Bridge Engineering

Cable Stayed Structures and Stay Cable Technology
Case Studies from Europe, Asia, Australia and the Proposed First New Zealand Project
Marcel Poser1
INTRODUCTION
Cable Stayed Bridges have been built in rapidly increasing numbers since 1950 and have been
found to be especially economical for medium to long-span bridges from 100 to 1000 meters,
where technical and economic considerations dictate a cable stay solution. Nevertheless, their
popularity and wide usage is, according to Menn [1], often based on prestige rather than structural
efficiency or economy.
This paper provides a brief historical review of cable stayed bridges, cable technology and sample
projects limited to projects in Europe and the Asia-Pacific region with a key focus on Australia and
New Zealand are discussed in this paper. In addition, reference to further specialist reading on the
various relevant topics is made.
HISTORY OF CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
The idea to support a bridge deck with cables from German engineers pioneered the design of
one or two pylons has been known for a long time. cable-stayed bridges after World War II. The
To the author’s knowledge, the principle of German engineers were challenged to find new,
cable-stayed bridges can be tracked back to the innovative, and inexpensive bridge designs to
early 1600’s when the Venetian Verantius built a replace most of the Rhine river crossings which
wooden bridge supported with chain stays. In 1784 were destroyed during World War II. Dischinger
the carpenter C. J. Löscher designed a proposed systems, where the central span was
cable-stayed bridge with an approximate 32 m span supported by a suspension system and stay cables
length where the entire bridge was made out of carried the outer parts. Dischinger’s combined
wood, including the stays. solutions were never adopted for an actual bridge,
but his studies had a big influence on the
In the 19th century, the French engineer Navier development of the true cable-stayed bridge system.
studied several bridge systems supported by It was not until the 1950’s that Dischinger designed
wrought iron chains. The results of his studies show the first true cable-stayed bridge. The Strömsund
that suspension bridges should in general be Bridge (Sweden, 1955) had a main span of 183 m
preferred over cable-stayed systems. From today’s and two side spans of 74.7 m. Gimsing [2] attributes
point of view, it can be said with certainty that the increase in cable-stayed bridge designs to the
Navier’s final conclusions were wrong. However, at improved structural analysis tools that were
the time Navier was studying these different bridge available. The Germans further developed the
systems, the knowledge and equipment to achieve design of cable-stayed bridges in the following
an even distribution of the load between all the decades and built several of them. The series of
cables, which is one of the key issues for bridges near Duisburg across the Rhine River are
cable-stayed bridges, were not available. examples of these pioneering German bridges.
Early Design of a Cable-Stayed Bridge

Europe (1784)
1
Chief Technology Officer, BBR VT International Ltd, Switzerland, www.bbrnetwork.com
STAY CABLE TECHNOLOGY
Strand Stay Cables
Durable and efficient long span cable stayed High amplitude fatigue resistant strand stays found
bridges require efficient, high strength and high their first major application in the Olympic Stadium
amplitude fatigue resistant stay cable technology. In in Munich (Germany) with its cable supported
the past many cable systems have been used, such membrane roof structure. Munich hosted the
as locked-coil, wire ropes and bars. Nowadays, Games in 1972 and the stadium was home of
these technologies do not meet the demands Bayern Munich, one of the world’s premier soccer
anymore and modern stay cables consist of wires or clubs.
strands. Locked-coil cables still find their field of
applications in architectural structures with reduced
structural requirements. Technical information on
modern and state of the art wire and strand stay
cable technology can be found in [2, 3, 4].
Wire Stay Cables

The first stay cable technology available that
provided the required static strength and high
amplitude fatigue resistance were parallel wire
cables consisting of a number of 7mm wires [3]. The
anchorage system generally consists of button
heads on the individual wires, which transfer the
load into an anchor head and into the supporting Olympic Stadium Munich
bearing plate. The usage of full or partial bond type Germany (1972)
socket anchorages, in combination with button
heads on the individual wires, is a further Strand stay cable configurations are traditionally
development and is widely used. The first anchored by means of the wedges, which bite into
application of high amplitude fatigue resistant wire the strand and transfer the load into an anchor head
cables was in the late 1950’s in Germany [5, 6]. and the supporting bearing plate. Epoxy and bond
Today, wire stay cables are made up of a type anchorages have also been used in the past.
predetermined number of parallel or semi-parallel Modern strand stay cables are generally made up of
wires enclosed in an ultraviolet (UV) resistant a predetermined number of parallel arranged
high-density polyethylene (HDPE) stay pipe or strands enclosed in an UV resistant HDPE stay pipe
sleeve of circular cross-section. The individual wires of circular cross-section. The individual strands
generally have a diameter of 7 mm, are individually have generally a diameter of 0.62’’ and are of low
galvanized and are of low relaxation grade steel, relaxation grade, with nominal cross-sectional area
with nominal cross-sectional area of 38 mm2 and a of 150 mm2 and minimum GUTS of 1770 N/mm2 to
minimum guaranteed ultimate tensile stress 1860 N/mm2. The strands are galvanized, greased
(GUTS) of 1670 N/mm2 or 1770 N/mm2. The voids or waxed and individually sheathed with a
between the individual wires and the HDPE continuous and wear resistant HDPE coating,
sheathing are filled with a corrosion inhibitor. The providing each strand with a triple protection
anchorages used are in most cases still based on system.
the invention of the button head back in the 1950’s.
HDPE Stay Pipe

HDPE Stay Pipe
Corrosion Inhibitor
Strand
7mm Wire
HDPE Coating
Galvanization Galvanization
Corrosion Inhibitor
Wire Stay Cable Strand Stay Cable
Comparison phenomena. Even newly constructed cable stayed
Both wire and strand type cable systems are today’s bridges have experienced quite severe vibrations
solutions of choice for modern cable stayed which may result in failures of cables [7].
structures. Over the years, the ultimate tensile
strength of the wires or strands in the cables has Several cable vibration mechanisms have been
gradually been increased and the corrosion identified and characterized with the four most
protection systems have been enhanced. Whereas common phenomena: vortex shedding, galloping,
grout was a widely used corrosion protection parametric excitation (deck/pylon and cable
system for many years, today’s stay cables employ interaction), and wind and rain induced vibrations.
grease and wax as the primary filler. Although poor Excitation mechanisms and preventative design
or faulty grouting can result in poor performance of measures are a popular topic in the literature [8, 9,
the cables, there are many examples of grouted 10, 11, 12, 13, 14].
stay cables which have been inspected and found
to be in perfect condition. An effective countermeasure against wind and rain
induced vibrations is the use of a helical rib on the
Due to the fact that wire stay cables are generally outside of the cable surface. The helical fillet helps
prefabricated and strand stay cables are more to prevent the formation of the coherent water
commonly assembled on site using a strand by rivulets, which are responsible for the cable
strand installation method, the choice of the suitable vibrations and therefore mitigates the excitation at
cable system for a particular project depends on its source. Other cable surface treatments include
many factors. dimples (such as used for golf balls) and
longitudinal grooves. If the natural frequencies of
Wire Stay Cables the structure are close to those of the cable stays,
cross-ties (wind ropes) can be installed to shift the
• A prefabricated wire stay cable is fabricated to a
natural frequencies of the cable stays and to avoid a
pre-determined length with certain length
possible interaction of deck and pylon with the stay
adjustability at the anchorages and requires
cables. Supplemental damping devices add
transportation and heavy lifting equipment on
damping to the cable – hence achieving sufficient
site. The prefabrication results in a very short
total damping as an efficient measure against cable
erection time on site.
vibrations. If the cable begins to vibrate, with the
• The cable diameter for wire tendons is more movement of the cable at the position where the
compact which has a series of very significant cable is attached to the damping device, energy is
aerodynamic advantages. dissipated through the damper to stabilize the cable.
Typical supplemental damping devices for cables
• The Fatigue resistance of wire stay cables is are high damping “rubber doughnuts”, mechanical /
generally higher compared to strand cables. friction dampers and hydraulic dampers.
Strand Stay Cables Future Developments
• A site assembled strand stay cable is more To enhance the long term durability of the stay
labor intensive on site, but requires only limited cables, the use of epoxy coated strands as well as
capacity lifting equipment is required. the injection of the stay pipe with gas to prevent
corrosion are more recent developments and
• For the installation on site, a larger HDPE stay potential alternatives for the future.
pipe diameter is required, which can have a
negative influence on aerodynamic issues.
It has been often considered that prefabricated wire

cables are best suited to smaller bridges or those
with very long spans. On site fabricated strand stay
cables are usually suited to intermediate range
spans. However, the designer together with the
specialist stay cable company should evaluate each
project individually, taking structural capacity and
the global interaction between cables and the
structure into account. It should also consider
erection requirements as well as the overall
Storchenbridge
economics and availability of the various systems.
Switzerland (1996)
Cable Vibration
Furthermore, the Storchenbridge in Wintherthur
Despite the wide use of cable-stayed bridges, there
(Switzerland), crossing the major east-to-west axis
are still several areas of great concern, especially
of the Swiss Federal Railway Network, was the
the effects and elimination of cable vibration
world’s first bridge using carbon stay cable Asia
technology. Due to its low self-weight, carbon stay Cable stayed bridges are extremely popular in
cables are a promising solution for ultra long span many Asian countries to help resolve traffic
bridges. Their extremely high fatigue resistance and congestion and to improve the infrastructure of the
the fact that carbon is non-corrosive are further incredibly fast growing metropolitans. Japan is
advantages of this type of cable. It should be noted probably the country with the highest density of
that special care should be taken when choosing an cable stayed bridges. Among the booming countries
anchorage system for carbon stay cables [6]. nowadays is China where a series of future world
record span bridges are currently under
SELECTED REFERENCE PROJECTS construction. Cable supported structures in Asia
have also been identified as purely architectural and
Europe landmark structures and often built to
As noted previously, the mother continent of cable commemorate former or present kings and rulers.
stayed bridges and structures is Europe, with the
first major applications constructed in the late
1950’s. Since the early days of cable stayed bridge
construction in Europe, cable stays have been
widely used - not only for technical and economical
reasons but also for purely architectural
considerations.
The scenic Sunniberg Bridge in the skiing resort of

Klosters in the Alps of Switzerland was designed by
the legendary Swiss Engineer Christian Menn and
RAMA VIII Bridge
was opened to traffic in 2005 by Prince Charles.
Thailand (2002)
This masterpiece of engineering, which fuses
perfectly with the scenic surroundings, employees a
An example of such a structure, which serves the
button head type wire stay cable system.
infrastructure, is architecturally appealing and also
Characterized by its short pylons and shallow angle
bares the name of a former King, is the RAMA VIII
stays, it exhibits the essence of a technical and
Bridge in Thailand. Wedge anchored strand stay
aesthetic solution in a prominent landmark.
cables have been utilized in this bridge which is one
of many large bridges which span the river in
Bangkok.
Sunniberg Bridge
Switzerland (2005)
The cable stayed bridge with the longest main span

constructed in Europe is the Pont de Normandie
which was completed in 1995. With a main span of
approximately 850 m and a pylon height of 215 m
the Pont de Normandie was for a short while the
longest cable stayed bridge in the world, before its Tatara Bridge
main span was surpassed by 40 m by the Tatara Japan (1998)
Bridge in Japan. Wedge anchored parallel strand
stay cables have been used to realize this bridge. The longest cable stayed bridge built in the 20th
century, the Tatara Bridge in Japan, has a
breathtaking total length of 1480 m, a pylon height
of almost 240 meters and employs high amplitude
parallel wire stay cables [15].
Australia currently under construction, with the attempt to
The first major application of stay cables in Australia avoid this criticism by banning private vehicles
was the unique supporting net structure composed altogether, and being entirely dedicated to public
of parallel wire stay cables for the stabilization of the transport, cyclists and pedestrians. The aptly
Centre Point Tower in Sydney, which has a height named Green Bridge will be Australia's
of 230 meters and which was constructed in the second-longest cable stayed bridge, after the
1970’s. Until today, the Centre Point Tower stands ANZAC Bridge Sydney with a total length of 800m,
together with the Sydney Opera House and the and will provide bus, pedestrian and bicycle access
legendary Sydney Harbour Bridge - other famous via its two bus lanes, dedicated cycle way and
landmarks found in the city center. footway.
The bridge deck is 20m wide, 520m long, and the

structure has two 70m-high H-shaped towers. The
64 cable stays are in a harp configuration, arranged
in pairs both sides of the two river piers, at an
elevation of about 24° to the horizontal. The
structural portion of the towers is reinforced, cast in
situ concrete, topped with architectural precast. The
composite deck consists of steel grillages with
precast reinforced concrete planks and in situ stitch
joints, in situ concrete barriers to protect the stays
against vehicle impact and architectural features on
the cycle way and footway. The bus lanes will have
a bitumen overlay and the entire bridge is designed
to accommodate the possible addition of light rail in
the future, including an additional concrete overlay
to accommodate the rails.
The bridge is being built using the balanced

cantilever technique from both river towers
simultaneously. At both towers, the deck grillages
are erected alternately on each side of the tower,
with cable stays reeved and stressed progressively
to provide the appropriate support to the deck
during construction and permanently. When the
deck steel grillage is in place, the initial stay
installation takes place, and the stay is stressed to
the minimal load to support the grillage. Next stage
is the installation of the precast and stitch concrete;
once this has reached the required strength, the
second stage stressing is carried out, to achieve the
required deck levels. After installation of barriers,
deck bitumen and other finishing works, the third
stage stressing takes place, to achieve required,
final deck levels. The design of the cable stay
system includes the provision for future stressing to
accommodate light rail.
The state of the art cable technology on the bridge

consists of cables with 31 or 37 parallel seven-wire
strands enclosed in a UV-resistant HDPE stay pipe
in a dark grey color. The strands are galvanized,
waxed and individually sheathed with a continuous
Centre Point Tower and wear-resistant coating, providing each strand
Australia (1978) with a triple protection system. In the anchorage
zone, the strand bundle passes though a deviator
Environmental campaigners often claim that the and spreads out towards the high fatigue resistant
construction of new roads and bridges leads to anchorages, where each strand is individually
higher traffic volumes - that they effectively guided and locked with high fatigue resistant grips.
generate additional traffic by providing greater road Ring nuts screwed on to the anchor heads transfer
capacity. In Brisbane (Australia) a new bridge is the cable loads by contact pressure to the
supporting bearing plates. The individual strands
inside the anchorage are protected by a a gateway to the proposed Flat Bush Town Centre,
corrosion-inhibiting compound. Finally, the anchor spans a small stream and flood plain and provides a
head is covered by a protection cap injected with corridor under the bridge that links the two parts of
corrosion-inhibiting compound. With this system, Barry Curtis Park.
the anchorage is fully encapsulated with a
multi-barrier protection system. The carriageway consists of two lanes in each
direction with two footpaths located outside the
bridge edge barriers. The carriageway is split by
two median barriers and large deck voids. The two
pylons anchoring the cable stays are inclined both
towards the west and also inwards to the centre of
the bridge. A steel portal beam near the top of the
pylon provides horizontal restraint. The pylon
consists of a tapering concrete section with a
fabricated industrial steel box section providing
anchorage to the cable stays. The box section is
bolted to the top concrete pylon. Architectural
tubular cladding covers the box section. A stainless
Green Bridge steel lattice tower completes the pylon. The
Australia (2006) nominated cable system comprises a total of 20
cables utilizing a parallel wire system ranging from
The installation of the cable system is performed on 91 to 144 7mm wires inside a HDPE stay pipe
site using the strand-by-strand method. Anchorages injected with a flexible corrosion inhibitor.
are first installed in the tower and the deck. The
HDPE stay pipe is then hung between the two
anchorages using two master strands, and used as
a guide for subsequent strand installation. The
strand is positioned at deck level and pulled up
through the stay pipe to the upper anchorage, using
a stay cable strand puller, positioned behind the
upper anchorage. Each strand is tensioned
immediately after installation, using an iso-stress
tensioning method, ensuring an equal force
distribution among the strands of an individual cable.
Compact multi-strand jacks are used for the final
adjustment.
Ormiston Road Bridge
Each individual strand installed in the cable system New Zealand (anticipated 2007)
can be re-stressed at any time during or after the
installation, allowing not only for re-stressing but The Ormiston Road Bridge will be New Zealand’s
also for the selective removal, inspection, or first modern cable stayed bridge of any significance
replacement of individual strands. Deck erection and it is expected that this pioneering structure for
and the final stressing of cable stays is expected to New Zealand will smooth the path for future cable
be complete in November 2006, with the bridge and supported structures in New Zealand.
approach works due to open early 2007.
New Zealand
Flat Bush is New Zealand's largest and
comprehensively planned new town covering
1700ha for an anticipated population of 40,000
people (the population of Whangarei) by
2020. Located in Manukau, it is close to the new
Botany development and west of bustling Manukau
City and Auckland International Airport
The scope of the Ormiston Road cable stayed

bridge project can be briefly described as
construction of a new landmark bridge, linking
Chapel Road with the new Flat Bush Town
Centre. The 70m long cable stayed bridge spans
over the new Barry Curtis Park. The bridge provides
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Menn C. 2000. As Simple As Possible, But Not Simpler. Challenges & Solutions. Finley Mc Nary.
July/August Edition.
[2] Gimsing, N. J. 1997. Cable Supported Bridges: Concept and Design. 2nd ed. Chichester: John Wiley
and Sons.
[3] FIB. 2005. Acceptance of stay cable systems using prestressing steels. International Federation for
Structural Concrete. Lausanne, Switzerland.
[4] PTI. 2001. Recommendation for Stay Cable Design, Testing and Installation. Post-Tensioning
Institude, Phoenix, Arizona.
[5] BBR. 1999. Stay Cable Systems. Report of BBR VT International Ltd. www.bbrnetwork.com
[6] BBR. 1990. Cable-Stayed Structures. Report of BBR VT International Ltd. www.bbrnetwork.com
[7] Poser, M., K. H. Frank and S. L. Wood. 2002. Bending Fatigue of Stay Cables. Les 60 ans du
professeur Manfred A. Hirt. École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne - Suisse. 59-68.
[8] FHWA. 2005. Wind Induced Vibration of Stay Cables. Interim Final Report. MoDOT.
HSBA – Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority. 1999. The Tatara Bridge. Design and Construction
Technology for the World’s Longest Cable-Stayed Bridge. Japan.
[9] Jones, N. 2005. Wind-Induced Vibration of Stay Cables. Summary of FHWA Study.
[10] Ito, M. 1999. Stay Cable Technology: Overview. Proceedings of the 1999 IABSE Conference, Malmo,
Sweden.
[11] Virlogeux, M. 1998. Cable Vibrations in Cable-Stayed Bridges. Bridge Aerodynamics. Ed. Larsen and
Esdahl. 213-233.
[12] Miyazaki, M. 1999. Aerodynamic and Structural Dynamic Control System of Cable-Stayed Bridge for
Wind Induced Vibration. Proceedings of the 1999 IABSE Conference, Malmo, Sweden.
[13] Poser, M. 2005. Efficiency of BBR Square Dampers for Stay Cables. Report of BBR International Ltd.
www.bbrnetwork.com
[14] Poser, M. 2005. The BBR Approach to Cable Vibration and Cable Damping. Report of BBR VT
International Ltd. www.bbrnetwork.com
[15] HSBA – Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority. 1999. The Tatara Bridge. Design and Construction
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Marcel Poser1
INTRODUCTION

Europe (1784)
1
Strand Stay Cables
Wire Stay Cables

HDPE Stay Pipe

HDPE Stay Pipe
Corrosion Inhibitor
Strand
7mm Wire
HDPE Coating
Corrosion Inhibitor

Storchenbridge
Switzerland (1996)
Cable Vibration
considerations.

RAMA VIII Bridge
Thailand (2002)
Bangkok.
Sunniberg Bridge
Switzerland (2005)




adjustment.
New Zealand

BIBLIOGRAPHY
and Sons.
Sweden.
Esdahl. 213-233.
www.bbrnetwork.com
Marcel Poser1
INTRODUCTION

Europe (1784)
1
Strand Stay Cables
Wire Stay Cables

HDPE Stay Pipe

HDPE Stay Pipe
Corrosion Inhibitor
Strand
7mm Wire
HDPE Coating
Corrosion Inhibitor

Storchenbridge
Switzerland (1996)
Cable Vibration
considerations.

RAMA VIII Bridge
Thailand (2002)
Bangkok.
Sunniberg Bridge
Switzerland (2005)




adjustment.
New Zealand

BIBLIOGRAPHY
and Sons.
Sweden.
Esdahl. 213-233.
www.bbrnetwork.com
0123323104 56789
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020
Marcel Poser1
INTRODUCTION

Europe (1784)
1
Strand Stay Cables
Wire Stay Cables

HDPE Stay Pipe

HDPE Stay Pipe
Corrosion Inhibitor
Strand
7mm Wire
HDPE Coating
Corrosion Inhibitor

Storchenbridge
Switzerland (1996)
Cable Vibration
considerations.

RAMA VIII Bridge
Thailand (2002)
Bangkok.
Sunniberg Bridge
Switzerland (2005)




adjustment.
New Zealand

BIBLIOGRAPHY
and Sons.
Sweden.
Esdahl. 213-233.
www.bbrnetwork.com

Bridge Engineering

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Cable Stayed Structures and Stay Cable Technology

HISTORY OF CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES

Early Design of a Cable-Stayed Bridge

Wire Stay Cables

HDPE Stay Pipe

It has been often considered that prefabricated wire

The scenic Sunniberg Bridge in the skiing resort of

The cable stayed bridge with the longest main span

The bridge deck is 20m wide, 520m long, and the

The bridge is being built using the balanced

The state of the art cable technology on the bridge

The scope of the Ormiston Road cable stayed

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HISTORY OF CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES

Early Design of a Cable-Stayed Bridge

Wire Stay Cables

HDPE Stay Pipe

It has been often considered that prefabricated wire

The scenic Sunniberg Bridge in the skiing resort of

The cable stayed bridge with the longest main span

The bridge deck is 20m wide, 520m long, and the

The bridge is being built using the balanced

The state of the art cable technology on the bridge

The scope of the Ormiston Road cable stayed

HISTORY OF CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES

Early Design of a Cable-Stayed Bridge

Wire Stay Cables

HDPE Stay Pipe

It has been often considered that prefabricated wire

The scenic Sunniberg Bridge in the skiing resort of

The cable stayed bridge with the longest main span

The bridge deck is 20m wide, 520m long, and the

The bridge is being built using the balanced

The state of the art cable technology on the bridge

The scope of the Ormiston Road cable stayed

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HISTORY OF CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES

Early Design of a Cable-Stayed Bridge

Wire Stay Cables

HDPE Stay Pipe

It has been often considered that prefabricated wire

The scenic Sunniberg Bridge in the skiing resort of

The cable stayed bridge with the longest main span

The bridge deck is 20m wide, 520m long, and the

The bridge is being built using the balanced

The state of the art cable technology on the bridge

The scope of the Ormiston Road cable stayed

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