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Failure of Materials 2
(Properties of Materials)
S Deb
2018-19

Dental biomaterials

• Elastic modulus defines the stiffness of a material

• Different type of materials exhibit different
mechanical behaviour

A: brittle ceramic B: strong

ceramic C: metal D: metal E:
strong polymer F: weak polymer

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Elastic modulus

Enamel 80- 90
Dentine 15-18
Resin Based Composite 10-18
Porcelain 70-80
Pd-Ag alloy 180-200
Zirconia 210
Alumina 340

Resilience - the capacity of a material to absorb energy

when it is deformed elastically. The area under the -
curve up to the elastic limit.

S
t S
Resilience r t
e r Toughness
s e
s s
s

Strain Strain
Toughness - the amount of energy that a material can
absorb before rupturing. The total area under the
stress- strain curve.

Nitinol: Tensile testing is performed to characterise the strength and

ductility of the material.
The sample is pulled to 6% strain, then unloaded and subsequently pulled
to failure.
When the test is carried out above upper plateau strength, lower plateau
strength and the residual elongation (or permanent set) are also recorded.
The material transforms from austenite into stress induced martensite 3%
strain, and as the sample is unloaded (2.5% strain), the material reverses
into austenite. The stress hysteresis is the basis of orthodontic wires.
Residual elongation is the strain after the load to 6% strain and unload is
completed.

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Poisson’s ratio (ν)

• When a material is placed under axial loading (tensile or
compression), the stress generates strain in an axial direction.
However, lateral strain also occurs.

• The tensile force results in elongation in the axial direction and a

reduction of the cross-section occurs.

• If compressive force is applied the material undergoes increase in

the cross-section and reduction of original length. Lateral

• If these reactions occur in the elastic limit, the ratio between

lateral and axial strain is called the Poisson's ratio.

• Poisson's ratio indicates that the change in cross-section is

proportional to the deformation in the elastic range. Axial

• Brittle materials show little permanent reduction in cross-section

during tensile test situations than more ductile materials.

Poisson’s ratio (ν)

• Elastic Deformation Region
– Axial
– Lateral
• ν = lateral/axial strain
– Defined in elastic
deformation region
• In tensile loading, reduction in
cross section is proportional to
elongation during the elastic
deformation
• Same for compression or
tension
– Range of 0.2-0.4 typical
– Ceramics and metal ~ 0.25-
0.3
– Polymers, elastomers 0.3-
0.4
• Important in design and stress
distribution studies

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Elastic Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio

Effects

• Mastication causes large deformation in sealant and

little in enamel

Sealant = 0.5 GPa, 0.4

Enamel = 90 GPa, 0.3

Shear at the interface

Fold this into a “V” and there is an occlusal fissure

Real Materials (Non ideal behaviour)

• If the material is isotropic
and homogeneous
• The breaking stress of the
material is σc
• Then if σ < σc failure will
not occur
• Real materials:
-Anisotropic
-Non homogenous
-Contain defects

Stress concentration
• Local stress σ
• If σ ≥ σc then failure will occur

• The fracture toughness Kc

is the critical value of K

• When K = Kc there is
catastrophic crack propagation

• Kc is a material property –
independent of testing conditions

• Fracture toughness is not the same as toughness

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Crack growth-Stress
intensity factor
The resistance of a material towards
crack propagation
The stress intensity factor at the tip of the crack is given by
k= Yσ √πa
Y: is the shape factor
σ: the controlling stress
a: the crack length
Fracture toughness is determined using notched specimens
and it effectively gives a value of the work in creating two
new surfaces when cracking occurs

Fracture Toughness

Stresses near the crack tip of a

material can also be characterized
by the stress intensity factor, K,
A critical value of K exists, similar to the value sc, known as fracture
toughness given by:
Y is a dimensionless parameter that depends on both the specimen and
crack geometries.
Carries the unusual units of MNm-1.5

Typical fracture toughness values

Ductile Materials: K1c ~ 100-350
High strength Steels: K1c ~ 50154
Porcelain: K1c ~ 1

• The relationship between stress intensity, KI and

fracture toughness, KIC, is similar to the
relationship between stress and tensile stress.

• The stress intensity, KI, represents the level of

“stress” at the tip of the crack and the fracture
toughness, KIC, is the highest value of stress
intensity that a material under very specific
(plane-strain) conditions that a material can
withstand without fracture

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Mode I - tensile crack opening KIc

Mode of failure Mode II - sliding crack opening (in plane
shear)KIIc
Mode III - tearing crack opening (anti-plane
shear)KIIIc

As the crack propagates, both Y (shape) and σ

can be assumed to be constant thus by
arresting ‘a’ the value of K can be stopped
Some methods of limiting crack
propagation in dentistry:
Addition of rubber particles in
PMMA dentures
Addition of alumina into ceramic
crowns

Enamel

Enamel can undergo wear

It is supported by dentine
and if that is lost, cracks
can occur

The cracks on enamel are

visible

There is no enamel-
dentine debonding

All-Ceramic
Crown Fracture

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Dynamic loading
• Many materials are subjected to fluctuating or intermittent
stresses
• The response of a material to dynamic loading conditions
• Mechanical or thermal loading
• A material subject to repeated cyclic loading may fail after a
number of cycles fail even though the maximum stress in
any cycle is significantly lower than the failure stress of the
material
• Determination of relationship of stress level and number of
cycles to failure/deformation

• Permits estimation of reliability of material/restoration

Accumulation of small
amounts of intermittent
stress is known as fatigue

Fatigue can lead to failure

Fatigue testing can be done
subjecting the specimen to
cyclic loading over a range of
loads
The number of cycles required
to cause failure is counted Note: Two types of behaviour
1. As number of cycles increase allowable
load decreases
2. Some materials exhibit an ‘endurance
Stress is plotted as a function of the limit’ , a level of stress below which
log of the cycles required to cause the material can be subjected to
failure, known as S-N curves indefinite number of cycles without
fracturing

Representative photograph of specimen catastrophic failures in the wear groups observed

after fatigue load and a mixture of adhesive failure in ceramic and tooth fracture. ( Adapted
from: Comparison of Load-Fatigue Performance of Posterior Ceramic Onlay Restorations under
Different Preparation Designs by Dean E. KoisCompendium Supplement – Research, June 2012,
Volume 33, Issue 3; https://www.dentalaegis.com/special-issues/2012/06/comparison-of-
load-fatigue-performance-of-posterior-ceramic-onlay-restorations-under-different-
preparation-designs

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Rao-Rao Wang, Cheng-Lin Lu, Gang Wang and Dong-Sheng Zhan

Influence of cyclic loading on the fracture toughness and load bearing
capacities of all-ceramic crowns; International Journal of Oral Science (2013) 6, 99–
104; doi:10.1038/ijos.2013.94; published 13 December 2013

Two IPS e.max specimens

were fractured at
1 600 000–1 800 000
cycles. An example of a
fractured specimen is
shown

Hue, Value and Chroma:

Optical properties
• Hue
-Describes basic colour
• Chroma
-strength or dominance
of the hue or intensity of
colour
(Outer edge of hue
wheel, shows intensely
saturated hues,
becomes less saturated
as we go towards the
centre and no hue
dominates

• Value
-Overall intensity of how
light or dark is the colour

Translucency and
Opacity
• A transparent material allows
light to be transmitted without
distortion or change in colour
of an object
– glass
• A translucent material allows
light transmission but with
scattering and loss of
definition and true colour of
the object
• An opaque material permits
only scattering of incident light
and no transmission of light

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Tooth Colour and

Layering of
Restorative Resin
Based Composites

Thermal properties
 Coefficient of Thermal expansion
 Glass transition temperature
 Thermal Conductivity and Thermal Diffusivity
 Polymerisation exotherm

Coefficient of thermal expansion

Linear coefficient of thermal
expansion is defined as the
fractional increase in length
of a body for each degree rise
in temperature
 =  L/Lo 0C -1
T
Material (ppm 0C –1)
Enamel ~11.4
Dentine ~18.0
Acrylic resin ~90
Composite resin ~25-60
Amalgam ~25

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CTE mismatch between cooling porcelain and metal

from 800ºC can lead to stresses and failure in function
CTE mismatch between cooling porcelain and metal
from 800ºC can lead to stresses and failure in function

Thermal conductivity
• Thermal Conductivity =
heat × distance
(area × temperature gradient)

Thermal conductivity is defined as the quantity of heat (Q) transmitted

through a unit thickness (L) in a direction normal to a surface of unit
area (A) due to a unit temperature gradient (ΔT) under steady state
conditions and when the heat transfer is dependent only on the
temperature gradient.

Comparative thermal properties of tooth structure

Enamel Tc = 0.0022 cal/sec/cm2
Dentine Tc = 0.0015 cal/sec/cm2
Metals Tc ~ 0.1-0.9 cal/sec/cm2

Thermal diffusivity
• A measure of the rate at which a temperature
disturbance at one point in a body travels to another
point.
• It is expressed by the relationship
• H = K /Cp ρ
where K is the coefficient of thermal conductivity, ρ is
the density, and Cp is the specific heat at constant
pressure.

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Thermal Conductivity & Thermal Diffusivity

 Thermal Conductivity(K) is defined as the rate of heat flow per unit

temperature gradient
-High values imply good conductivity, its an equilibrium property
As temperature changes are transient in the mouth
 Thermal Conductivity = heat × distance / (area × temperature gradient)

k = Q × L / (A × ΔT)

 Thermal Diffusivity (D) is defined by the equation

D= K
Cp x 
Cp= heat capacity,  = density, k= Thermal Conductivity Constant

Glass Transition temperature Tg

Applicable to linear amorphous Composites for dental

polymers(mainly) restoration must have a Tg
higher than the maximum
When a polymer is heated:
temperature in the oral cavity
Segmental motions of the in order to preserve the
chains increase and finally material’s physical and
overcome the interactions mechanical properties
Thus, the glassy brittle stage Composites undergo
progresses to a rubbery and polymerisation to set and the
less rigid form whilst the determination of Tg can
modulus drops rapidly over a indicate if there is inadequate
narrow range of temperature. curing

Thermal properties
 Coefficient of Thermal expansion
-Ideally similar to enamel and dentine ( for direct
restorative materials)
 Glass transition temperature
-High ( For restorative and denture base materials)
 Thermal Conductivity and Thermal Diffusivity
-Low, act as an insulator (For direct restoratives)
 Polymerisation exotherm (Low to not cause
damage to pulp)

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Summary
• Laboratory tests are conducted to provide an
indication of the physical properties, which
forms the selection criteria
• The results conducted in the laboratories may
not be replicated in in vivo use

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