Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1118–1125

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Construction and Building Materials

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Use of low CaO unprocessed steel slag in concrete as fine aggregate

Hisham Qasrawi *, Faisal Shalabi, Ibrahim Asi
Civil Engineering Department, The Hashemite University, Zarqa 13115, Jordan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Steel slag, which is produced locally in great amounts, has a negative impact on the environment when
Received 11 March 2008 disposed. Local steel slag has a low CaO content and has no pozzolanic activity.
Received in revised form 2 June 2008 In this research, local unprocessed steel slag is introduced in concrete mixes. Various mixes with com-
Accepted 16 June 2008
pressive strength ranging from 25 to 45 MPa are studied. The slag is used as fine aggregate replacing
Available online 26 July 2008
the sand in the mixes, partly or totally. Ratios of 0%, 15%, 30%, 50% and 100% are used.
Depending on the grade of concrete, the compressive strength is improved when steel slag is used for
Keywords:
low sand replacement ratios (up to 30%).
Aggregate
Concrete
When optimum values are used, the 28-day tensile strength of concrete is improved by 1.4–2.4 times and
Steel slag the compressive strength is improved by 1.1–1.3 times depending on the replacement ratio and the grade
Compressive strength of concrete. The best results are obtained for replacement ratios of 30–50% for tensile strength and 15–
Tensile strength 30% for compressive strength.
Therefore, the use of steel slag in concrete would enhance the strength of concrete, especially tensile
strength, provided the correct ratio is used.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Uses of steel slag in concrete
The main properties of concrete, such as strength, durability
and serviceability, depend mainly on the properties and the quality
of the materials that are used in preparing it. Therefore, the use of
waste materials, such as steel slag, in concrete may have positive
or negative effect.
Utilizing steel slag in concrete mixes has proved to be useful in
solving some of the problems encountered in the concrete indus-
try. Steel slag was used in conventional concrete to improve its
mechanical, physical, and chemical properties as shown herein.
There is a big difference between steel slag and blast furnace slag,
the later is produced from the conversion of iron ore to steel, while
the other is produced from the oxidation of old steel during pro-
duction in the arc furnace.
Slag, the by-product of steel and iron producing processes, was
used in civil engineering projects tenths of years ago [1–4]. Port-
land granulated ground blast furnace slag cement, which is pro-
duced from rapidly water-cooled blast furnace slag, has been
successfully used in concrete mixes due to the high content of lime
(40–50%), which posses pozzolanic activity [2,3]. ASTM C33 pro-
vides specifications for the use of blast furnace slag as aggregates
in concrete, while there is no standard for the use of steel slag in
concrete.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +962 79 9770092.
E-mail address: qasrawi2@yahoo.com (H. Qasrawi).
Electric arc furnace slag (EAFS) that contains low percentage of
amorphous silica and high content of ferric oxides and conse-
quently has low, or no, pozzolanic activities in comparison with
blast furnace slag (BFS), is not appropriate to be used in blended
cement production [5]. Although many studies have been con-
ducted on the evaluation of steel slag usage in road construction
and use of blast furnace slag in concrete mixes, few researches
have been performed regarding the utilization of steel slag in con-
crete [5].
Alizadeh et al. [4] carried out a research to evaluate the effect of
using electric arc furnace steel slag on hardened concrete. Experi-
mental results indicated that such steel slag aggregate concrete
achieved higher values of compressive, tensile and flexural
strength and modulus of elasticity, compared to natural aggregate
concrete.
Shekarchi et al. [7,8] conducted comprehensive researches on
the utilization of steel slag as aggregate in concrete. They con-
cluded that the use of air-cooled steel slag with low amorphous sil-
ica content and high amount of ferric oxides is unsuitable to be
used in blended cement. On the other hand, utilization of steel slag
as aggregate is advantages when compared with normal aggregate
mixes.
Maslehuddin et al. [9] presented a comparative study about
steel slag aggregate concrete and crushed limestone concrete. In
the study, only part of the coarse aggregate was replaced by slag
aggregate. The study concluded that the compressive strength of
steel slag aggregate concrete was marginally better than that of

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.06.003
 H. Qasrawi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1118–1125 1119

crushed limestone aggregate concrete. Moreover, the improvement In this research, the unprocessed fine material, ‘‘scrape”, has
in the tensile strength of steel slag concrete was not significant. been introduced as fine aggregate in normal concrete mixes in
Manso et al. [10,11] presented a study in which electric arc fur- order to evaluate its suitability for use in normal concrete
nace slag was used to obtain concrete of better quality. It was con- mixes.
cluded that arc furnace slag can be used to enhance concrete
properties. However, according to the authors, special attention
3. Materials
must be paid to the fine aggregate of steel slag concrete mixes,
which can be obtained by mixing fine slag with filler material.
Limestone normal aggregate of local sources has been used in
Ramachandran [6] stated that air-cooled slag is suitable as an
the preparation of all mixes. The gradation of this aggregate was
aggregate in concrete. Also, slag fines may be used as a substitute
obtained following ASTM C136 standard procedure. Sieve analysis
for sand without any deleterious effect. Furthermore, volume sta-
results are shown in Table 1. The aggregate was found to be well
bility, good sulphate resistance, and corrosion resistance to chlo-
graded and within ASTM C33 grading requirements for coarse
ride solutions make reinforced slag concrete suitable for many
aggregate of nominal maximum size 25–4.75 mm.
applications.
Silica sand of natural sources, known locally as desert sand, has
been used. Sieve analysis was carried out on both the natural sand
2. Importance of the research and the fine slag according to ASTM C33. The results of the sieve
analysis of both the fine aggregate and the fine steel slag are shown
Locally, waste materials the steel industry is produced in high in Table 2; in addition, ASTM C33 and BS 882 grading limits are
amounts and shapes ranging from large boulders to dust. Since also shown.
large quantities of these wastes are generated daily, they are con- Although the sand is relatively fine, it has good properties and is
sidered problematic and hazardous for both the factories and the commonly used in concrete mixes. The fineness modulus of sand
environment. The factories have to pay huge amounts of money and slag are 1.56 and 1.50, respectively. As shown in Table 2, both
for the disposal of these materials, which in addition have a nega- sand and slag do not meet ASTM C33 standard limits for fine aggre-
tive impact on the environment. Locally, the steel industry is not gate. However, the sand is within the limits of BS 882: 1992 stan-
mainly based on using ‘‘steel ore” as a base material, because it dards and is classified as ‘‘BS-F” (fine aggregate). As shown in Table
is not available. Instead, ‘‘old steel” is brought from various 2, the slag contains high amounts, about 40%; of material passing
sources, melted and shaped. Therefore, the waste material is char- sieve # 100; however, only half of this value is retained on sieve
acterized by its high content of iron oxide, Fe2O3. # 200. Therefore, the slag meets neither ASTM C33 nor BS 882
The slag produced from local resources is divided into three grading limits.
types: In order to reduce costs, it was decided to use the slag ‘‘as re-
ceived” from the factory without any further screening. Also, it
1. The coarse materials (boulders) that need to be crushed into was intended to use the locally available desert sand from nearby
smaller particles in order to be suitable for reuse. sources. This choice would be the most economical for use in con-
2. The fine material, which is locally called ‘‘scrape”. This type of crete mixes when accounting for the costs of transporting and
slag will be used directly in concrete mixes (without any mod- screening.
ification) in this research in order to evaluate its suitability for Specific gravity and absorption of the aggregates were mea-
concrete mixes. Ramachandran [6] used air-cooled slag as a sured using ASTM C127 and ASTM C128. In each case, three repre-
substitute to fine aggregate. sentative samples were taken and tested according to the
3. The very fine materials, dust, which may need further process- corresponding ASTM standard. The average of the three obtained
ing before being used in concrete. values was calculated and presented in Table 3.
Table 1
It is clear from Table 3 that the specific gravity of the steel slag
Sieve analysis of coarse aggregates is higher than that of normal aggregate. Also, it is clear that the
absorption of both sand and steel slag is smaller than 1%. These re-
Sieve size (mm) ASTM designation % passing ASTM limits 25 to 4.75
sults are acceptable for use in concrete structures, keeping in mind
37.5 1½00 100 100 that higher density is expected.
25 1.000 98.7 95–100
3= 00
Dry-rodded (compacted) unit weight of the coarse aggregate
19.6 4 85.2 –
12.5 ½00 28.3 25–60 was obtained using ASTM C29 specifications and was 1528 kg/m3.
9.5 3/800 19 – Chemical analysis of steel slag is shown in Table 4. It is clear
4.75 #4 0.8 0–10 that the slag has very low CaO content indicating that no pozzola-
2.36 #8 0.4 0–5
nic activity is expected.

Table 2
Sieve analysis of fine aggregates

Sieve size (mm) ASTM designation Sand Slag ASTM limits BS grading requirements
% passing % passing BS–C BS–M BS–F
00
10 3/8 100 100 100 100 100 100
5 #4 99.9 99 100 89–100 89–100 89–100
2.40 #8 99.6 95.6 95–100 60–100 65–100 80–100
1.20 # 16 98.9 85.4 80–100 30–90 45–100 70–100
0.600 # 30 91.3 72.1 50–85 15–54 25–80 55–100
0.300 # 50 45.1 56.2 25–60 5–40 5–48 5–70
0.150 # 100 8.6 40 10–30 0–15* 0–20a 0–15* 0–20a 0–15* 0–20a
0.075 # 200 1 20.5 NA NA NA NA
*
Natural aggregate.
a
Crushed aggregate.
1120 H. Qasrawi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1118–1125

Table 3 for compressive strength. At each age, a minimum of three

Results of specific gravity and absorption cubes were randomly chosen and tested in saturated surface
Material Specific gravity (SG) Absorption (%) dry condition.
Apparent Bulk (dry) Bulk (SSD) * 5. Several prisms of 100  100  500 mm were prepared and
cured in the laboratory in a water bath under a temperature
Sand 2.598 2.55 2.561 0.4
Coarse aggregate 2.69 2.57 2.62 1.65
of 20 ± 2 °C, then tested at the ages of 7, 28 and 90 days for flex-
Fine steel slag 3.25 3.17 3.19 0.8 ural tensile strength. At each age, a minimum of three prisms
*
were randomly chosen and tested in saturated surface dry con-
SSD is saturated surface dry.
dition by the use of third-point loading method described in
ASTM C78.
Table 4 6. Steel slag concrete mixes were prepared by replacing certain
Chemical analysis of the slag used in the study amount of sand by slag, while keeping all other variables con-
Oxides % stant. The ratios of slag were 15%, 30%, 50% and 100% by weight
of sand.
Fe2O3 97.05
MnO 1.07 7. Steel slag concrete cubes and prisms were prepared and tested
TiO2 0.01 as in steps 2, 3 and 4.
SiO2 0.8 8. ASTM C 618 has been used to check the pozzolanic activity of
MgO 0.4 the used slag. No pozzolanic activity has been observed.
CaO 0.4
C 0.23
S 0.21
Water solubility 0.009 5. Results and discussion

4. Experimental program
In order to study the effect of the use of steel slag as fine aggre-
gates, several concrete mixes have been prepared and tested in the
laboratory. The following steps summarize the program that has
been followed:
1. Conventional concrete mixes of 25, 35 and 45 MPa cube
strength were designed, fabricated and tested in the laboratory.
In addition to the strength requirement, all mixes were pre-
pared and adjusted to obtain concrete of medium workability
(slump 8–12 cm). This workability is the most desired one in
local concrete sites, especially during hot summer. The mix pro-
portions are shown in Table 5. The normal concrete mixes were
proportioned, tested and adjusted according to the ACI 211.1.
ACI 211.1 suggests using a water content of 195 kg/m3 in order
to obtain a slump of 8–10 cm. Trials were carried out in the lab-
oratory and ended by using a free water content of 205 kg/m3 in
order to arrive at a slump of about 12 cm.
2. All mixes were tested for workability using the slump test
described in ASTM C143.
3. The fresh density of all mixes was measured according to ASTM
C138.
4. Several cubes of 100 mm side length were prepared and cured
in the laboratory in a water bath under a temperature of
20 ± 2 °C; then tested at the ages of 3, 7, 28, 90 and 180 days
5.1. Workability
Fig. 1 shows the relationship between the slump of concrete
and the ratio of slag. It is clear that the use of slag reduced the
workability of concrete. As shown, replacement ratios up to 50%
have only marginal effect on the workability and the concrete
can still be classified as concrete of medium workability. The mixes
containing 100% slag were sticky rather than dry. All these mixes
lacked mobility and hence resulted in low slump values. The
reduction in workability is attributed to the fact that the sand
has been replaced by a finer and a more absorbing material. The
higher the percentage of the fines, the less the workability is, as
shown in Fig. 1. Moreover, the slag particles have more angular
shapes when compared with normal sand particles. In order to
check the last assumption (angularity), the loose unit weights of
both natural sand and fine slag were measured according to AASH-
TO T304. To eliminate the effect of aggregate gradation, only sin-
gle-sized aggregates were compared. The sizes tested were
between 0.15 and 0.30 mm, and 0.30 and 0.60 mm. The voids ratio
in the slag was found to be higher than that of natural sand. Hence,
it was concluded that the loss of workability is due to two factors:
the increased fines and the increased angularity.
5.2. Fresh density
Fig. 2 shows the relationship between sand-slag replacement
ratio and the increase in the density of fresh concrete. As expected,

Table 5
Mix Proportions

Strength (MPa) Cement (kg) Free water (kg) 20 mm aggregate (kg) 10 mm aggregate (kg) Sand (kg) Scale (kg)
15% Replacement
25 330 205 339 792 512 90.5
35 427 205 317 740 510 90
45 536 205 290 677 510 90
30% Replacement
25 330 205 339 792 422 181
35 427 205 317 740 420 180
45 536 205 290 677 420 180
50% Replacement
25 330 205 339 792 302 302
35 427 205 317 740 300 300
45 536 205 290 677 300 300
 H. Qasrawi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1118–1125 1121

20 50

Average values
Min. Values
Max. values
16
40

Compressive Strength (MPa)

12
Slump (cm)

30

Slag Percentage
20 0 % Slag
4 15 % Slag
30 % Slag
50 % Slag
100 % slag

0 10

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 40 80 120 160 200

Slag Percentage Age of Concrete(Days)

Fig. 1. Relationship between the slag percent and the slump of concrete. Fig. 3. Relationship between age of concrete and its compressive strength for
various slag replacements (25 MPa concrete).

50

120
Average Values
Range (Max or Min)
Increase in Density (kg per cubuc meter)

Compressive Strength (MPa)

40
80

30
40 Slag Percentage
0 % Slag
15 % Slag
30 % Slag
50 % Slag
100 % slag
20
0

10 20 30 40 50
Slag Ratio

0 40 80 120 160 200

Fig. 2. Relationship between the increase in the density of fresh concrete and the
sand-slag replacement ratio. Age of Concrete (Days)

Fig. 4. Relationship between age of concrete and its compressive strength for
various slag replacements (35 MPa concrete).
the use of slag in concrete increased the density of concrete be-
cause it replaced sand which has a lower specific gravity. However,
the increase in the density is small (less than 5%) because the 5.3. Compressive strength
amount of slag used is small. In all cases, concrete is considered
normal-density concrete when compared to the limits given in Figs. 3–5 show the relationship between compressive strength
ACI 304.3 ‘‘Heavyweight concrete: measuring, mixing, transporting, and age of concrete for all samples. From Figs 3 and 4, the following
and placing”. observations are obtained:
1122 H. Qasrawi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1118–1125

60 50

50 40
Compressive Strength (MPa)

Strength (MPa)
40 30

Slag Percentage
0 % Slag
15 % Slag
30 30 % Slag 20 25 MPa
50 % Slag 35 MPa
100 % slag 45 MPa

20 10
0 40 80 120 160 200 0 20 40 60 80 100
Age of Concrete (Days) Slag Ratio

Fig. 5. Relationship between age of concrete and its compressive strength for Fig. 6. Relationship between the slag ratio and the compressive strength of
various slag replacements (45 MPa concrete). concrete at the age of 28 days.

1. The strength of concrete increases with age for all mixes.

6
2. Mixes containing slag showed higher compressive strength in
the early ages (the first seven days).
3. The mix containing 100% slag produced compressive strengths
less than the normal concrete mix at the ages of 28, 90 and
180 days. 5
4. The lower the slag ratio, the higher the compressive strength of
concrete at the 28, 90 and 180 days.
Flexural Tensile Strength (MPa)

Observations 1, 2 and 3 can also be noted in Fig. 5. Moreover,

the mixes containing 50% slag produced lower strength than the 4
control mix. Also, both mixes containing 15% and 30% slag pro-
duced strength values at later ages higher than the control mix.
If slag ratio is plotted against the strength of concrete for all ages,
7 to 180 days, and all the grades, a peak can be observed for the
range between 15% and 30% slag replacement ratios. An example 3
is shown in Fig. 6.

5.4. Tensile strength 25 MPa

35 MPa
2 45 MPa
The results of flexural tensile strength of concrete are shown in
Figs. 7–9. It is clear from all the figures that up to 50% steel slag, the
flexural tensile strength of concrete increases by the increase in slag
ratio. However, the use of a 100% sand replacement by slag was not
beneficial when compared to the other replacements at the ages of
1
28 and 90 days. In all replacement ratios, the use of slag produced
concrete of higher flexural tensile strength. This can be attributed 0 20 40 60 80 100
to the better quality of steel slag in addition to its higher angularity Slag Ratio
which increased bond between the aggregate and the paste.
Fig. 7. Relationship between the slag ratio and the tensile strength of concrete at
the age of 7 days.
5.5. General observations

Fig. 10, shows the relationship between slag ratio and the ratio
of the strength to zero-slag strength for the three grades of con- Referring to the tensile strength plots in this figure, the follow-
crete at the age of 28 days. ing are observed:
 H. Qasrawi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1118–1125 1123

7 25 MPa tensile strength

35 MPa tensile strength
45 MPa tensile strength
25 MPa compressive strength
6 35 MPa compressive strength
45 MPa compressive strenght

2.4
Flexural Tensile Strength (MPa)

Ratio of Strength to Zero–Slag Strength

4 2

3
1.6

25 MPa
35 MPa
2
45 MPa

1.2

1
0 20 40 60 80 100
Slag Ratio

Fig. 8. Relationship between the slag ratio and the tensile strength of concrete at 0.8
the age of 28 days.
0 20 40 60 80 100
Slag Ratio

8 Fig. 10. Relationship between slag ratio and the ratio of strength to zero-slag
strength for the three grades of concrete.

2. The optimum tensile strength value occurs when the sand is

7
replaced by 30–50% slag, while this value is 15–30% for com-
pressive strength.
Flexural Tensile Strength (MPa)

3. The lower the grade of concrete, the higher the effectiveness of

slag on strength improvement.
6
4. All tensile strength values, including those with 100% sand
replacement, are always higher than concrete containing no
slag.
5
Referring to the compressive strength plots in Fig. 10, the fol-
lowing are observed:

1. The use of steel slag increases the compressive strength of con-

4
crete by a maximum of 1.3 times the strength of normal con-
25 MPa crete, depending on the ratio used. However, reduction in
35 MPa strength can occur beyond the 50% replacement ratio.
45 MPa 2. The optimum value occurs when the sand is replaced by 15 to
3
30% slag.
3. The lower the grade of concrete, the higher the effectiveness of
slag on strength improvement.
4. The compressive strength in all mixes containing 100% sand-
2
slag replacement is always lower than those mixes with no slag.
0 20 40 60 80 100
Slag Ratio
5.6. Discussion of strength results
Fig. 9. Relationship between the slag ratio and the tensile strength of concrete at
the age of 90 days.
The high angularity of the steel slag led to increasing the bond
between the particles and the cement paste which has led to
1. The use of steel slag increases the tensile strength of concrete increasing the concrete strength. These results are in line with
by 1.4 to 2.4 times the strength of normal concrete, depending the findings of Ramachandran [6], who noted that air-cooled slag
on the used ratio. is suitable as an aggregate in concrete and that concrete made with
1124 H. Qasrawi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 1118–1125

70 70 70

Age = 28 days Age = 90 days Age = 180 days

60 60 60
Strength (MPa)

50 50 50

40 40 40

30 30 25 MPa 30
25 MPa 25 MPa
35 MPa
35 MPa 35 MPa
45 MPa
45 MPa 45 MPa

20 20 20

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100

Slag Ratio Slag Ratio Slag Ratio

Fig. 11. Relationship between slag ratio and the compressive strength of concrete made with coarse slag as fine aggregate.

such aggregate produces compressive strengths higher than those
concretes made with gravel and crushed limestone. Moreover, slag
fines may be used as a substitute for sand without any deleterious
effect.
However, when the amount of slag increases, the amount of
fine material (less than 0.15 mm) becomes high (about 40% of
the slag is finer than 0.15 mm). Since the fines require more ce-
ment to be effectively coated, high amounts of slag may adversely
affect the strength of concrete. In order to support this assump-
tion, new mixes containing steel slag only retained on sieve #
100, to remove excess fine material, were prepared using the
same ratios and tested for compressive strength at the ages of
28, 90 and 180 days. Fig. 11 shows the results of the test. It is
clear from the plot that the strength of concrete increases by
the increase in the slag ratio. This supports the assumption men-
tioned before.
This finding is somewhat compatible with Manso et al. [10] who
noted that special attention must be paid to the mixes of concrete
having slag as fine aggregate in order to achieve a suitable fine
aggregate.
increases the tensile strength of concrete by 1.1–1.3 times the
strength of normal concrete, depending on the used ratio.
Therefore, special care should be taken when designing mixes
or when batching the material at site when using the slag ‘‘as
received” from the factory.
4. Regarding the compressive and tensile strengths of concrete,
steel slag is more advantageous for concretes of lower
strengths, i.e., the lower the grade of concrete, the better the
enhancement in the compressive and tensile strengths.
5. The use of steel slag in normal concrete mixes is beneficial for
the enhancement of the tensile strength for all replacement
ratios. However, the best results were obtained when the
replacement percentage is about 50%. When optimum values
are used, the use of steel slag increases the tensile strength of
concrete by 1.4–2.4 times the strength of normal concrete,
depending on the ratio used.
6. Better results can be obtained when the material finer than
0.15 mm is eliminated. In this case, the strength increases by
the increase in the amount of slag replacing sand.

6. Conclusions and recommendations
Based on the study presented in this research, the following
conclusions and recommendations can be drawn:
1. The use of steel slag as fine aggregate has a negative impact on
the workability of concrete especially for replacement ratios
above 50%. However, this problem can easily be taken care of
by the use of admixtures.
2. The use of steel slag as fine aggregate in concrete mixes has a
positive effect on both compressive and tensile strengths; hence
introducing it in concrete will eliminate one of the environmen-
tal problems created by the steel industry.
3. Best results for the enhancement of compressive strength are
obtained when the replacement percentages are between 15%
and 30%. When optimum values are used, the use of steel slag
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