxyl absorption is more ___________________________________________________
noticeable in clay soils because they have much bound ___________________________________________________
water and very strong hydroxyl absorption properties. ___________________________________________________
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**Organic Matter Content ___________________________________________________
The organic matter of soil is dark in colour and its ___________________________________________________
presence will decrease the reflectance from the soil up ___________________________________________________
to an organic matter content of around 4-5%. ___________________________________________________
When the organic matter content of the soil is greater ___________________________________________________
than 5%, the soil appears black and any further ___________________________________________________
increase in the organic matter will have little effect on ___________________________________________________
reflectance. ___________________________________________________
** Texture and Structure __________________________________________ ________
Texture (the proportion of sand, silt and clay particles) ___________________________________________________
is related to structure(arrangement of sand, silt and ___________________________________________________
clay particles into aggregates) and, therefore, they will ___________________________________________________
be discussed together. ___________________________________________________
The relationship between texture and structure can best
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be described by reference to following two contrasting ___________________________________________________
soil types ___________________________________________________
• a clay soil tends to have a strong structure, which
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leads to a rough surface on ploughing, causing small ___________________________________________________
shadows and lowering reflectance values.
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• in contrast, a sandy soil exhibits weak structure, ___________________________________________________
which leads to a fairly smooth surface on ploughing
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with few shadows. It should be noted that the effects of
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soil structure complement other properties such as low ___________________________________________________
moisture and organic matter content to increase the
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level of sandy soil reflectance.
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**Iron Oxide Content ___________________________________________________
Iron oxide gives rusty red colouration to ___________________________________________________
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many soils by coating or staining
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individual soil particles. ___________________________________________________
Iron oxide selectively reflects red light ___________________________________________________
(0.6 - 0.7 µm) and absorbs green light ___________________________________________________
(0.5 - 0.6 µm). ___________________________________________________
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This effect is so pronounced that Vincent ___________________________________________________
(1973) used a ratio of red to green ___________________________________________________
reflectance to locate iron ore deposits. ___________________________________________________
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SPECTRAL SIGNATURE OF WATER
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Unlike soil, the majority of the radiant flux ___________________________________________________
incident upon water is not reflected but is either ___________________________________________________
absorbed or transmitted. ___________________________________________________
At visible wavelengths of EMR, very little energy ___________________________________________________
is absorbed, a small amount usually under 5% is ___________________________________________________
reflected and the majority is transmitted. ___________________________________________________
If you happen to be standing in water you can see ___________________________________________________
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your foot/toes through the water. Water absorbs __________________________________________ ________
strongly at NIR wavelengths, leaving little ___________________________________________________
radiation to be either reflected or transmitted. ___________________________________________________
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SPECTRAL SIGNATURE OF WATER …contd.
The following two most important factors are: ___________________________________________________
• depth of the water ___________________________________________________
• materials within the water ___________________________________________________
In shallow water, some of the radiation is reflected not by ___________________________________________________
the water itself but from the bottom of the water body. ___________________________________________________
Therefore, in shallow pools and streams, it is often the ___________________________________________________
underlying material that determines the water body‟s ___________________________________________________
reflectance properties. ___________________________________________________
Longer wavelengths of visible and NIR regions of EMR ___________________________________________________
absorb more by water than shorter visible wavelengths. __________________________________________ ________
Thus water typically looks blue or blue-green due to
___________________________________________________
stronger reflectance at these shorter wavelengths, and darker
___________________________________________________
if viewed at red or NIR wavelengths.
If there is suspended sediment present in the upper layers of ___________________________________________________
the water body, then this will allow better reflectivity and a ___________________________________________________
brighter appearance of the water. ___________________________________________________
The three most common materials suspended in water are ___________________________________________________
non-organic sediments, tannin and ___________________________________________________
chlorophyll/phytoplankton: ___________________________________________________
• non-organic silts and clays increase the reflectance at ___________________________________________________
visible wavelengths due to interaction with and scattering by ___________________________________________________
soil-like particles ___________________________________________________
• in agricultural scenes, the main colouring agent is tannin
___________________________________________________
produced by decomposing humus. This is yellowish to
___________________________________________________
brown in colour and results in decreased blue and increased
___________________________________________________
red reflectance.
chlorophyll content must be high before changes in ___________________________________________________
reflectance can be detected. Waterbodies that contain ___________________________________________________
excessive levels of chlorophyll have reflectance properties ___________________________________________________
that resemble, at least in part, those of vegetation with ___________________________________________________
increased green and decreased blue and red reflectance. ___________________________________________________
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RESOLUTION
In remote sensing the term resolution is used to ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
represent the resolving power, which includes not
___________________________________________________
only the capability to identify the presence of two
___________________________________________________
objects, but also their properties. ___________________________________________________
In qualitative terms resolution is the amount of ___________________________________________________
details that can be observed in an image. Thus an ___________________________________________________
image that shows finer details is said to be of finer ___________________________________________________
resolution compared to the image that shows ___________________________________________________
coarser details. __________________________________________ ________
Four types of resolutions are defined for the ___________________________________________________
remote sensing systems: ___________________________________________________
• Spatial resolution ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
• Spectral resolution
___________________________________________________
• Temporal resolution
___________________________________________________
• Radiometric resolution ___________________________________________________
**SPATIAL RESOLUTION ___________________________________________________
A digital image consists of an array of pixels. Each ___________________________________________________
pixel contains information about a small area on the ___________________________________________________
land surface, which is considered as a single object. ___________________________________________________
Spatial resolution is a measure of the area or size of ___________________________________________________
the smallest dimension on the Earth‟s surface over ___________________________________________________
which an independent measurement can be made by ___________________________________________________
the sensor. ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
It is expressed by the size of the pixel on the ground
___________________________________________________
in meters.
___________________________________________________
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RESOLUTION …..contd.
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A measure of size of pixel is given by the ___________________________________________________
Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV). ___________________________________________________
The IFOV is the angular cone of visibility of the ___________________________________________________
sensor, or the area on the Earth‟s surface that is seen at ___________________________________________________
one particular moment of time. ___________________________________________________
IFOV is dependent on the altitude of the sensor above ___________________________________________________
the ground level and the viewing angle of the sensor. ___________________________________________________
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A narrow viewing angle produces a smaller IFOV as ___________________________________________________
shown in figure. ___________________________________________________
It can be seen that viewing angle β being greater than ___________________________________________________
the viewing angle α, IFOVβ is greater than IFOVα. ___________________________________________________
IFOV also increases with altitude of the sensor as ___________________________________________________
shown in figure. ___________________________________________________
IFOVβ and IFOVα of the sensor at smaller altitude are ___________________________________________________
less compared to those of the higher altitude sensor. ___________________________________________________
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In the example, for the 30m resolution image, the ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
signature from the “house” dominates for the cell
___________________________________________________
and hence the entire cell is classified as “house”.
___________________________________________________
On the other hand, in the fine resolution images, the ___________________________________________________
shape and the spatial extent of the feature is better ___________________________________________________
captured. ___________________________________________________
In the 5m resolution image, along the boundary of ___________________________________________________
the feature, some of the cells that are partially ___________________________________________________
covered under the feature are classified as “house” __________________________________________ ________
based on the dominance of the signals from the ___________________________________________________
feature. ___________________________________________________
In the very fine resolution image, the feature shape ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
and the spatial extent is more precisely identified.
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Based on the spatial resolution, satellite systems can be ___________________________________________________
classified as follows. ___________________________________________________
 Low resolution systems ___________________________________________________
 Medium resolution systems ___________________________________________________
 High resolution systems ___________________________________________________
 Very high resolution systems ___________________________________________________
Remote sensing systems with spatial resolution more than ___________________________________________________
1km are generally considered as low resolution systems. ___________________________________________________
MODIS (Moderate-resolution Imaging ___________________________________________________
Spectroradiometer) and AVHRR (Advanced Very High __________________________________________ ________
Resolution Radiometer)are some of the very low ___________________________________________________
resolution sensors used in the satellite remote sensing. ___________________________________________________
When the spatial resolution is 100m – 1km, such systems
___________________________________________________
are considered as moderate resolution systems.
___________________________________________________
IRS WiFS (Wild Field Sensor) (188m), band 6 i.e., thermal
infrared band, of the Landsat TM (120m), and bands 1-7 of ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
MODIS having resolution 250-500m come under this class.
___________________________________________________
Remote sensing systems with spatial resolution
approximately in the range 5-100m are classified as high ___________________________________________________
resolution systems. ___________________________________________________
Landsat ETM+ (30m), IRS LISS-III (23m MSS and 6m ___________________________________________________
Panchromatic) and AWiFS (56-70m), SPOT 5(2.5-5m ___________________________________________________
Panchromatic) are some of the high resolution sensors. ___________________________________________________
Very high resolution systems are those which provide less ___________________________________________________
than 5m spatial resolution. GeoEye (0.45m for ___________________________________________________
Panchromatic and 1.65m for MSS), IKONOS (0.8-1m ___________________________________________________
Panchromatic), and Quickbird (2.4-2.8 m) are examples of ___________________________________________________
very high resolution systems. ___________________________________________________
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**Spectral resolution ___________________________________________________
Spectral resolution represents the spectral band ___________________________________________________
width of the filter and the sensitiveness of the ___________________________________________________
detector. ___________________________________________________
The spectral resolution may be defined as the ability ___________________________________________________
of a sensor to define fine wavelength intervals or the ___________________________________________________
ability of a sensor to resolve the energy received in a ___________________________________________________
spectral bandwidth to characterize different ___________________________________________________
constituents of earth surface. ___________________________________________________
The finer the spectral resolution, the narrower the __________________________________________ ________
wavelength range for a particular channel or band. ___________________________________________________
Many remote sensing systems are multi-spectral, ___________________________________________________
that record energy over separate wavelength ranges
___________________________________________________
at various spectral resolutions. ___________________________________________________
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Remote Sensing Assignement

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REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

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