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GENERAL CHEMISTRY
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF THE ATOM
HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
- It is impossible to know
simultaneously both the momentum and
the position of the particle with
certainty.
SCHRODINGER’S EQUATION
- Began a new era in Physics and
Chemistry, for it launched a new
field, quantum mechanics (wave
mechanics).
DEVELOPMENTS IN QUANTUM THEORY
- From 1913- Bohr presented his
analysis for the hydrogen atom to
1926 as “Old Quantum Theory”.
PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n)
- n can have integral values 1,2,3 and
so forth.
- Relates to the average distance of
the electron from the nucleus in a
particular orbital.
- The larger n is, the greater the
average distance of an electron in
the orbital from the nucleus and
therefore the larger the orbital.
AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBER (l)
- Also called “Angular Momentum Quantum
number”
- Second quantum number
- Describes the shape of the region of
space occupied by the electron.
- The allowed values of l depend on the
value of n and can range from 0 to n-
1.
MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (ml)
- Third quantum number
- Describes the orientation of the
region in space occupied by an
electron with respect to an applied
magnetic field.
- The allowed values of ml depend on
the value of l in ml can range from
-1 to 1 in integral steps.
ELECTRON SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (ms)
- George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit
- Can have values of +1/2 or -1/2 for
any electron, corresponding to the
two possible orientation of an
electron in a magnetic field.
Electron aligned w/ magnetic field: +1/2
Electron against the magnetic field: ½
2. l=n-1
3. ml=(2l+1)
4. ms=+1/2 or -1/2
REMEMBER:
Each wave function with an allowed
combination of n,l, and ml values describes
an atomic orbital, particular spatial
distribution for an electron.
For a given set of quantum numbers,
each principal has a fixed number of
subshells and each subshell has a fixed
number of orbitals.
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
- arrangement of its electrons in its
atomic orbitals.
NOTE:
in atoms or ions with only a single
electron, all orbitals with the same value
of n have the same energy (they are
degenerate), and the energies of the
principal shells increase smoothly as n
increases.
An atom or ion with the electron in the
lowest energy orbital is said to be in its
ground state, whereas an atom or ion in
which one or more electrons occupy higher
energy orbitals is said to be in an excited
state.
PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
- The concept of electron spin has
important consequence for chemistry
because the Pauli exclusion principle
implies that “no orbital can contain
more than two electrons (with
opposite spin).”
- Only two electrons can occupy an
orbital and have opposite spins.
AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
- “building up”
- Based on the Pauli principle and a
knowledge of orbital energies
obtained using hydrogen-like
orbitals.
- It is possible to construct the
periodic table by filling up the
available orbitals beginning with the
lowest-energy orbitals (the Aufbau
principle) which gives rise to a
particular arrangement of electrons
for each element (its electron
configuration).
HUND’S RULE
- Friedrich H. Hund
- Lowest- energy electron
configuration for an atom is the one
that has the maximum number of
 electrons with parallel spins in - An element’s electronegativity
degenerate orbitals. reflects its attractions in a
chemical bond.
- For chemical purposes, the most
important electrons are those in the IONIC RADIUS TREND
outermost principal shell, the
valence electrons. METALS

Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity - Lose electron, which means more

that orbitals with similar energies are proton than electron (more
occupied singly by electrons before attraction).
filling them up in pairs. IONIC RADIUS < NEUTRAL ATOMIC RADIUS
An element is paramagnetic when it is NON-METALS
attracted by a magnetic field due to the
unpaired electrons in its orbitals. - Gain electron which means more than
proton (not as much attraction).
Louis de Broglie proposed that
electrons travel around the nucleus in IONIC RADIUS > NEUTRAL ATOMIC RADIUS
the form of waves.
REACTIVITY
90% probability in atomic orbitals
where electrons are to be found in - Tendency of an atom to react
regions around the nucleus. METALS

Atomic radius DECREASES - Reactivity is based on lowest

ionization energy (bottom/left
Metallic property INCREASES

Metallic property DECREASES

Atomic Number INCREASES
Ionization Energy DECREASES
Electron Affinity DECREASES
Electronegativity DECREASES

corner).
Atomic radius INCREASES

LOW IONIZATION ENERGY = HIGH REACTIVITY

NON METALS

- Reactivity is based on high

electronegativity (upper/right
corner).

LEWIS DOT SYMBOL

A symbol representation of valence

Atomic number INCREASES electrons.
Ionization energy INCREASES VALENCE ELECTRON
Electron affinity INCREASES
Electronegativity INCREASES - Highest energy level, usually p and
s orbitals.

PERIODIC TRENDS 1𝑠 2 2𝑠 2 2𝑝5 VE=7

PERIODIC TRENDS 1. Find the total number of valence

electrons.
- is a property that changes as you
move across a period or down a group 2. Put the least electronegativity in
of the periodic table. the center.

ATOMIC RADIUS NO₂ O N O

- size of an atom, distance from (Hydrogen always goes on the outside).

nucleus to outermost electron.
3. Put 2 electrons between atoms to form
- Increases as you move down a group a chemical bond.
and decreases as you move across. 4. Complete the octets on the outside
IONIZATION ENERGY atoms.

- Is the energy needed to remove an

electron to form a positive ion.
5. Central atom doesn’t have an octet,
HALOGENS = REACTIVE move electrons from outer atoms to
form double or triple bonds.
NOBLE GAS = STABLE ; OCTET RULE

ELECTRON AFFINITY

- Is the energy change that occurs when

an atom gains an electron to form a
negative ion.
 CHEMICAL FORMULA Percent Ionic
60% 70% 80% 90%
Character
Representation of the kinds and Percent Covalent
number of atoms in a substance. 40% 30% 20% 10%
Character

SIGNS THAT NEW COMPOUND IS FORMED

IONIC COMPOUNDS
- Made up of a metal and metal ion and
non-metal ion and polyatomic ions.
TERMS TO REMEMBER:
o CHEMICAL BOND- Force or energy that
holds atoms or ions together.
o IONIC BOND- Complete transfer of
electrons.
- Precipitate
- Evolution of gas
- Color
Oxygen usually has an oxidation number
of -2 in its compounds except in hydrogen
peroxide H₂ O₂ whose Lewis structure is

o IONS- Charged particles

o ANION- Negatively charged particles A bond between identical atoms makes

o CATION- Positively charged particles
IONIC BONDS
- Formed between two ions typically a
metal and a non- metal.
no contribution to the oxidation number of
those atoms because the electron pair of
that bond is equally shared. Because it has
an oxidation number of +1 each Oxygen atom
has an oxidation number of -1.

- Transfer of electrons to form

charged ions.

- Atoms will typically gain or lose

electrons to follow the octet rule.

NOBLE GASES (INERT)- GROUP 8A

- They exist as single atoms

(monatomic).

- Almost never react and form compounds.

MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
- Noble gases have 8 electrons in their
outer shells (except Helium that has Name Color
a full shell with 2) - 8 electrons in Hydrogen White
the outer shell is very stable. Fluorine Light Green
- “Neon” signs contain minute amounts Chlorine Dark Green
of various noble gases – electric Nitrogen Blue
current-glow Oxygen Red
Carbon Black
- Argon gas is used inside light bulbs
Metal Gray
because event at high temperatures,
Phosphorus Light Brown
it will not react with the Tungsten
filament. Bromine Brown
Copper Copper
CHARACTER OF BONDS Sulfur Yellow
Xenon Purple
Electronegativity
0.0 0.65 0.94
Differences
Percent Ionic Electron
0% 10% 20%
Character
Percent Covalent No. Geometry Example
100% 90% 80%
Character 2 Linear BeCl₂
3 Trigonal Planar SO₃
Electronegativity Bent SO₂
1.19 1.43 1.67
Differences
4 Tetrahedral CH₄
Percent Ionic
30% 40% 50% Trigonal-Pyramid SO₃ ²-
Character
Bent, angular H₂ O
Percent Covalent
70% 60% 50% Linear HF
Character

Electronegativit
1.9 2.1 2.5 3.0
y No. Geometry Example
1 9 4 3
Differences 5 Trigonal bipyramid PCl₅
See-saw SF₄
 T-shaped ClF₃ standard conditions of temperature
and pressure.

COVALENT BONDING - Carbon atoms can bond together to

form a variety of geometrical
- Diatomic molecules structures. These include straight
- Sharing of electrons chains, branched chains, rings,
sheets, tubes, and spheres. No other
NON-POLAR COVALENT- equal sharing of atoms can do this.
electrons
HYDROCARBON
POLAR COVALENT- unequal sharing of
electrons - Aliphatics (alkanes,alkenes,alkynes)

AN ORGANIC COMPOUND - Aromatics

- Molecular compound of carbon. Despite - Hydrocarbon Derivatives (such as

the tremendous diversity of organic alcohols, esters, (the compounds
compounds, nearly all of them share that give fruits their aromas) the
something in common. amines (components of amino acids).

- They are structured from a “backbone” CLASSIFYING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

that consists of just wo kinds of Size (#
atoms: carbon and hydrogen. of atoms Boiling Point
Examples
per range (°C)
CHECKPOINT
molecule)
- Termites are natural source of Gases; used
methane. for fuels to
1-5 Below 30
cook and
- Cyanides (containing carbon bonded to heat homes.
nitrogen, CN) and carbides such as Liquids;
calcium carbide, CaC₂ ) are compounds used for
that contain carbon, but scientists automotive,
classify them as inorganic. The same diesel and
is true of carbonates, such as sodium jet engine
hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO₃ (baking fuels ;also
soda). Why are carbonate compounds 5-16 30 to 275 used as raw
inorganic, rather than organic materials to
compounds? breakdown
more complex
- Termites are a natural source of hydrocarbons
methane. into smaller
molecules.
FRIEDRICH WOHLER Heavy
liquids;
- Synthesized urea used for oil
- “I can make urea w/o the use of furnaces and
lubricating
kidney.”
oils; also
- Ammonium cyanate = urea 16-22 Over 250 used as raw
materials to
JONS JAKOB BERZELIUS breakdown
more complex
- Invented the system that hydrocarbons
distinguishes organic substances into small
from inorganic substances. molecules.
Over 18 Over 400 Semi-solids;
PROPERTIES OF CARBON used for
lubricating
- Carbon has four bonding electrons
greases and
enables carbon to form four strong paraffin
covalent bonds. As a result, carbon waxes to
may bond itself, as well as to many make
different elements (mainly hydrogen, candles,
oxygen, and nitrogen) (but also waxed paper
phosphorus, sulfur, and halogens such and
as chlorine). cosmetics.
Over 26 0ver 500 Solid
- Carbon can form strong single, double, residues;
and triple bonds with itself. Allows used for
carbon to form long chains of atoms asphalts and
something that very few other atoms tars in the
can do. In addition, the resulting paving and
compounds are fairly stable under roofing
industries.
 Molecular
Name # of Carbon
Formula

Methane 1 CH₄

Ethane 2 CH₃ CH₂

Propane 3 CH₃ CH₂ CH₃

Butane 4 CH₃ (CH₂ )₂ CH₃

Pentane 5 CH₃ (CH₂ )₃ CH₃

Hexane 6 CH₃ (CH₂ )₄ CH₃

Heptane 7 CH₃ (CH₂ )₅ CH₃

Octane 8 CH₃ (CH₂ )₆ CH₃

Nonane 9 CH₃ (CH₂ )₇ CH₃

Decane 10 CH₃ (CH₂ )₈ CH₃

HYDROCARBONS

- Found in crude oil, do not dissolve

in water. Instead they float on the
surface these physical properties
help clean up minimize the
devastating effect of an oil spill.

ALIPHATIC

- Hydrocarbons do not contain the

benzene group or the benzene ring.
Whereas aromatic hydrocarbons
containing one or more benzene rings.

Prefix – name of the branch/es, and their

locations on the main carbon chain. +

Root - # of carbon in the main parent chain.

+

Suffix – indicates the type of compound:

an- alkane, ene-alkene, yne, alkyne.