Special Education programs are designed for those students who are mentally, physically,

socially and/or emotionally delayed. This aspect of “delay,” broadly categorized as a

developmental delay, signify an aspect of the child's overall development (physical, cognitive,
scholastic skills) which place them behind their peers. Due to these special requirements,
students’ needs cannot be met within the traditional classroom environment. Special Education
programs and services adapt content, teaching methodology and delivery instruction to meet
the appropriate needs of each child.

The term exceptional childrenincludes children who experience difficulties in learning as well as
those whose performance is so superior that modifications in curriculum and instruction are
necessary to help them fulfill their potential. Thus, exceptional children is an inclusive term that
refers to children with learning and/or behavior problems, children with physical disabilities or
sensory impairments, and children who are intellectually gifted or have a special talent. The
term students with disabilities is more restrictive than exceptional children because it does not
include gifted and talented children.

The IEP is meant to address each child’s unique learning issues and include specific
educational goals. It is a legally binding document. The school must provide everything it
promises in the IEP.

Here’s a quick look at what an IEP must include, by law:

 A statement of your child’s present level of performance (PLOP)—this is how your child is
doing in school now
 Your child’s annual educational goals
 Special education supports and services that the school will provide to help your child reach
goals
 Modifications and accommodations the school will provide to help your child make progress
 Accommodations your child will be allowed when taking standardized tests
 How and when the school will measure your child’s progress toward annual goals
 Transition planning that prepares teens for life after high school

Special Education programs are designed for those students who are mentally, physically,
socially and/or emotionally delayed. This aspect of “delay,” broadly categorized as a
developmental delay, signify an aspect of the child's overall development (physical, cognitive,
scholastic skills) which place them behind their peers. Due to these special requirements,
students’ needs cannot be met within the traditional classroom environment. Special Education
programs and services adapt content, teaching methodology and delivery instruction to meet
the appropriate needs of each child
General Education is the program of education that typically developing
children should receive, based on state standards and evaluated by the annual
state educational standards test. It is the preferred way of describing its
synonym, "regular education." It is preferred because the term "regular" connotes
that children receiving special education services are somehow "irregular."

What is ADHD?
ADHD is a condition of the brain that affects a person's ability to pay attention. It is most
common in school-age children.

What are some signs or symptoms of ADHD?

ADHD is a chronic disorder, meaning that it affects an individual throughout life. The
symptoms are also pervasive, meaning they occur in multiple settings, rather than just one.
Current research supports the idea of two distinct characteristics of ADHD, inattention
and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity. A child with these characteristics typically demonstrates the
following signs:
Inattention

 Has difficulty concentrating

 Has unrelated thoughts
 Has problems focusing and sustaining attention
 Appears to not be listening
 Performance depends on task
 May have better attention to enjoyed activities
 Has difficulty planning, organizing, and completing tasks on time
 Has problems learning new things
 Demonstrates poor self-regulation of behavior, that is, he or she has difficulty
monitoring and modifying behavior to fit different situations and settings

Hyperactivity

 Seems unable to sit still (e.g., squirming in his/her seat, roaming around the room,
tapping pencil, wiggling feet, and touching everything)
 Appears restless and fidgety
 May bounce from one activity to the next
 Often tries to do more than one thing at once

Impulsivity

 Difficulty thinking before acting (e.g., hitting a classmate when he/she is upset or
frustrated)
 Problems waiting his/her turn, such as when playing a game
 Intellectual Disabilities/Mental Retardation: Typical
Characteristics
(Please note that these are generalizations. There is a great deal of individual
variation)

Individuals with mild intellectual disabilities (formerly referred to as

"educable"):

 are likely to need only intermittent to limited support;

 typically do not "look" different from their non-disabled peers;
 often have only mild or moderate developmental delays, except in academics,
which is often the major area of deficit;
 therefore, they are often not identified until they enter the school setting, where
their cognitive disability is most apparent;
 in Minnesota, students with mild MR spend most of the school day in the
regular classroom;
 they typically attain 3rd- to 6th-grade academic achievement levels by the time
they finish high school;
 as adults, many, though not all, with mild MR will be able to obtain
independent employment;
 many will marry, have children, and blend rather indistinguishably into the
community; for those who achieve total independence, the label of mental
retardation is no longer appropriate.

Individuals with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities (formerly called

"trainable"):

 will probably need limited to extensive supports;

 they are more likely to have a recognizable syndrome (such as Down
Syndrome);
 therefore, may "look" different than their non-disabled peers;.
 their development is often significantly delayed;
 they are typically identified as infants or toddlers;.
 most begin receiving special education during the preschool years;
 they may be included in the regular classroom part of the school day
(particularly here in Minnesota);
 but often spend much of the school day in a separate classroom where they
learn adaptive living skills;
 as adults, most individuals with moderate to severe MR will not achieve total
independence;
  rather, they are likely to continue to need limited to extensive support such as
that provided in group homes or semi-independent living situations (SILs);
some may continue to live with their parents;
 some individuals with moderate to severe MR may be able to succeed in
modified competitive employment situations;
 however, many will work in supported, non-competitive settings such as
sheltered workshops.

Individuals with intellectual disabilities mental retardation:

 will generally need services at the pervasive level, typically throughout their
life;
 they are likely to have multiple disabilities, particularly in the areas of mobility
and communication;.
 therefore, many use wheelchairs and alternate forms of communication;
 their communication deficits make it difficult to accurately assess their
intellectual functioning;
 in educational settings, they may be placed along with students with moderate
to severe MR or in their own classroom;
 some adults with this level of retardation remain in institutional settings, but
most currently live in group homes.

The following is a list of common characteristics of an LD student. Conditions must be

persistent over a long period of time. Presence of these conditions does not necessarily
mean a person is learning disabled.

Reading Skills

 Poor decoding skills

 Poor reading fluency
 Slow reading rate
 Lack of self-monitoring reading skills
 Poor comprehension and/or retention
 Difficulty identifying important ideas in context
 Extreme difficulty building ideas and images
 Difficulty integrating new ideas to existing knowledge
 Weak vocabulary skills
 Extreme difficulty understanding words or grammar
 Difficulty recognizing high frequency words
 Oral comprehension is noticeably stronger than reading comprehension
 Extreme difficulty focusing attention on the printed marks
 Difficulty controlling eye movements across the page
 Wavy or shimmering pages not attributable to poor vision

Spelling Skills
  Phonological awareness is noticeably stronger than spelling ability
 Frequent spelling errors of high frequency words
 Extreme difficulty with homonyms and/or regular spelling patterns
 No understanding of the relationship of phonics to written language
 No understanding of common spelling rules
 Inadequate understanding of phonics even with instruction

Written Expression Skills

 Poor writing fluency

 Unable to compose complete, grammatical sentences
 Difficulty organizing written information
 Poor handwriting
 Extremely poor alignment
 Inability to take notes or copy information from a book or the board
 Oral expression is noticeably stronger than written expression
 Extremely weak proofreading skills

Oral Language Skills

 Inability to hear small differences between sounds, not attributable to a hearing loss,
particularly vowel sounds
 Difficulty articulating thoughts or ideas orally
 Difficulty pronouncing words
 Inability to blend sounds together to form words
 Difficulty listening and responding to a series of directions
 Disorganized recall of facts or details

Mathematical Skills

 Poor mathematical fluency

 Difficulty memorizing multiplication tables
 Difficulty identifying multiples and/or factors
 Poor basic calculation skills
 Difficulty understanding word or application problems
 Poor understanding of mathematical concepts
 Difficulty sorting out irrelevant information
 Lower visual perceptual and visual-spatial ability
 Inability to transfer basic mathematical concepts to solve problems with
unpredictable information
 Inability to use basic facts within more complex calculations

Memory Skills

 Extremely weak ability to store and retrieve information efficiently

 Extremely weak ability to hold information for immediate use

Reasoning Skills

 Extremely weak ability to solve problems, particularly when information or procedure

is unfamiliar
  Extreme difficulty recognizing, transforming, or using specific information to reach
general conclusions

“…a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a

long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child’s
educational performance:

(A) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or

health factors.

(B) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships

with peers and teachers.

(C) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal

circumstances.

(D) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.

(E) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with

personal or school problems.”

As defined by IDEA, emotional disturbance includes schizophrenia but does

not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that
they have an emotional disturbance.

1. Teachers have a clear sense of their own ethnic and cultural identities.
2. Teachers communicate high expectations for the success of all students and a belief that all students
can succeed.
3. Teachers are personally committed to achieving equity for all students and believe that they are
capable of making a difference in their students' learning.
4. Teachers have developed a bond with their students and cease seeing their students as "the other."
5. Schools provide an academically challenging curriculum that includes attention to the development of
higher-level cognitive skills.
6. Instruction focuses on students' creation of meaning about content in an interactive and collaborative
learning environment.
7. Teachers help students see learning tasks as meaningful.
 8. Curricula include the contributions and perspectives of the different ethnocultural groups that
compose the society.
9. Teachers provide a "scaffolding" that links the academically challenging curriculum to the cultural
resources that students bring to school.
10. Teachers explicitly teach students the culture of the school and seek to maintain students' sense of
ethnocultural pride and identity.
11. Community members and parents or guardians are encouraged to become involved in students'
education and are given a significant voice in making important school decisions related to programs
(such as resources and staffing).
12. Teachers are involved in political struggles outside the classroom that are aimed at achieving a more
just and humane society.

. A child will have a strong foundation for later development if he or she can manage personal feelings, understand
others' feelings and needs, and interact positively with others.

In culture, teens are looked at by adults with scorn, terror, and, well, anything that vilifies teens.
Yes, this is the myth that all teens rebel against their parents as a natural phase of life. This is a
myth because it is a stereotype based on the worst that society has to offer.

The media does a notoriously terrible job at representing teenagers, because they only show the
negative side of teenagers, and the “bad teens”, which I assure you, are few in number. All the
media focuses on are the hoodies, the drunken rioters, the tanned skanks, the drunk girls, and of
course, the teen moms. These are all uncommon, and horrible examples of teens in our society,
and they’re all used by “experts” to describe “teenage rebellion” as a “natural phase” in teenage
life.

The problem with this is that most teenagers aren’t focused on rebelling against their parents.
They just want to live their life while it’s still sweet for them. Just that the media wants to
exaggerate their rebellious traits for the purpose of scaring little kids, parents, and, perhaps more
likely, old people.

An idea teachers must understand is that students with special needs such as learning disabilities need to
be taught differently or need some accommodations to enhance the learning environment. Not everyone
learns in the same way, and you can follow some tips to create a well-rounded learning atmosphere.
1. Maintain an organized classroom and limit distractions. For students with special needs, maintaining
a healthy balance of structure and unstructured processes is important. For example, on each student’s
desk, have a place for everything that is clearly labeled (use words or colors, for instance). Also consider
using checklists and help students keep their notebooks organized; teach them how to do so on their
own, but also check at the end of each day and offer suggestions for keeping it more organized. On the
unstructured side of things, allow students with special needs to change their work area while completing
homework or studying and assign tasks that involve moving around the room. For students with special
needs and learning disabilities, hearing instructions or following directions can be made difficult if there
 are too many distractions. Schedule breaks throughout the day and seat students with special needs in
an area of the classroom that limits distractions; for example, do not sit these children by a window, in
front of an open door, or by the air conditioner, as people walking by or additional noises might be too
distracting.
2. Use music and voice inflection. When transitioning to an activity, use a short song to finish up one task
and move to another. Many of us have sung the “clean up” while cleaning up before the next activity; use
a similar approach in the classroom. Students with special needs might also respond well to varied voice
inflection and tone, so use a mixture of loud, soft, and whisper sounds. Using proper pronunciation and
sometimes slightly exaggerating proper speech will help a child model the same principles.
3. Break down instructions into smaller, manageable tasks. Students with special needs often have
difficulty understanding long-winded or several instructions at once. For children with learning disabilities,
it is best to use simple, concrete sentences. You might have to break down a step into a few smaller
steps to ensure your students with special needs understand what you are asking. You might even want
to put the directions both in print and saying them verbally. Ask your students with special needs to repeat
the directions and ask them to demonstrate that they understand. Do not give further instructions until a
student has completed the previous task.
4. Use multi-sensory strategies. As all children learn in different ways, it is important to make every lesson
as multi-sensory as possible. Students with learning disabilities might have difficulty in one area, while
they might excel in another. For example, use both visual and auditory cues. Create opportunities for
tactile experiences. You might need to use physical cues, such as a light touch, when a student might get
distracted or inattentive. Get creative with your lesson plans, and students with special needs will
appreciate the opportunity to use their imaginations or try something new; use a balance of structure and
familiar lessons with original content.
5. Give students with special needs opportunities for success. Children with learning disabilities often
feel like they do not succeed in certain areas, but structuring lessons that lead to successful results is a
way to keep them motivated. Provide immediate reinforcement for accomplishments, be consistent with
rules and discipline, correct errors and reward students when they make these corrections themselves,
explain behavioral expectations, and teach and demonstrate appropriate behaviors rather than just
expecting students with special needs to pick them up.
While these suggestions are ideal for classroom settings, parents of students with special needs can also
implement these principles. Helping children with learning disabilities both in and out of the classroom is
the best way to help your students with special needs achieve success.

Definition
Behavior modification is a treatment approach, based on the principles of operant
conditioning, that replaces undesirable behaviors with more desirable ones through
positive or negative reinforcement .

Purpose
Behavior modification is used to treat a variety of problems in both adults and children.
Behavior modification has been successfully used to treat obsessive-compulsive
disorder (OCD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),
phobias, enuresis (bed-wetting), generalized anxiety disorder , and separation
anxiety disorder , among others.

Description
Behavior modification is based on the principles of operant conditioning, which were
developed by American behaviorist B. F. Skinner (1904-1990). Skinner formulated the
concept of operant conditioning, through which behavior could be shaped by
reinforcement or lack of it. Skinner considered his concept applicable to a wide range of
both human and animal behaviors and introduced operant conditioning to the general
public in his 1938 book, The Behavior of Organisms .
One behavior modification technique that is widely used is positive reinforcement, which
encourages certain behaviors through a system of rewards. In behavior therapy, it is
common for the therapist to draw up a contract with the client establishing the terms of
the reward system.

Read more: http://www.minddisorders.com/A-Br/Behavior-

modification.html#ixzz4fPvIXSw2

Another behavior modification technique is negative reinforcement. Negative

reinforcement is a method of training that uses a negative reinforcer. A negative
reinforcer is an event or behavior whose reinforcing properties are associated with
its removal. For example, terminating an existing electric shock after a rat presses a bar
is a negative reinforcer.
In addition to rewarding desirable behavior, behavior modification can also discourage
unwanted behavior, through punishment. Punishment is the application of
an aversive or unpleasant stimulus in reaction to a particular behavior. For children, this
could be the removal of television privileges when they disobey their parents or teacher.
The removal of reinforcement altogether is called extinction. Extinction eliminates the
incentive for unwanted behavior by withholding the expected response. A widespread
parenting technique based on extinction is the time-out, in which a child is separated
from the group when he or she misbehaves. This technique removes the expected
reward of parental attention.

Read more: http://www.minddisorders.com/A-Br/Behavior-

modification.html#ixzz4fPvYRnlJ

For many students with disabilities—and for many without—the key to success in the
classroom lies in having appropriate adaptations, accommodations, and modifications
made to the instruction and other classroom activities.

Adapting Instruction
 Sometimes a student may need to have changes made in class work or routines
because of his or her disability. Modifications can be made to:

 what a child is taught, and/or

 how a child works at school.

For example:

Jack is an 8th grade student who has learning disabilities in reading and writing. He is in
a regular 8th grade class that is team-taught by a general education teacher and a
special education teacher. Modifications and accommodations provided for Jack’s daily
school routine (and when he takes state or district-wide tests) include the following:

 Jack will have shorter reading and writing assignments.

 Jack’s textbooks will be based upon the 8th grade curriculum but at his independent
reading level (4th grade).
 Jack will have test questions read/explained to him, when he asks.
 Jack will give his answers to essay-type questions by speaking, rather than writing them
down.

Modifications or accommodations are most often made in the following areas:

Scheduling. For example,

 giving the student extra time to complete assignments or tests

 breaking up testing over several days

Setting. For example,

 working in a small group

 working one-on-one with the teacher

Materials. For example,

 providing audiotaped lectures or books

 giving copies of teacher’s lecture notes
 using large print books, Braille, or books on CD (digital text)

Instruction. For example,

 reducing the difficulty of assignments

 reducing the reading level
 using a student/peer tutor
 Student Response. For example,

 allowing answers to be given orally or dictated

 using a word processor for written work
 using sign language, a communication device, Braille, or native language if it is not
English.

Because adapting the content, methodology, and/or delivery of instruction is an

essential element in special education and an extremely valuable support for students,
it’s equally essential to know as much as possible about how instruction can be adapted
to address the needs of an individual student with a disability. The special education
teacher who serves on the IEP team can contribute his or her expertise in this area,
which is the essence of special education.

Program Modifications or Supports for School Staff

If the IEP team decides that a child needs a particular modification or accommodation,
this information must be included in the IEP. Supports are also available for those who
work with the child, to help them help that child be successful. Supports for school staff
must also be written into the IEP. Some of these supports might include:

 attending a conference or training related to the child’s needs,

 getting help from another staff member or administrative person,
 having an aide in the classroom, or
 getting special equipment or teaching materials.

Supplementary Aids and Services

One of the most powerful types of supports available to children with disabilities are the
other kinds of supports or services (other than special education and related services)
that a child needs to be educated with nondisabled children to the maximum extent
appropriate. Some examples of these additional services and supports,
called supplementary aids and services in IDEA, are:

 adapted equipment—such as a special seat or a cut-out cup for drinking;

 assistive technology—such as a word processor, special software, or a communication
system;
 training for staff, student, and/or parents;
 peer tutors;
 a one-on-one aide;
 adapted materials—such as books on tape, large print, or highlighted notes; and
 collaboration/consultation among staff, parents, and/or other professionals.
 Autism Spectrum Disorders
There are five disorders classified under the umbrella category officially known as
Pervasive Developmental Disorders, or PDD. As shown below, these are:

 autism;
 Asperger syndrome;
 Rett syndrome;
 childhood disintegrative disorder; and
 Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (often referred to as
PDDNOS).

Although there are subtle differences and degrees of severity between these five
conditions, the treatment and educational needs of a child with any of these disorders
will be very similar. For that reason, the term “autism spectrum disorders”—or ASDs, as
they are sometimes called— is used quite often now and is actually expected to
become the official term to be used in the future (see the section below called “A Look
at ASD Diagnoses in the Future”). (3)

The five conditions are defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fourth Edition,
Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) of the American Psychiatric Society (2000). This is also the
manual used to diagnose autism and its associated disorders, as well as a wide variety
of other disabilities.

At the moment, according to the 2000 edition of the DSM-IV, a diagnosis of autistic
disorder (or “classic” autism) is made when a child displays 6 or more of 12 symptoms
across three major areas:

 social interaction (such as the inability to establish or maintain relationships with peers
appropriate to the level of the child’s development,
 communication (such as the absence of language or delays in its development), and
 behavior (such as repetitive preoccupation with one or more areas of interest in a way
that is abnormal in its intensity or focus).

When children display similar behaviors but do not meet the specific criteria for autistic
disorder, they may be diagnosed as having one of the other disorders on the
spectrum—Aspergers, Rett’s, childhood disintegrative disorder, or PDDNOS. PDDNOS
(Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified) is the least specific
diagnosis and typically means that a child has displayed the least specific of autistic-like
symptoms or behaviors and has not met the criteria for any of the other disorders.
Terminology used with autism spectrum disorders can be a bit confusing, especially the
use of PDD and PDDNOS to refer to two different things that are similar and
intertwined. Still, it’s important to remember that, regardless of the specific diagnosis,
treatments will be similar.

Deaf-Blindness