Sieve

Sieve is a close woven screen. This is an instrument made up of a hoop and

fabric, normally light colored horsehair, with the lower part being closed. It serves to
separate the fine grains of gypsum plaster, cement, sand, etc. from the thick ones.

Sieving or screening is a method of separating a mixture or grains or particles

into 2 or more size fractions, the oversized materials are trapped above the screen,
while undersized materials can pass through the screen. Sieves can be used in stacks,
to divide samples up into various size fractions and hence determine particle size
distributions. Sieves and screen are usually used for larger particle sized materials i.e.,
greater than approximately 50µm (0.050mm).

Size Equivalents

Two scales that are used to classify particle sizes are the US Sieve Series and
Tyler Equivalent, sometimes called Tyler Mesh Size or Tyler Standard Sieve Series.
The most common mesh opening sizes for these scales are given in the table below
and provide an indication of particle sizes.

US Sieve Tyler Opening

Size Equivalent
mm in

- 2½ Mesh 8.00 0.312

- 3 Mesh 6.73 0.265

No. 3½ 3½ Mesh 5.66 0.233

No. 4 4 Mesh 4.76 0.187

No. 5 5 Mesh 4.00 0.157

No. 6 6 Mesh 3.36 0.132

No. 7 7 Mesh 2.83 0.111

No. 8 8 Mesh 2.38 0.0937

No.10 9 Mesh 2.00 0.0787

No. 12 10 Mesh 1.68 0.0661

No. 14 12 Mesh 1.41 0.0555

No. 16 14 Mesh 1.19 0.0469

No. 18 16 Mesh 1.00 0.0394

No. 20 20 Mesh 0.841 0.0331

No. 25 24 Mesh 0.707 0.0278

No. 30 28 Mesh 0.595 0.0234

No. 35 32 Mesh 0.500 0.0197

 No. 40 35 Mesh 0.420 0.0165

No. 45 42 Mesh 0.354 0.0139

No. 50 48 Mesh 0.297 0.0117

No. 60 60 Mesh 0.250 0.0098

No. 70 65 Mesh 0.210 0.0083

No. 80 80 Mesh 0.177 0.0070

No.100 100 Mesh 0.149 0.0059

No. 120 115 Mesh 0.125 0.0049

No. 140 150 Mesh 0.105 0.0041

No. 170 170 Mesh 0.088 0.0035

No. 200 200 Mesh 0.074 0.0029

No. 230 250 Mesh 0.063 0.0025

No. 270 270 Mesh 0.053 0.0021

No. 325 325 Mesh 0.044 0.0017

No. 400 400 Mesh 0.037 0.0015

The mesh number system is a measure of how many openings there are per
linear inch in a screen. Sizes vary by a factor of √2. This can easily be determined as
screens are made from wires of standard diameters, however, opening sizes can vary
slightly due to wear and distortion.

Aggregate

Aggregate is a granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, crushed

hydraulic-cement concrete, or iron blast-furnace slag, used with a hydraulic cementing
medium to produce either concrete or mortar.

Coarse Aggregate

Those particles that are predominantly retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve
and will pass through 3-inch screen, are called Coarse Aggregates coarse aggregate.
The coarser the aggregate, the more economical the mix. Larger pieces offer less
surface area of the particles than an equivalent volume of small pieces. Use of the
largest permissible maximum size of coarse aggregate permits a reduction in cement
and water requirements. Using aggregates larger than the maximum size of coarse
aggregates permitted can result in interlock and form arches or obstructions within a
concrete form. That allows the area below to become a void, or at best, to become filled
with finer particles of sand and cement only and results in a weakened area.
Fine Aggregate

Those particles passing the 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) sieve, almost entirely passing the
4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve, and predominantly retained on the 75 µm (No. 200) sieve are
called fine aggregate. For increased workability and for economy as reflected by use of
less cement, the fine aggregate should have a rounded shape. The purpose of the fine
aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to act as a workability agent.

Purpose & Uses of Aggregates

In concrete, an aggregate is used for its economy factor, to reduce any cracks
and most importantly to provide strength to the structure. In roads and railway ballast, it
is used to help distribute the load and assist in ground water running off the road.

 Increases the volume of concrete, thus reduces the cost

 Provide dimensional stability
 Influence hardness, abrasion resistance, elastic modulus and other properties of
concrete to make it more durable, strong and cheaper.

Concrete

Concrete is a building material made by mixing cement paste (portland cement

and water) and aggregate (sand and stone). The cement-paste is the "glue" which binds
the particles in the aggregate together. The strength of the cement-paste depends on
the relative proportions of water and cement; a more diluted paste being weaker. Also
the relative proportions of cement-paste and aggregate affects the strength; a higher
proportion of the paste making stronger concrete. The concrete hardens through the
chemical reaction between water and cement without the need for air. Once the initial
set has taken place concrete cures well under water. Strength is gained gradually,
depending on the speed of the chemical reaction.

Admixtures are sometimes included in the concrete mix to achieve certain

properties. Reinforcement steel is used for added strength, particularly for tensile
stresses.

Concrete is normally mixed at the building site and placed in forms of the desired
shape in the place the unit will occupy in the finished structure. Units can also be
precast either at the building site or at a factory.

Properties of Concrete

Concrete is associated with high strength, hardness, durability, imperviousness

and mouldability. It is a poor thermal insulator, but has high thermal capacity. Concrete
is not flammable and has good fire resistance, but there is a serious loss of strength at
high temperatures. Concrete made with ordinary portland cement has low resistance to
acids and sulphates but good resistance to alkalies.

Concrete is a relatively expensive building material for farm structures. The cost
can be lowered if some of the portland cement is replaced with pozzolana. However,
when pozzolanas are used the chemical reaction is slower and strength development is
delayed.
 The compressive strength depends on the proportions of the ingredients, i.e., the
cement-water ratio and the cement aggregate ratio. Since the aggregate forms the bulk
of hardened concrete, its strength will also have some influence. Direct tensile strength
is generally low, only l/8 to 1/14 of the compressive strength and is normally neglected
in design calculations, especially in design of reinforced concrete.

Compressive strength is measured by crushing cubes having l5cm per side. The
cubes are cured for 28 days under standardized temperature and humidity and then
crushed in a hydraulic press. Characteristic strength values at 28 days are those below
which not more than 5% of the test results fall. The grades used are C7, C10, Cl5, C20,
C25, C30, C40, C50 and C60, each corresponding to a characteristic crushing strength
of 7.0, 10.0, 15.0 N/mm2, etc.

Typical Strength Development of Concrete

(1 cement - 6 aggregate, by weight, 0.60 water - cement ratio).

In some literature the required grade of concrete is noted by the proportions of

cement - sand - stone, so called nominal mixes rather than the compressive strength.
Therefore some common nominal mixes have been included in Table 3.12. Note,
however, that the amount of water added to such a mix will have a great influence on
the compressive strength of the cured concrete.

The leaner of the nominal mixes listed opposite the C7 and C10 grades are only
workable with very well-graded aggregates ranging up to quite large sizes.

Cement

Ordinary Portland cement is used for most farm structures. It is sold in paper
bags containing 50kg or approximately 37 litres. Cement must be stored in a dry place,
protected from ground moisture, and for periods not exceeding a month or two. Even
damp air can spoil cement. It should be the consistency of powder when used. If lumps
have developed the quality has decreased, but it can still be used if the lumps can be
crushed between the fingers.
 Suggested Use for Various Concrete Grades and Nominal Mixes

Mixing

Mechanical mixing is the best way of mixing concrete. Batch mixers with a tilting
drum for use on building sites are available in sizes from 85 to 400 litres. Power for the
drum rotation is supplied by a petrol engine or an electric motor whereas the tilting of
the drum is done manually. The pear-shaped drum has blades inside for efficient
mixing. Mixing should be allowed to proceed for at least 2.5 minutes after all ingredients
have been added. For small scale work in rural areas it may be difficult and rather
expensive to get a mechanical mixer.

Mixing Water Requirements for Dense Concrete for

Different Consistencies and Maximum Sizes of Aggregate
Classification of metals

Metals can be divided into two main groups: ferrous metals are those which
contain iron and non-ferrous metals that are those which contain no iron.

Ferrous Metals

Pure Iron is of little use as an engineering material because it is too soft and
ductile. When iron cools and changes from a liquid to a solid, most of the atoms in the
metal pack, tightly together in orderly layers. Some, however. become misaligned,
creating areas of weaknesses called dislocations. When a piece of iron is put under
stress, layers of atoms in these areas slip over one another and the metal deforms. This
begins to explain the ductility of soft iron. By adding carbon to the iron however, we can
produce a range of alloys with quite different properties. We call these the carbon
steels. An alloy is a mixture of two or more chemical elements and the primary element
is a metal.

Mild steel carbon content between 0,1% and 0,3%. Properties: less ductile but harder
and tougher than iron, grey colour, corrodes easily. Uses: girders or beams, screws, nut
and bolts, nails, scaffolding, car bodies, storage units, oil drums.

Medium carbon steel contains between 0,3% and 0,7% carbon. Properties: harder and
less ductile than mild steel, tough and have a high tensile strength. Uses: it's used for
the manufacture of products which have to be tough and hard wearing like gears, tools,
keys, etc.

High carbon steel contains between 0,7% and 1,3% carbon. Properties: Very hard and
brittle material. Uses: It's used for cutting tools and products which have to withstand
wear such as guillotine, springs, etc.

Stainless steel are iron and chromium alloys. A wide range of steels are available with
chromium content between 13% and 27%. Properties: Chromium prevents rusting with
an oxide film. Ductility, hardness and tensile strength. It's also a shiny attractive metal.
Uses: Cutlery, sinks, pipes, car pieces, etc.

Grey Cast Iron is an alloy of iron (94%), carbon (3%) silicon (2%) and some traces of
magnesium, sulphur and phosphorous. Properties: brittle but extremely hard and
resistant, it corrodes by rusting, Uses: pistons, machinery parts, streets lamps, drain
covers, tools.

Other chemical elements can be added to steel, to improve or achieve certain

properties. Here you are some examples:

 Silicon makes the alloy magnetic and improves elasticity.

 Manganese makes the alloy harder and heat-resistant. It's used to make
stainless steel.
 Nickel improves strength and prevents corrosion.
 Tungsten makes the steel harder, more heat-resistant and prevents corrosion.
 Chromium makes the alloy harder and tougher and more rustproof.

Non-ferrous metals

They are metals that don't contain iron. They have a lot of uses but they are often
expensive because they are more difficult to extract.
Aluminium - It's the most abundant metal in the earth's crust and after steel, is the
most widely used of all the metals, today. Properties: Silvery white colour, light, highly
resistant to corrosion, soft, malleable and ductile, low density, good conductor of both
electricity and heat. Uses: high voltage power lines, planes, cars, bicycles, light metal
work. roofing and windows and doors units, decoration, kitchen tools and drink cans.

Copper - It's a pure metal that is the world's third most important metal, in terms of
volume of consumption. Properties: a reddish-brown metal, ductile and moderately
strong, very good conductor of electricity and heat, It corrodes very easily. Uses:
electrical wire, telephone lines, domestic hot water cylinder and pipes, car radiator core,
decoration, architecture.

Brass - This term "brass" covers a wide range of copper-zinc alloys. Properties: It's gold
in colour. It has very good anticorrossive properties and it's resistant to wear. Uses:
Handicrafts, jewellery, plumbing, capacitors and turbine.

Magnesium - It's shiny and silvery white. Properties: It's very light, soft and malleable,
but not very ductile.It reacts very strongly with oxygen. Uses: Fireworks, aerospace
industry, car industry.

Tin - It's a shiny white metal. Properties: It doesn't oxidise at room temperatures, it's
very soft. Uses: Soft-soldering, tin foil and tin plate.

Lead - It's a silvery grey metal. Properties: Soft and malleable. It's toxic when its fumes
are inhaled. Uses: Batteries, it's use as an additive in glass for giving hardness and
weight.

Bronze - It's an alloy of copper and tin. Properties: High resistan to wear and corrosion.
Uses: Boat propellers, filters, church bells, sculpture, bearings and cogs.

Zinc - It's a bluish grey shiny metal. Properties: Anticorrosive, not very hard, weak at
low temperatures. Uses: Roofing, plumbing because it stops corrosion.

Reinforcing Bar

Steel reinforcement bars or rebars are used to improve the tensile strength of the
concrete, since concrete is very weak in tension, but is strong in compression. Steel is
only used as rebar because elongation of steel due to high temperatures (thermal
expansion coefficient) nearly equals to that of concrete.

Grades of Rebar in Different Codes

TYPES OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT BARS

Mild Steel Bar

The surface of the mild steel bars are plain and round in shape. They are
available in various sizes of 6 mm to 50 mm. They are used in concrete for special
purposes, such as dowels at expansion joints, where bars must slide in a metal or paper
sleeve, for contraction joints in roads and runways, and for column spirals. They are
easy to cut and bend without damage.

Physical Requirement of Mild Steel Bars

Deformed Steel Bar

Deformed steel bars have ribs, lugs and indentation on the surface of the bar,
which reduces the major problem that is faced by mild steel bar due to slippage and
good bonding is achieved between concrete and rebar. The tensile properties is higher
compared to other rebars. These bars are produced in sections from 6 mm to 50 mm
diameter.

 TMT Bars (Thermo Mechanically Treated Bars)

Thermo Mechanically Treated Bars are hot treated bars that are high in strength
used in reinforced cement concrete (RCC) work. It is the latest induction in the
MS steel bars with superior properties such as strength, ductility, welding ability,
bending ability and highest quality standards at international level.
Characteristics of TMT Rebars
*Better ductility and malleability *High thermal resistance
*High yield strength and toughness *Economical and safe in use
*More bonding strength *No loss in strength at welded joints
*Earthquake resistance *Ordinary electrodes used for -
*Corrosion resistance welding the joints
  High Strength Deformed Bars
High strength deformed bars are cold twisted steel bars with lugs, ribs, projection
or deformation on the surface. It the extensively and majorly used for
reinforcement purposes in a construction. These bars are produced in sizes or
sections from 4 mm to 50 mm in diameter.
Characteristics of HSD Rebar
*Low carbon value – HSD Bars have lower carbon level, resulting in good
ductility, strength and welding ability.
*Superior bonding strength – HSD bars are well known for their excellent bonding
strength when used with concrete.
*Welding capability – Since these bars have lower carbon content, they have
100% welding capability than conventional bars.
*High tensile strength – HSD bars feature high tensile strength. They offer great
asset in construction process, where a lot of bending and re bending is required.
*Wide application range – These bars have wide application range like in building
residential, commercial and industrial structures, bridges, etc.
*Satisfactorily malleability – Minimum weight and maximum strength and suitable
for both compression and tension reinforcement.

Other Types of Rebars

1. European Rebar

European rebar is made of manganese, which makes them bend easily. They’re
not suitable for use in areas that are prone to extreme weather conditions or geological
effects, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, or tornadoes. The cost of this rebar is low.

2. Carbon Steel Rebar

As the name represents, it is made up of carbon steel and is commonly known as

Black Bar due to carbon colour. The main drawback of this rebar is that it corrodes,
which adversely effect the concrete and structure. The tensile strength ratio coupled
with the value makes black rebar one of the best choices.

3. Epoxy-Coated Rebar

Epoxy-coated rebar is black rebar with an epoxy coat. It has the same tensile
strength, but is 70 to 1,700 times more resistant to corrosion. However, the epoxy
coating is incredibly delicate. The greater the damage to the coating, the less resistant
to corrosion.

4. Galvanized Rebar

Galvanized rebar is only forty times more resistant to corrosion than black rebar,
but it is more difficult to damage the coating of galvanized rebar. In that respect, it has
more value than epoxy-coated rebar. However, it is about 40% more expensive than
epoxy-coated rebar.

5. Glass-Fiber-Reinforced-Polymer (GFRP)

GFRP is made up of carbon fibre. As it is made up of fibre, bending is not

allowed. It is very resistant to corrosion and is costly when compared to other rebars.
6. Stainless Steel Rebar

Stainless steel rebar is the most expensive reinforcing bar available, about eight
times the price of epoxy-coated rebar. It is also the best rebar available for most
projects. However, using stainless steel in all but the most unique of circumstances is
often overkill. But, for those who have a reason to use it, stainless steel rebar 1,500
times more resistant to corrosion than black bar; it is more resistant to damage than any
of the other corrosive-resistant or corrosive-proof types or rebar; and it can be bent in
the field.

TYPES OF DOOR

Interior Doors

The hinged single door is the most

common interior door type. The room design
must allow space for hinged doors to swing.
Interior doors typically are lightweight and
have two hinges; exterior doors are heavy
and often use three hinges. Interior doors
are usually 1-3/8 inches thick, and exterior
doors are commonly 1-3/4 inches thick.

A panel door is a classic style. It

usually has three or four horizontal rails and
three vertical stiles. The spaces between
them are filled with thinner panels.
Decorative molding (or some representation
of it) called "sticking" surrounds each panel.
The result is a richly textured look that is at
home in both traditional and modern settings.

A flush door is a simple flat slab. It is usually the least expensive choice. If the
surface is a hardwood veneer (usually birch or oak), a flush door can be stained, but
other materials usually look best painted. Flush doors blend well with contemporary
settings, but may look out of place in a traditional home. Interior flush doors are often
hollow core, while exterior flush doors have a solid core and may have a metal or
fiberglass face rather than wood veneer.

A pair of French doors adds a charming touch as well as an extra-wide doorway

opening. These doors are almost always traditional in design. Often they have glass
panels. They are most commonly used as exterior patio doors, but interior French doors
can make a stunning passageway between rooms.

Many older homes have interior pocket doors, which slide into the wall when
fully opened. They allow you to completely open the doorway without taking up any floor
space. Pocket doors are making a comeback; many styles are available, single and
double. A pocket door requires wall space that cannot have electrical or plumbing lines
running through it.

For a closet that is 6 feet wide or wider, a pair of bifold doors is the most
popular choice. Each door takes up about half the swinging space of a hinged door.
Bifolds can be flush, paneled, or louvered.
 Somewhat less common are bypass doors. These operate much like sliding
patio doors but are far lighter in weight. They are generally flush doors.

Exterior Doors

Entry doors can be made of wood,

metal, or fiberglass. They range from
straightforward panel doors to windowed
doors (the windows are sometimes referred
to as "lights"), with attractive muntins or
removable grills. Increasingly you can find
decorative carved-wood doors. These
often have rails and stiles with a carved
section in the middle. They are expensive
but make a memorable impression.

Even the most tightly sealed entry

door can benefit from the addition of a storm
door. These are usually made of metal or vinyl, but wood models are also available. A
security storm door can be locked to keep out intruders and may be heavier than a
standard door. Self-storing storm doors have a window and screen. Inexpensive storm
doors are often plain in design and can detract from the appearance of an entry door.
You can pay more for a storm door that makes a design statement of its own, but
perhaps the best choice is a storm door that unobtrusively frames your entry door.

Patio sliding doors are typically made of large panes of glass encased in wood,
vinyl, or metal frames. They are the ideal choice when you want to maximize your view
of the yard. Compared with French doors they take up no floor space when open. A
possible disadvantage is that they only open half as wide as the doorway.

TYPES OF WINDOW
Single and double hung windows consist of two sashes with one installed above the
other. A single hung window has one movable sash and one fixed sash. Both sashes
are movable in a double hung window and slide over one another.

Casement windows operate like a door, swinging out from one side or the other.
They're typically operated by a crank mechanism though there are push-out styles.

Slider windows are essentially single or double hung windows that are flipped on their
side. They're also called glider or gliding windows depending on which manufacturer
you're dealing with.

Awning windows are similar to casement windows except that they swing out
horizontally from the top, rather than vertically on the side like a true casement. Awning
windows open at the bottom and usually open outward although there are some that
can open inward.

A hopper window is similar to an awning window except that it's flipped over -- in other
words, it opens at the top instead of the bottom. The one big difference however is that
hopper windows open to the inside rather than the outside.

The tilt and turn window is a hybrid combination of a casement and a hopper window.
It can swing open like a casement window and also tilt inward from the top, like a
hopper. The key difference however is that when it acts like a casement the sash
swings inward instead of to the outside like most casement windows.

Bay windows are usually made up of 3 windows; a center window that's flanked by two
windows that are angled back from the center window. The angle of the side windows
depends on the make and model but typical angles are 30 degrees and 45 degrees. A
45-degree bay window is "pushed out" farther than a 30-degree window, offering more
inside space as a result. One alternative style is the box bay window which has the
flanking windows at a 90 degree angle from the center window, forming a box.

Bow windows are made up of 4 or more window units and form a more gentle curve
compared with the more angular bay window. You might see 4, 5 or even 6-unit bow
windows. This means there are that many individual windows that make up the bow
window assembly. More window units makes for a wider overall bow window.

A garden window, also called a greenhouse window, is essentially a window box that
juts out from the side of the house with glass on the front, sides and top. It's different
from a bay or bow window in that it's usually a pre-built unit, it's smaller and it also
comes with it's own glass "roof".

A fixed window is a non-operable window, which means it can't be opened. They come
in a wide variety of shapes and sizes and if you go with custom windows, they can look
like just about anything you want.

Glass block has long been used in windows to achieve specific design purposes. One
of the main uses is for privacy. Glass block allows the light to shine through while
keeping whatever's behind it private.

A jalousie window is simply a louvered window. It's another specialty type of window
that works best in specific settings and climates.
 TYPES OF NAILS

Common Nails: Used for most medium to heavy construction work, this type of nail has
a thick head and can be driven into tough materials. Common nails are made from wire
and cut to the proper length and are available in sizes 2d through 60d.

Box Nails: Lighter and smaller in diameter than common nails, box nails are designed
for light construction and household use.

Finishing Nails: Finishing nails are lighter than common nails and have a small head.
They are often used for installing paneling and trim where you do not want the nail head
to show.

Roofing Nails: Usually galvanized, roofing nails have a much larger head than common
nails. This helps to prevent damage to asphalt shingles.

Drywall Nails: Nails made for drywall installation are often ringed and have an indented
head. Annular-ring nails have sharp ridges all along the nail shaft, providing greater
holding power.

Masonry Nails: There are three types of masonry nails designed for use with concrete
and concrete block: round, square, and fluted. Masonry nails should not be used where
high strength is required. Fastening to brick, stone, or reinforced concrete should be
made with screws or lag bolts.

Tacks: Available in both round and cut forms, tacks are used to hold carpet or fabric to
wood. Upholstery tacks have decorative heads.

Corrugated Fasteners: Corrugated fasteners, also called wiggly nails, are used for
light-duty joints where strength is not important. The fasteners are set at right angles to
the joint.
 TYPES OF RIVETS

Solid/round head rivets: The

original rivet design, going back to
the Bronze Age. Solid rivets can be
deformed simply with a hammer, a
crimping tool, or a rivet gun,
depending on size and material
softness. One of the most reliable,
safe, and foolproof rivets around.

High strength/structural steel rivets: Structural steel rivets have been in use for
hundreds of years and have been the main rivet for fastening metal structures, such as
buildings, ships, and aircraft. While remarkably strong, they require several skilled
workers to install, and must be heated immediately prior to use to make them soft
enough to deform.

Semi-tubular rivets: Semi-tubular, or tubular, rivets feature an indentation or hole in

the end opposite the factory head, making it easier to deform, using less force. Semi-
tubular rivets are popular for mass production applications.

Blind rivets: Blind rivets are a tubular rivet known more commonly as pop rivets.
Available in a flat head, countersunk head, or modified flush head, blind rivets feature a
mandrel that is drawn into the rivet, expanding the blind end and then snapping off to
finish securing the connection. Blind rivets are ideal for applications in which the joint
can be accessed from only one side.

Oscar rivets: Oscar rivets similar in both appearance and installation to blind rivets,
oscar rivets differ in that when the mandrel is drawn through the rivet, the shaft splits
and folds out similar to a toggle bolt used to secure things to drywall.

Drive rivets: Drive rivets are yet another form of the blind rivet, with a short mandrel
that protrudes from the head and is flared using a hammer. Drive rivets are used in
applications where the hole does not penetrate the entire sheet, panel or block (blind
holes). Once inserted, the rivet is struck, causing the installed end to expand and grip
the side of the hole. Common applications include attaching name plates to objects.

Flush rivets: Flush rivets are best suited for tasks that require an attractive
appearance, such as finished metal surfaces where they offer minimal visibility.
Because they use a countersunk hole, they present a flush appearance that is also well-
suited for aircraft components where aerodynamics are a major concern.

Friction-lock rivets: Similar to an expanding bold, the friction-lock rivet shaft snaps off
under tension to help create a flush finish, which has made them another popular rivet
for aircraft construction.

Self-pierce rivets: Self-pierce rivets do not require a hole for installation. Instead, the
self-pierce rivet features an end that is designed to be punched through top sheet
materials into the bottom sheet where a die used with the rivet setter creates a small
pocket into which the end expands, holding it in place.
 TYPES OF BOLTS

Bent bolts are threaded rods with the ends formed to meet special requirements. For
example, the end can be an eye or a right-angle bend.

Carriage bolts are normally made with a round head for an aesthetically pleasing
appearance. Ribs or flats on the shank prevent the bolt from turning when it is
tightened. Some versions require a prepunched square hole; others are pressed into
place.

Hex bolts are one of the most commonly used standard fasteners. They are available
in three standard strengths or grades and in shank diameters ranging from ¼ to 4 in.
The hex head offers greater strength, ease of assembly and torque application, and
more area for the manufacturer’s identification than a square-headed bolt.

Lag bolts are square-headed with threaded conical points. They are commonly used in
wood or masonry with an expansion anchor.

Plow bolts have a square countersunk head for flush mounting. They sometimes
include a key that prevents rotation.

Round bolts are tightened by torqueing the mating nut. They give a smooth, attractive
look to the finished product.

Square bolts come in two strength grades and common sizes range from ¼ to 1½ in. in
diameter.

Track bolts are designed specifically for use with railroad tracks. Some, like this one,
have an elliptical head to prevent rotation.

Elevator bolts have relatively large diameters and flat heads. They provide a nearly
flush surface after installation. The larger bearing area of the head lets them work in soft
materials. The square neck prevents rotation

Countersunk bolts are used to flush-mount assemblies. They are also called stove
bolts when supplied with a machine screw

Aircraft bolts are a generic term for any high-strength fastener such as this one that
features a 12-sided head. The head allows for a sure grip on the bolt during assembly,
which lets high levels of torque be applied in tightening it. Officially, aircraft bolts are any
that conform to DoD standards.

Flanged bolts have large heads that provide a large bearing area. Using them often
eliminates the need for separate washers.