1.

Assessment:

 “It is essential for us to evaluate how effective our teaching is, and assessment serves as a
guide to how we will plan future lessons. Traditional assessment formats, such as
multiple choice tests, matching, true–false, fill-in-the-blanks, short answer, and essay, are
the norms in many language classrooms and should not be discounted, because they
provide language teachers and students with some indication of progress. Multiple-choice
tests offer the test-takers a choice of choosing the correct answer out of a number of
choices, short-answer item tests require students to supply a word, or a sentence in
response to a question or a statement that they must complete, while the traditional essay
item tests, the most common form of assessment, are when teachers want students to
generate long answers in the form of a paragraph or a complete essay (usually consisting
of 3–5 paragraphs).” (Jacobs, 2010:99)

 “Assessment in teaching has two related, though distinct, uses. The first is to determine
that students have, in fact, achieved the instructional outcomes established through the
planning process. That is, it is assessment of learning. But in addition, teachers can
design assessment for learning—that is, assessment that provides both them and their
students with valuable information to guide future learning. Teachers should consider
each of these purposes when they design their approaches to assessment. Although
assessment of learning is frequently undertaken by groups of teachers working together;
assessment for learning is more typically undertaken by teachers on their own, in
response to their individual groups of students.” (Danielson, 2007:59)

 “Currently, when faculty considers assessment, what typically comes to mind first are
grades. In fact, students, parents, society, and faculty regularly focus on grades more than
learning. The learning is assumed; it occurs automatically, an all but inevitable outcome
of the evaluation process.” (Weimer, 2002: 119)

2. Audiolinguism:

 “The teaching methods within which speech was most dominant were the audio-lingual
and audio-visual methods, which insisted on presenting spoken language from tape
before the students encountered the written form.” (Cook, 2008:4)

 “Audio-lingual method: this combined a learning theory based on ideas of habit formation
and practice with a view of language as patterns and structures; it chiefly made students
repeat sentences recorded on tape and practice structures in repetitive drills; originating in
the USA in the 1940s, its peak of popularity was probably the 1960s, though it was not
 much used in British-influenced EFL (Note: it is not usually abbreviated to ALM since
these initials belong to a particular trademarked method).” (Cook, 2008:17)

 “In audiolingual approach: -learner has little control; reacts to teacher direction; passive,
reactive role.” (Nunan, 1989:80)

 “Here are the common features of audio-lingual language teaching. Again, there may be
substantial variation in practice. The lesson typically begins with a dialogue, which
contains the structures and vocabulary of the lesson. The student is expected to mimic the
dialogue and eventually memorize it (termed "mim-mem"). Often, the class practices the
dialogue as a group, and then in smaller groups. The dialogue is followed by pattern drill
on the structures introduced in the dialogue. The aim of the drill is to "strengthen habits",
to make the pattern "automatic".” (Krashen, 1982: 129)

3. Communicative competence:

 “As well as grammatical competence, native speakers also possess knowledge of how
language is used. This is often called communicative competence by those who see the
public functions of language as crucial, rather than the ways we use language inside our
minds. Sheer knowledge of language has little point if speakers cannot use it
appropriately for all the activities in which they want to take part – complaining, arguing,
persuading, declaring war, writing love letters, buying season tickets, and so on.” (Cook,
2008:23)

 “After the place of grammar in instruction was questioned because it seemed to result
only in grammatical competence that produced grammatically correct sentences under
controlled conditions but did not, according to many, improve oral production or aid the
communicative use of language. So what was really called for at that time was
communicative competence where students could actually communicate orally in the
second language.” (Jacobs, 2010:4)

4. Communicative language teaching:

 “Communication in the communicative method is usually through speech rather than

writing. The total physical response method uses spoken, not written, commands, and
storytelling, not story reading. (Cook, 2008:4)

 “Among other things, it has been accepted that language is more than a simply system of
rules. Language is now generally seen as a dynamic resource for the creation of meaning.
In terms of learning, it is generally accepted that we need to distinguish between
“learning that” and “knowing how”. In other words, we need to distinguish between
knowing various grammatical rules and been able to use the rules effectively and
appropriately when communicating. This view has underpinned communicative language
teaching (CLT).” (Nunan, 1989:12)
 Since the 1970s communicative language teaching has been one of the most popular
teaching methodologies around the world in second language education. Before that, the
more traditional teaching methods (e.g., Audio-Lingual Method; Grammar-Translation
Method) that were employed focused more on producing accurate, grammatically correct
target language. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) however began to change the
emphasis to where learners produce the language with a focus on fluency and where
errors are seen as being a part of development.” (Jacobs, 2010:1)

5. Drills:

 “Drill: a form of mechanical practice in which words or phrases are substituted within a
frame and practiced until they become automatic.” (Cook, 2008:242)

 “Drill: teacher-led, repetitive, oral-practice to give students pronunciation practice.”

(Hadfield, 2008:13)

 “…second language education emphasized drilling and rote memorization of the second
language in the hope that some of this would stick in long-term memory. In other words,
the idea was that if learners do something often enough, they will remember it. While
drills and memorization might be of benefit for short-term language learning, such as
providing an answer for a grammar question on past tense construction in a fill-in-the-
blank type exercise, long-term learning and the extension of that learning require that
students focus on the meaning of the language they are using.” (Jacobs, 2010:59)

6. Evaluation:

 “Evaluation is used to generate grades and to promote learning.” (Weimer, 2002:119)

 “Evaluation – This category of thinking involves students giving opinions, taking

positions and doing ratings. An example of this type of thinking related to the clothing
text might be to look at pictures of celebrities and rate their clothing on a 5-point scale
with reasons given for the ratings.” (Jacobs, 2010: 85)

7. Extensive reading

 “Extensive reading means a long text such as a short book or reader for pleasure, with
attention to overall meaning, opposed to intensive reading, which means reading a short
text with attention to detail.” (Hadfield, 2008:96)
 “Extensive reading program is another means of implementing Learner Autonomy in
second language education which is used to augment regular reading instruction. Here,
second language students are allowed to choose their own reading materials that match
their interests (rather than the teacher’s interests or the interests of the curriculum
developers, as is the case in many classrooms) and their proficiency levels. The students
also have the choice of changing their minds once they have started such reading because
if students begin a book or a magazine and it does not seem the right one for them, they
can switch to some other reading material that may hold more interest. The hope is that
extensive reading will assist second language students to become autonomous learners
and to develop an appreciation for the enjoyment and knowledge to be gained via reading
in their second language (as well as their first). Thus encouraging them to make reading a
life-long habit.” (Jacobs, 2010:19-20)

8. Feedback

 “Feedback is the response of what learners say or do.” (Hadfield, 2008:14)

 “We can improve the learning potential of evaluative experiences if in addition to the
grade, we include feedback that aims to improve the next performance. Grades are
summative feedback, highly judgmental, and comprehensive in their conclusions. And
they often get in the way of learning. Return a set of papers with careful and complete
comments throughout and a grade at the end, and watch the students.” (Weimer,
2002:129)

 “Feedback: teacher evaluation of the student response.” (Cook, 2008:155)