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Viscidiflorus) Havingr: To As On
Viscidiflorus) Havingr: To As On
Viscidiflorus) Havingr: To As On
'#- TEMPERATURES'
S. M. AHI AND W. L. POWERS
(WITH THREE FIGURES)
Introduction
The interesting observation was made that yellow sage (Chrysothamnus
viscidiflorus) grows in Klamath Basin at some 4200 feet elevation on soil
havingr a reaction of pH 9.5 to 10, while in the hotter climate of Malheur
Valley, at an elevation of 2000 feet, it grows on soil of a reaction value of
approximately 9. Small grain also appears to be more resistant to alkali
at the cooler, more elevated alkaline areas. EATON (7) has also suggested
that temperature affects salt tolerance. Experiments were undertaken as
a phase of a salt tolerance study to determine the effect of temperature on
salt tolerance of certain plants, the degree to which certain plants differ in
salt tolerance, the effect of chemical composition of the alkaline soils, and
of other factors on salt tolerance.
Historical review
Reclamation and use of alkaline land is one of the major soil problems
of arid agriculture. HARRIS (16) estimated that some 13 per cent. of the
irrigated land contained sufficient alkali2 to be seriously harmful to plants.
EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF ALKALI SOILS
Any soluble salt that is present in the soil in excess may be called alkali.
HILGARD (22) distinguished two types of alkali: (a) "white alkali" which
includes one or more of such salts as sodium chloride, sodium sulphate,
sodium nitrate, magnesium sulphate, magnesium chloride, calcium chloride;
(b) "black" alkali, which usually consists mainly of sodium carbonate.
"Black" alkali is more destructive to plants than "white" alkali.
GLINKA (12) classifies soils into the three following groups: (a) solon-
chak, (b) solonetz, and (e) solod. According to GEDROIZ (8) these three
subgroups represent three consecutive stages of the process which may be
called "evolution of alkali soil.'
Such an evolution consists of three consecutive transformations: Salini-
zation, which transforms an original soil into solonchak; solonization, trans-
forming solonchak into solonetz; and solotization, which transforms solonetz
to the final product of the evolutionary process, solod (or soloth). Sol-
1 Published as technical paper no. 275 with the approval of the Director as a contribu-
tion from the Soils Department of the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.
2 "1 Alkali " land is here used as a popular term to refer to soil that is saline, or
alkaline, or both.
76
at 55, 70, and 900 F. The latter temperature proved so unfavorable that
a second trial was made at a temperature of 850 F.
In addition a constant-flow experiment was conducted using sea water at
various dilutions. The apparatus was adjusted to deliver a flow of some 2
liters per day.
Supplies of surface soil at the Vale Alkali Experiment Field were col-
lected in June, 1936, from plats A, B, and N, and adjacent native hard alkali
land previously described by JOHNSTON and POWERS (23).
Another lot sample of saline Yakima loam soil was obtained from near
Klamath Falls. These soils were brought to the greenhouse, each lot mixed
thoroughly and placed in duplicate series of one-gallon jars. Various
chemical treatments were given to the soil to provide a series of pH values
ranging from native alkali soil to neutrality. After planting, a favorable
moisture content was maintained.
Chemical analyses of soil profile layers from the field tracts were made
as to base exchange capacity, replaceable bases, water soluble salts, organic
matter, available nutrients, and pH. Base exchange was determined by
the barium chloride-ammonium chloride method, organic matter by Alex-
ander's modifications of the Rather method, and pH with the hydrogen
electrode. Certain biological activities of these alkali soils were studied.
Detailed results, however, are to be reported separately.
Some moisture equivalent determinations were made using the centri-
fuge method.
The average salt content of sea water used for water culture experiments
was 3.06 per cent. or 30,600 p.p.m. The dilutions used and dry weights of
salt grass produced in the cold house and also in the warm house are shown
in table I.
TABLE I
TOLERANCE OF SALT GRASS FOR SEA WATER
I:.$ .4
A"
J.
I.
. _.-
=1
AL,~~~
FIG. 1. Above, salt grass growing in various concentrations of sea water in warm
house (about 750 F.). 1, check; 2, 306 p.p.m. of sea water; 3, 612 p.p.m. of sea water; 4,
1224 p.p.m. of sea water; 5, 2448 p.p.m. of sea water. Below, salt grass growing in the
same concentrations of sea water in the cold house (about 550 F.).
This type of experiment was repeated with alfalfa using different con-
centrations of sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, and sodium carbonate as
shown in tables II and III. The critical concentrations indicated by these
tests are summarized in table IV. Combinations of different ratios of
sodium carbonate to sodium sulphate indicate higher tolerance in combi-
nations. These concentrations are lower than reported by HARRIS (20) for
soil cultures. They are also lower than the concentrations of brackish water
at high tide found bathing areas of salt grass growing on lowlands near the
Pacific Coast in Oregon.
TABLE II
TOLERANCE OF ALFALFA FOR SEA WATER
TABLE III
TOLERANCE OF ALFALFA FOR SODIUM CHLORIDE
TABLE IV
CRITICAL SALT CONCENTRATIONS FOR CERTAIN PLANTS
CONCENTRATIONS
PLANTS SEA WATER SODIUM SODIUM SODIUM
CHLORIDE SULPHATE CARBONATE
p.p.m. P.p.m. p.p.m. p.p.m.
Salt Grass .......... 10,000 1400 2800 700
Alfalfa
Strawberry .2800
Clover5600.............................. 1000 1400 350
Strawberry C:lover ... . ..... 5600 .........
I. 2 6
Cheek 7'y, of !Lcc -tc, l- 7- 56,.-, 112--c --. ....
Soa '.'.&ter of Se,. '.,ater f g-te.; ..ter -::f St, -, c r ,-, Se',
FIG. 2. Top row, strawberry clover grown at different concentrations of sea water
increasing from left to right as indicated, at about 850 F. MIiddle row, same series of
concentrations, germinated at 700 F. Bottom row, same series of concentrations, germi-
nated at 550 F.
TABLE V
TOLERANCE OF STRAWBERRY CLOVER FOR SEA WATER AT CONSTANT CONCENTRATION
WEIGHT WEIGHT
OF DRY OF DRY
MATTER, MATTER, TOTAL
CONCENTRATION OF SEA WATER AV. OF 3 AV. OF 3
CULTURES* CULTURES WEIGHT
(FIRST (SECOND
CUTTING) CUTTING)
gm. gm. gm.
Complete nutrient solution .................................... 4.0 6.50 10.50
700 p.p.m. plus dilute nutrient solution 2.67 2.95 5.62
1400 " " " " " 3.00 3.50 6.50
2800 " " " " " 1.00 2.10 3.10
5600 " " " " " 0.75 1.50 2.25
11200 " " " " " 0.50 0.50 1.00
* Only five seedlings were planted in each jar.
W- i
FIG. 3. Growth of alfalfa on alkali land, check plat at left; reclaimed w^ith sulphur
at right, at Vale, Oregon, August, 1937.
line as shown in tables VII, VIII, and IX. The final soil reactions and
results are also given in these tables.
TABLE VII
TOLERANCE OF STRAWBERRY CLOVER IN ALKALINE YAKIMA LOAM POT CULTURE
WEIGHT WEIGHT
OF DRY OF DRY
MATTER, MATTER, TOTAL FINAL
TREATMENT AV. OF 2 AV. OF 2 DRY SOIL
CULTURES CULTURES WEIGHT REACTION
(FIRST (SECOND
CUTTING) CUTTING)
gm. gmn. gin. pH
No treatment ....................... 5.50 6.00 11.50 8.63
Sulphur, 1 T.* ....................... 6.00 7.00 13.00 7.61
Sulphur, 1 T.; manure, 20 T 6.75
....... 8.50 15.25 7.32
NaCl, 1000 p.p.m....................... 0.50 2.50 3.00 9.35
NaCi, 2000 p.p.m. ....................... 0.00 0.70 0.70 9.56
Na,C03, 500 p.p.m ....................... 0.00 1.20 1.20 - 9.48
Na,C03, 1000 p.p.m. .0.00 0.40 0.40 9.78
* Tons per 2,000,000 lb. of soil.
WEIGHT WEIGHT
OF DRY OF DRY
MATTER, MATTER, TOTAL FINAL
TREATMENT AV. OF 2 AV. OF 2 DRY SOIL
CULTURES CULTURES WEIGHT REACTION
(FIRST (SECOND
CUTTING) CUTTING)
gm. gim. gm. pH
No treatment .......................................... 2.60 4.28 6.88 8.50
Sulphur, 1 T.* ................. ....... 5.10 6.75 11.85 7.39
Sulphur, 1 T.; manure, 20 T. 7.00 8.50 15.50 7.10
NaCl, 1000 p.p.m ........................ 4.30 5.00 9.30 8.73
Na2CO,, 500 p.p.m ........................ 3.10 2.50 5.60 8.82
*
Tons per 2,000,000 lb. of soil.
might increase total soluble salts. More growth was secured on untreated
Yakima loam than on the check jars of more alkaline Vale loam, which was
in a poor physical condition.
Sodium chloride and sodium carbonate treatments were detrimental to
the growth of plants in both soils, although 1000 p.p.m. of sodium chloride
did not decrease the total yield of dry matter on Vale soils.
From the data, it may be concluded that strawberry clover will make a
better growth on alkaline, or saline soils, provided the soil is well supplied
with sulphur and manure accompanied by leaching. Sulphur oxidizes and
brings calcium into solution to replace exchangeable sodium. One effect of
manure is to supply microorgansms for biological oxidation of the sulphur.
CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF SOILS
The soils that were used in the greenhouse were sampled in the field by
horizons, 0 to 5, 5 to 20, and 20 to 40 inches depth. Determinations of re-
placeable bases, soluble salts, reaction, total nitrogen, and organic matter, as
C o 0 COIC- t-
t- in
e, -1 Cq
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TABLE XI
WATER-SOLUBLE SALTS IN VALE ALKALI EXPERIMENT PLATS. SAMPLED FALL, 1936
* *- *-
cq ,x m
6-4
9 W rv.
pg .:)
E-4M.:)u
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¢
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,
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o o 0
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ri0 0o
o
rl
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0.: 0=.
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(= C; 6 6 0 0 0 C) C) C
Ez
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s
o
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CulIn C) InC) 'D tD
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TABLE XIII
YIELDS OF ALFALFA HAY SECURED ON VALE ALKALI EXPERIMENT PLATS FROM
1931 TO 1936
LITERATURE CITED
1. BANCROFT, R. L. The alkali soils of Iowa. Iowa Sta. Bull. 177. 1918.
2. BREAZEALE, J. F. A study of the toxicity of salines that occur in black
alkali soils. Univ. Arizona Tech. Bull. 14. 1927.
3. . Alkali tolerance of plants considered as a phenomenon
of adaptation. Univ. Arizona Tech. Bull. 11. 1926.
4. BROWN, P. E., and HITCHCOCK, E. B. The effects of alkali salts on
nitrification. Soil Sci. 4: 207-229. 1917.
5. BUFFUM, B. C., and SLOSsoN, E. E. Alkali studies. Wyoming Sta.
Rep. P.40. 1900.
6. DORE, W. H. Alkali resistant plants. Private communication.
7. EATON, F. M. Salinity of irrigation water and injury to crop plants.
California Citrograph 20: (Nos. 10 and 11). 1935.
8. GEDROIZ, K. K. Soil absorbing complex and the absorbed soil cations
as a basis of genetic soil classification. Nosovka Agr. Exp. Sta.
Pub. 38. 1925. (English transl. by S. A. WAKSMAN.)
9. GIBBS, W. M., BATCHELOR, H. W., and MAGNUSON, H. P. The effects of
alkali salts on bacteriological activities in soils. I. Ammonifica-
tion. Soil Sci. 19: 343-356. 1925.
10. , , and . The effects of alkali
salts on bacteriological activities in soils. II. Nitrification. Soil
Sci. 19: 357-369. 1925.
11. , , and . The effects of alkali
salts on bacteriological activities in soil. III. Ammonification,
nitrification and crop yield. Soil Sci. 19: 371-379. 1925.
12. GLINKA, K. D. The great soil groups of the world and their develop-
ment. Edwards Brothers, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 1917. Pp. 188-
230. (Trans. by C. F. MARBUT.)
13. GREAVES, J. E. The influence of salts on the bacterial activities of the
soil. Soil Sci. 2: 443-480. 1916.
14. . Influence of salts on bacterial activities of soil. Bot.
Gaz. 73: 161-180. 1922.
15. -, CARTER, E. G., and LUND, Y. Influence of salts on azo-
fication in soil. Soil Sci. 13: 481-499. 1922.
16. HARRIS, F. S. Soil alkali. John Wiley & Sons,- New York. P. 258.
1920.