RESEARCH PROCESS

DEFINITION:-
The research process involves identifying, locating, assessing, analyzing, and then developing
and expressing your ideas. The research process is the step-by-step procedure of developing
one's research and research paper. However, one can seldom progress in a step-by-step fashion as
such. Writing a research paper frequently requires continuous, and sometimes , re-evaluation and
revision of both one's topic and the way it is presented.
OBJECTIVES:-
 A research process includes these objectives:
 recognizing the need for information
 Accurate information is the basis for intelligent decision making
 helps when formulating appropriate research question, such as "What is the topic ?"
 can define focus and timeline-- "Do I have enough time to find the appropriate information on
my topic?"
 save time by searching effectively.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS

DEFINITION:-

"Quantitative research process is a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data
are utilized to obtain information about the world."( Burns and Grove cited by Cormack, 1991).
Quantitative research is included to be deductive in other words it tests theory. Quantitative
research is a formal, objective, systematic process for generating information about the world.
quantitative research is conducted o describe new situations, events, or concepts.

GENERAL AIMS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS:-

 To generalize
 To be objective
 To test theories

STEPS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS:-

In quantitative studies , researchers move from the beginning point of a study ( the posing of a
question) to the end point (the obtaining of an answer) in a reasonably linear sequence of steps
that is broadly similar across studies . In some studies, the steps overlap, where as in others,
certain steps are unnecessary. Still, there is a general flow of activities that is typical of a
quantitative study. This section describes that flow, and the next section describes how
qualitative studies differ.

• Formulating and limiting the problem

• Reviewing the literature
PHASE 1: The • undertaking clinical feildwork
coceptual phase • defining the framework/ developing conceptual
definitions
• Formulating hypotheses

• Selecting a reason design

PHASE 2: The design
and planning phase
• Developing intervention protocols
• Identifying the population
• Designing the sampling plan
• Specifying methods to measure research
variables
• Developing methods to safeguard subjects
• Finalizing the research plan

PHASE 3: The • Collecting the data

empirical phase • Preparing the data for analysis

PHASE 4: The • Analyzing the data

analytic phase • Interpreting the results

• Communicating the findings

PHASE 5: The • Utilizing the findings in practice
dissemination phase
Phase 1: The conceptual phase
The early steps in a quantitative research project typically involve activities with a strong
conceptual or intellectual element. These activities include reading, conceptualizing, theorizing,
reconceptualizing, and reviewing ideas with colleagues or advisors. During this phase,
researchers call on such skills as creativity, deductive reasoning, insight, and a firm grounding in
previous research on the topic of interest.
Step 1:Formulating and delimiting the problem
One of the first things a researcher must be is identify an interesting, significant problem and
good research questions. Good research depends to a great degree on good questions. In
developing a research question to be studied, nurse researches must pay close attention to
substantive issues ( is this research question important given the existing evidence base?);
theoretical issues ( is there a broader conceptual context for enhancing understanding of this
problem?); clinical issues (could findings from this research be useful in clinical practice?);
methodological issues (How can this question best be studied to yield high-quality evidence?);
and ethical issues (Can this question be rigorously addressed without committing ethical
transgressions?)

Step 2:Reviewing the related literature

Quantitative research is typically conducted within the context of previous knowledge. To
contribute to the evidence base, quantitative researchers strive to understand what is already
known about a research problem. A thorough literature review provides a foundation on which to
base new evidence and usually is conducted well before any data are collected. For clinical
problems, it may also be necessary to learn as much as possible about the "status qou" of current
procedures relating to the topic , and to review existing practice guidelines or protocols.
Step 3:Undertaking clinical fieldwork
In addition to refreshing or updating clinical knowledge based on written work, researchers
embarking on a clinical nursing study benefit from spending time in clinical settings, discussing
the topic with clinicians and health care administrators and observing current practices. such
clinical fieldwork can provide perspectives on recent clinical trends, current diagnostic
procedures, and relevant health care delivery models; it can also help researches better
understand affected clients and the settings in which care is provided. such fieldwork can also be
valuable in developing methodologic strategies for strengthening the study. for example, in the
course of clinical fieldwork, researchers might discover the need for research assistants who are
bilingual.
Step 4: Defining the framework and developing conceptual definitions
Theory is the ultimate aim of science in that it transcends the specifics of a particular time, place,
and group of people and aims to identify regularities in the relationships among variables. When
quantitative research is performed within the context of a theoretical framework, the findings
may have a broader significance and utility. Even when the research question is not embedded
in a theory, researchers must have a conceptual rationale and a clear sense of the concepts under
study. Thus, an important task in the initial phase of a project is the development of conceptual
definitions.
Step 5: Formulating Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a statement of the researcher's expectations about relationships between study
variables. Hypothesis, in other words, are predictions of expected outcomes; they state the
relationships researchers expect to find as a result of the study. The research question asks how
the concepts under investigation might be related; a hypothesis is the predicted answer. For
example, the research question might be as follows: Is pre-eclamptic toxemia related to stress
factors during pregnancy? This might be translated into the following hypothesis: Women with a
higher incidence of stressful events during pregnancy will be more likely than women with a
lower incidence of stress to experience pre-eclamptic toxemia. Most quantitative studies are
designed to test hypotheses through statistical analysis.

Phase 2 : The Design and Planning Phase

In the second major phase of a quantitative study, researchers make decisions about the methods
and procedures to be used to address the research question, and plan for the actual collection of
data. Sometimes the nature of the question dictates the methods to be used, but more often than
not, researchers have considerable flexibility and must make many decisions. These
methodologies decisions usually have crucial implications for the integrity of the study findings.
Step 6 :Selecting a Research Design
The research design is the overall plan for obtaining answers to the questions being studied and
for handling some of the difficulties encountered during the research process. A wide variety of
research designs are available for quantitative studies, including numerous experimental and
non-experimental designs. In designing the study, researchers specify which specific design will
be adopted and what will be done to minimize bias and enhance the interpretability of results. In
quantitative studies, research designs tend to be highly structured and controlled. Research
designs also indicate other aspects of the research- for example, how often data will be collected,
what types of comparisons will be made, and where the study will takes place. The research
design is the architectural backbone of the study.
Step 7: Developing protocols for the intervention
In experimental research, researchers actively intervene and create the independent variable,
where means that participants are exposed to different treatments or conditions. For example, if
we were interested in testing the effect of biofeedback in treating hypertension, the independent
variable would be biofeedback compared with either an alternative treatment (e.g., relaxation
therapy), or no treatment. The intervention protocol for the study would need to be developed,
specifying exactly what the biofeedback treatment would entail (e.g., who would administer it,
how frequently and over how long a period the treatment would last, and so on) and what the
alternative condition would be. The goal of well-articulated protocols is to have all subjects in
each group treated in the same way.
Step 8: Identifying the Population
Quantitative researchers need to know what characteristics the study participants should possess,
and clarify the group to whom study results can be generalized- that is, they must identify the
population to be studied. A Population is all the individuals or objects with common, defining
characteristics. For example, the population of interest might be all patients undergoing
chemotherapy in California.
Step 9: Designing the Sampling Plan
Researchers typically collect data from a sample, which is a subset of the population. Using
samples is clearly more practical and less costly than collecting data from an entire population,
but the risk is that the sample might not adequately reflect the population's traits. In a
quantitative study, a sample's adequacy is assessed by the criterion of representativeness. That is,
the quality of the sample depends on how typical, or representative, the sample is of the
population. Sophisticated sampling procedures can produce samples that have a high likelihood
of being representative. The sampling plan specifies in advance how the sample will be selected
and recruited, and how many subjects there will be.
Step10: Specifying Methods to Measure the Research Variables
Quantitative researchers must develop or borrow methods to measure the research variables as
accurately as possible. Based on the conceptual definition, the researcher identifies or designs
appropriate methods to operationalize the variables and collect the data. A variety of quantitative
data collection approaches exist; the primary methods are self-reports(e.g., interviews),
observations (e.g., observing the sleep- wake state of infants ), and biophysiologic
measurements. The task of measuring research variables and developing a data collection plan is
a complex and challenging process.
Step 11:Developing Methods to Safeguard Human or Animal Rights
Most nursing research involves human subjects, although some studies involve animals. In either
case, procedures need to be developed to ensure that the study adheres to ethical principles. Each
aspect of the study plan needs to be scrutinized to determine whether the rights of subjects have
been adequately protected. Often that review involves a formal presentation to an external review
committee.
Step 12: Reviewing and Finalizing the Research Plan
Before actually collecting research data, researchers often perform a number of "tests" to ensure
that plans will work smoothly. For example, they may evaluate the readability of any written
materials to determine whether participants with low reading skills can comprehend them, or
they may pretest their measuring instruments to assess their adequacy. Normally, researchers
also have their research plan critiqued by peers, consultants, or other reviewers to obtain
substantive, clinical, or methodological feedback before implementing the plan. Researchers
seeking financial support for their study submit a proposal to a funding source, and reviewers
usually suggest improvements.
Phase 3: The Empirical Phase
The empirical portion of quantitative studies involves collecting research data and preparing
those data for analysis. In many studies, the empirical phase is one of the most time-consuming
parts of the investigation. Data collection typically requires several weeks, or even months, of
work.
Step 13: Collecting the Data
The actual collection of data in a quantitative study often proceeds according to a pre-established
plan. The researcher's plan typically specifies procedures for the actual collection of data (e.g.,
where and when the data will be gathered); for describing the study to participants; and for
recording information. Technological advances in the past few decades have expanded
possibilities for automating data collection.
Step 14: Preparing the Data for Analysis
Data collected in a quantitative study are rarely amenable to direct analysis- preliminary steps are
needed. One such step is coding, which is the process of translating verbal data into numeric
form. For example, patients' response to a question about their gender might be coded "1" for
female and "2" for male (or vice versa). Another preliminary step involves transferring the data
from written documents onto computer files for subsequent analysis.

Phase 4: The Analytic Phase

Quantitative data gathered in the empirical phase are subjected to analysis and interpretation,
which occurs in the fourth major phase of a project.
Step 15: Analyzing the data
To answer research questions and test hypotheses. researchers need to process and analyze their
data in an orderly coherent fashion. Quantitative information is analyzed through statistical
procedures. statistical analyses cover a broad range of techniques from simple procedures that we
all use regularly(e.g., computing an average) to complex and sophisticated methods Although
some methods are computationally formidable. the underlying logic of statistical tests is
relatively easy to grasp, and computers have eliminated the need to get bogged down with
detailed mathematic operations.
Step 16: Interpreting the results
Interpreting is the process of making sense of study result and of examining their implications.
researchers attempt to explain the findings in light of prior evidence, theory and their own
clinical experience-and in light of the adequacy of the methods they used in the study.
interpretation also involves determining how the findings can best be use in clinical practice or
what further research is needed before utilization can be recommended.
Phase 5: The Dissemination phase
In the analytic phase, the researcher comes full circle: the questions posed at the outset are
answered. The researchers' responsibilities are not completed, however, until the study results are
disseminated.
Step 17: Communicating the Findings
Another- and often final-task of a research project is the preparation of a research report that can
be shared with others. Researcher reports can take various forms: term papers, dissertations,
journal articles, presentations at conferences, and so on. Journal articles-reports appearing in
such professional journals as Nursing Research - usually are the most useful because they are
available to a broad, international audience.
Step 18: Utilizing the Findings in Practice
Ideally, the concluding step of a high- quality study is to plan for its use in practice settings.
Although nurse researchers may not themselves be in position to implement a plan for utilizing
research findings, they can contribute to the process by including in their research reports
recommendations regarding how the evidence from the study could be incorporated into the
practice of nursing, by ensuring that adequate information has been provided for a meta-analysis,
and by vigorously pursuing opportunities to disseminate the findings to practicing nurses.

Advantages and Disadvantages of quantitative research process

Quantitative data is statistics driven and can provide a lot of information. One of the advantages
of this type of research is that it is easier to compile the data onto a chart or graph because of the
numbers that are made available (Word press, 2011). Another advantage of quantitative research
is that the research can be conducted on a large scale and gives a lot more information as far as
value and statistics.
One of the disadvantages of quantitative research is that it is more costly than using qualitative
research. Even though it comes with advantages because of the larger scale research, it may not
be necessary for the type of research that needs to be done. Another disadvantage of quantitative
research is that numbers change often (Word press, 2011). So if research is conducted on a
statistical level then it would have to be conducted much more frequently to help balance out the
consistent changing of numbers.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS

DEFINITION:
Qualitative research is a systematic and subjective approach to describe events or life
experiences and to give them intended meanings. The process is relatively less formally planned,
where planning and execution of research moves hand in hand. It not only helps to unearth
hidden facts, but also to exploring attitude, emotions, beliefs, sensitive issue, opinions, concepts
and relationships of people.

STEPS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROCESS:

Quantitative research involves a fairly linear progression of tasks-researchers plan in advance the
steps to be taken to maximize study integrity and then follow those steps as faithfully as possible.
In qualitative studies by contrast, the progression is closer to the circle than to a straight line-
qualitative researchers are continually examining and interpreting data and making decisions
about how to proceed based on what has already been discovered.
Because qualitative researchers have a flexible approach to the collection and analysis of data, it
is impossible to define the flow of activities of data, it is impossible to define the flow of
activities precisely- the flow varies from one study to another, and researchers themselves do not
know ahead of time exactly how the study will proceed. We try to provide a sense of how
qualitative studies are conducted, however, by describing some major activities and indicating
how and when they might be performed.
 PLANNING THE STUDY

 Identifying the research

problem
 Doing a literature review
 Developing an overall
approach
 Selecting and gaining
entree into research sites
 Developing methods to
safeguard participants
DEVELOPING DATA
DISSEMINATING
COLLECTION
FINDINGS
STRATEGIES
 Communicating
 Deciding what type
findings
of data to gather and
 Utilizing (or making how to gather them
recommendations for
 Deciding from whom
utilizing ) findings in
to collect the data
practice and future
 Deciding how to
research
enhance
trustworthiness

GATHERING AND
ANALYZING DATA

 Collecting data
 Organizing and
analyzing data
 Evaluating data:
making
modifications to data
collection strategies,
if necessary
 Evaluating data:
determining if
saturation has been
achieved
CONCEPTUALIZING AND PLANNING A QUALITATIVE STUDY
Identifying the Research Problem
Qualitative researchers usually begin with a broad topic area, focusing on an aspect of a topic
that is poorly understood and about which little is known. They therefore may not develop
hypothesis or pose refined research questions at the outset. The general topic area may be
narrowed and clarified on the basis of self-reflection and discussion with colleagues (or clients),
but researchers may proceed initially with the fairly broad research question that allows the focus
to be sharpened and delineated more clearly once the study is underway.
Doing a Literature Review
Qualitative researchers do not all agree about the value of doing an upfront literature review.
Some believe that researchers should not consult the literature before collecting data. Their
concern is that prior studies might influence their conceptualization of the phenomenon under
study. According to this view, the phenomena should be elucidated based on participants'
viewpoints rather than on any prior information. Those sharing this viewpoint often do a
literature review at the end of the study rather than at the beginning. Others feel that researchers
should conduct at least a preliminary up- front literature review to obtain a general grounding.
Still others believe that a full up-front literature review is appropriate. In any case, qualitative
researchers typically find a relatively small body of relevant previous work because of the types
of question they ask.
Selecting and Gaining Entree into Research Sites
Before going into the field, qualitative researchers must identify a site that is consistent with the
research topic. For example, if the topic is the health beliefs of the urban poor, an inner-city
neighborhood with a concentration of low-income residents must be identified. In making such a
decision, researchers may need to engage in anticipatory fieldwork(and perhaps some clinical
fieldwork) to identify the most suitable and information rich environment for the conduct of the
study. In Some cases, researchers may have access to site selected for study. in other, however
,researchers need to gain entree into the site or settings within it. A site may be well suited to the
needs of the research, but if researchers cannot "get in," the study cannot proceed. gaining entree
typically involves negotiations with gatekeepers who have the authority to permit entry into their
world.
Developing an Overall Approach
Quantitative researchers do not collect data until the research design has been finalized. In a
qualitative study, by contrast, the research design is often referred to as an emergent design- a
design that emerges during the course of data collection. Certain design features are guided by
the qualitative research tradition within which the researcher is working, but nevertheless few
qualitative studies have rigidly structured designs that prohibit changes while in the field.
Although qualitative researchers do not always know in advance exactly how the study will
progress in the field, they nevertheless must have some sense of how much time is available for
fieldwork and must also arrange for and test needed equipment, such as tape recorders or laptop
computers. other planning activities include such tasks as hiring and training interviewers to
assist in the collection of data; securing interpreters if the informants speak a different language;
and hiring appropriate consultants, transcribers, and support staff.

Selecting Research Approach/Design

Common research designs used in qualitative studies are :
 Phenomenological research - It may be used if the researcher is interested in a
description of experiences of people, For example ; a study on experiences of people who
survived in the tsunami disaster in the coastal states of India.
 Ethnography research – Focuses on the sociology of meaning through close field
observation of socio-cultural phenomena. Typically, ethnographer focuses on the
community. For example; an ethnographic study on the features , processes and benefits
of self-help group of women living with chronic alcoholic husbands in selected villages.
 Grounded theory – This approach may be used by researchers to collect data , example if
they are interested in learning about the experiences that the survivors went through to
resolve their crisis during tsunami disaster .
 Case Study – are in depth examination of people, objects or institutions example, case
study on emergency services in civil hospital, Ludhiana, Punjab .
 Historical research – It is concerned with identifying , locating, evaluating and
synthesizing data from the past, example – a study on evolution of nursing research in
India.
  Action research – Researchers is interested in learning about how nurses worked with
tsunami survivors to reach a resolution of the crisis situation.
Select a small Sample
Qualitative studies are in depth inquires, therefore, generally a quite small sample 10-15 subjects
is selected for study.
Qualitative Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting a representative segment of the population under study.
Sample may be defined as representative unit of a target population which is to be worked upon
by researchers during their studies.
Non Probability Sampling is a technique wherein the samples are gathered in a process that
doesn’t give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected in the sample
In Qualitative research researcher preferably uses non probability sampling that includes:

 Convenience sampling - Subjects are selected because of their convenient accessibility

and proximity to the researcher
 Snowball sampling – Locating the initial subject and then taking the assistance from the
subject to identify people with the similar trait of interest.
 Quota sampling – Equal or proportionate representation of subjects from each quota.
In qualitative research, four methods are used for data collection:

1. Interview
2. Focus group
3. Document analysis
4. Unstructured observation

Addressing Ethical Issues

Qualitative researchers, like quantitative researchers, must also develop plans for addressing
ethical issues- and, indeed, there are special concerns in qualitative studies because of more
intimate nature of the relationship that typically develops between researchers and study
participants.
Conducting the Qualitative Study
In qualitative studies, the tasks of sampling, data collection, data analysis, and interpretation
typically take place iteratively. Qualitative researchers begin by talking with or observing a few
people who have first-hand experience with the phenomenon under study. The discussions and
observations are loosely structured, allowing for the expressions of a full range of beliefs,
feelings, and behaviors. Analysis and interpretation are ongoing, concurrent activities that guide
choices about the kinds of people to sample next and the types of questions to ask or
observations to make.

Disseminating Qualitative Findings

Qualitative nursing researchers also strive to share their findings with others at conferences and
in journal articles. Qualitative findings, because of their depth and richness, also lend themselves
more readily to book-length manuscripts than do quantitative findings. Regardless of researchers'
position about when a literature review should be conducted, they usually include a summary of
prior research in their reports as a means of providing context for the study.
Quantitative reports almost never contain any raw data- that is, data in the form they were
collected, which are numeric values. Qualitative reports, by contrast, are usually filled with rich
verbatim passages directly from participants. The excerpts are used in an evidentially fashion to
support or illustrate researchers' interpretations and thematic constructions.
Like quantitative researchers, qualitative nurse researchers want their findings used by others.
qualitative findings often are the basis for formulating hypotheses that are tested by quantitative
researchers, for developing measuring instruments for both research and clinical purposes, and
for designing effective nursing intervention .Qualitative studies help to shape nurses perception
of a problem or situation , their conceptualizations of potential solution , and their understanding
of potential solutions ,and their understanding of patients' concerns and experiences.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND AUALITATIVE

RESEARCH PROCESS

Qualitative Q Quantitative

The aim is to classify features, count them, and

The aim is a complete, detailed
construct statistical models in an attempt to
description.
explain what is observed.
Researcher may only know roughly
Researcher knows clearly in advance
in advance what he/she is looking
what he/she is looking for.
for.

Recommended during earlier Recommended during latter phases of

phases of research projects. research projects.

The design emerges as the study All aspects of the study are carefully
unfolds. designed before data is collected.

Researcher uses tools, such as

Researcher is the data gathering
questionnaires or equipment to collect
instrument.
numerical data.

Data is in the form of words, Data is in the form of numbers and

pictures or objects. statistics.

Subjective - individuals
Objective- seeks precise measurement
interpretation of events is important
& analysis of target concepts, e.g., uses
,e.g., uses participant observation,
surveys, questionnaires etc.
in-depth interviews etc.

Qualitative data is more 'rich', time Quantitative data is more efficient,

consuming, and less able to be able to test hypotheses, but may miss
generalized. contextual detail.

Researcher tends to become

Researcher tends to remain objectively
subjectively immersed in the subject
separated from the subject matter.
matter.

Research process is inductive Research process is deductive

Document social reality, meaning is

Measure objective facts
constructed
 Few cases Many cases

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
 Sharma K Suresh,’Nursing Research and Statistics” Edition 2nd ,21 Barakhamba Road, New
Delhi-11001, Elsiever,2011, Page no. 39-58
 Polit F. Denis, Hungler p. Bernadettle, ‘ Nursing Research Principles and methods’, Edition
5th , 227 east Washington Square, Philedephia, Pennsylvania 19106: J.B. Lippincott company
1995. Page no. 42-60
 Kumar Rajesh,’ Nursing Research and statistics’ Edition 1st , Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New
Delhi, Jaypee, 2016. Page no. 39-59
 https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/adidtigarg/research-process-1471928