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6.

0 MATERIALS IN DESIGN OF MACHINE PARTS

COMMON MATERIALS FOR MECHANICAL PARTS

Common materials from which machine or structural parts are made are:
(a) Cast iron;
(b) Steel;
(c) Copper and its alloys;
(d) Aluminium and its alloys;
(e) Plastics.

The factors to be considered in selecting the material for machine part are:
(a) Mechanical properties;
(b) Non mechanical properties
(c) Manufacturing considerations;
(d) Availability;
(e) Cost.

6.1 PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Mechanical properties

Mechanical properties of engineering materials are properties that describe the response of a
material to the application of a force. Factors that serve as indicators of these mechanical
properties are:

a) Capacity to carry external load without failure;


b) Capacity to resist abrasive wear;
c) Deflection and elastic characteristics in response to external load;
d) Amenability to various mechanical manufacturing processes

The mechanical factors listed above are often dominant performance requirements that
machine (or structural) parts must satisfy. The choice of material from which a machine part
is made must therefore consider the appropriateness of the mechanical properties.

Mechanical properties are therefore usually given priority consideration in selection of


material for a machine or structural part.

Non-mechanical properties

Subsequently however, other relevant non-mechanical properties must also be considered.


Examples of other properties, which may be relevant to a particular machine part or structure,
are:

a) Ability to resist corrosion or chemical attack (chemical);


b) Heat transmission or insulation properties (thermal);
c) Magnetic properties.
d) Electrical properties
e) Weight and portability.
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6.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

A number of mechanical properties can be defined precisely, others rather vaguely. The terms
used have developed over a period of many years, during which metal technology has been
advancing. Means are available to quantitatively evaluate many properties, while others are
only evaluated qualitatively ( i.e. relative to the alternative material).

a) Strength is the ability of a material to resist the intensity of applied load or stress. It
may be qualified according to the type of load, as tensile strength, compressive
strength, or shear strength. It varies with the time rate of loading, temperature, and
fluctuations of stress.

b) Hardness may be defined as resistance to penetration, and can be readily measured.

c) Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original size and shape after a
deforming force has been removed. Elasticity does not necessarily imply a large
amount of deformation. Soft rubber is elastic, not because it stretches, but because it
returns to its original shape after being deformed. Stiffness and rigidity are related
mechanical properties indicating the ability of the material to resist deflection.

d) Ductility is the ability of a material to be deformed in tension without fracture.


Consequently, a rod, made from a ductile material may be drawn into a wire.

e) Malleability is the ability of a material to be permanently deformed in compression.


A malleable material may be hammered or rolled into thin sheets. Most metals that
are malleable are also ductile; but there are exceptions. Lead is malleable, but not
ductile (weak in tension).

f) Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb considerable energy before fracture. It


is usually represented by the area under a stress-strain curve (or by the energy
absorbed in an impact test) and therefore involves both ductility and strength.

g) Brittleness is the opposite of toughness, and implies that a material will fracture with
no appreciable deformation. Brittle materials exhibit little ductility, because ductility
is one of the indicators of toughness.

6.2.1 Static and Dynamic properties

It is not possible to predict all the mechanical properties of a metal after measuring only one
or two. Laboratory tests have been developed to study the behaviour of materials under
various types of loads. These tests are classified as either static or dynamic, according to
whether the metal's response to constant or varying load is to be investigated.

6.2.2 Static tests

Static tests are those in which the load is constant, or slowly and gradually increased. The
assumption is made that at any particular point, conditions are the same as though the
specimens were carrying a constant load of that magnitude. Static tests are:

(a) Tension, (b) Compression,

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(c) Hardness, (e) Torsion.
(d) Creep,

6.2.3 Tests for Mechanical properties

RESULTS OF TENSION TEST

Items usually reported in a tension test are:

1) Tensile strength; 4) Modulus of elasticity;


2) Yield point; 5) Percent elongation, and;
3) Limit of proportionality; 6) Percent reduction in area.

Engineering stress-strain diagram depicts the variation of stress with strain based on the
original gauge length lo and diameter d o of the specimen.

P l − lo
The stress is then computed as σ = , while the strain is computed as ε = .
Ao lo

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM-TENSILE TEST


Ductile Material Brittle Material
Sut Sut S-
Sy Sy
S-
Stress σ

Stress σ

Strain Strain
DUCTILE MATERIALS
a) Proportional limit pl identifies region of linear relationship between stress and strain
where stress-strain curve σ = Eε is linear and Hooke’s Law applies
b) Elastic limit el identifies where permanent set starts
c) Yield point S y identifies where large deformation occurs without increase in stress. Some
materials do not show the yield point
d) Point of ultimate tensile strength Sut is the highest stress in the diagram
e) Point of fracture S fracture is the stress and strain at which fracture of the specimen occurs in
the diagram
f) For materials where yield point is not obvious, the offset method is used to identify a
yield stress. A value of 0.2 % of gauge length is often used, implying a strain of 0.002.

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BRITTLE MATERIALS

a) Brittle material such as cast iron and some high strength steels fracture while the stress
strain curve is still rising
b) The fracture strength and the ultimate tensile strength therefore coincide
c) The plastic deformation represented by percentage elongation and reduction in area at
fracture is much lower for brittle materials

COMPRESSION TEST

This is run in the same general way as a tension test. It is usually limited to those materials
which are primarily loaded in compression, such as concrete and cast iron.

TORSION TEST

One end of the specimen is held in a fixed grip, and the other end is rotated about its own
axis. The measured variables are torque and angular displacement. Stress-strain curves
plotted from these tests are similar to those from tensile tests.

HARDNESS TEST

A number of instruments have been developed for the determination of indentation type
hardness. These are:

a) The Brinnell hardness tester forces a hardened steel or tungsten carbide ball of
specified diameter (10, 5, 2.5, or 1 mm.) into the surface of the specimen by means of
a fixed weight. The Brinell hardness number (BHN) is the weight used, divided by the
area of the hemi-spherical impression. Thus the harder metals have the higher
numbers. In practice, the diameter of the impression is measured and referred to a
table to find the BHN. A 3000 Kg. Load is standard for hard metals and a 500 Kg. for
soft metals.

b) In the Rockwell test, the depth of indentation is measured and a dial records an
arbitrary number which is related inversely to the depth of indentation.

c) In the Vickers hardness tester, an indentation is made with a four-sided pyramid


having an apex angle of 136 degrees. The hardness number is then determined as the
load W in kilograms, divided by the surface area of indentation in sq. mm.

1.854 * W
V .P.N . =
D
Where,
W is the load , and D is the length of the diagonal of the impression
in the plane of the metal , measured in mm.

Uses of hardness test

Hardness tests have several uses:

a) Uniformity of the sample

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The hardness values of materials provide a means of determining the relative hardness of the
material. By making hardness measurements over a surface, the uniformity of the sample can
be tested.

b) Uniformity of a metallurgical process

In addition, the uniformity of a metallurgical process such as heat treatment can be found by
hardness measurements over the samples.

c) Estimation of Strength

Correlation between hardness and tensile strength shows that hardness values can be used as
a means of approximately predicting the tensile strength of steels.

d) A non-destructive method for quality control

The hardness test is perhaps one of the most widely used non-destructive methods of testing.
The test is used in all manufacturing operations as a measure of uniformity and quality.

Inspection and control operations in manufacturing often use the hardness test as the most
reliable measure of quality.

6.2.4 Dynamic tests

Dynamic tests are those in which the load is suddenly applied, or is pulsating. Many machine
parts are subject to such loads and dynamic loads cause the large majority of all failures.

Dynamic loads can also be classified into impact loads and cyclic loads. Impact loads are
cases where the load is applied once but suddenly, while cyclic loads are cases where stresses
are applied repeatedly.

Cyclic stresses can arise from a constant load whose direction of action changes, such as in
the case of a constant load acting on a rotating member.

Dynamic and cyclic loading tests are:

(a) Impact, (c) Damping capacity.


(b) Fatigue

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6.3 SELECTION OF MATERIAL FOR MACHINE PARTS

6.3.1 Mechanical properties

Past experience is a good guide for the selection of material, but possibilities of applying new
materials should not be ignored. Therefore, consider and exploit past experience, but avoid
enslavement by the past.

In Table 6.1, the various mechanical properties of materials are shown against the indicators
commonly used to measure their values. The indicators are determined from laboratory tests
on specimens.

Table 6.1: Mechanical properties of metals and criteria measured as indicators

MECHANICAL PROPERTY MEASURED BY


Strength(under static load) Ultimate tensile strength or tensile yield strength
Strength(repeated load) Endurance strength
Rigidity Modulus of elasticity
Ductility Percentage elongation
Hardness Brinell or Rockwell hardness number
Toughness Charpy or Izod impact value
Frictional properties Co-efficient of friction

From Table 6.1, it is seen that the simple tension test provides measures for static strength,
rigidity, and ductility. An indication of toughness is also obtained from the values of strength
and ductility.

6.3.2 Manufacturing factors

Available methods for producing metal parts are:

(a) Cutting; (d) Casting; (g) Rolling;


(b) Machining; (e) Forging; (h) Extrusion, e.t.c.
(c) Welding; (f) Heat treatment;

The choice of material for part must consider the intended manufacturing method.

6.3.2 Availability

In practice, the factor of availability should be considered first.

6.3.4 Component parts of cost of part

The cost of a machine part is made up of components shown in Table below. The choice of
manufacturing process must therefore consider this cost components of manufacturing:
Cost category Cost components
1 Direct costs Material and direct labour
2 Indirect costs Energy, Water, indirect labour such as supervision and maintenance
3 Overheads Management and management services, Depreciation of assets
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6.4 STEEL AND STEEL STANDARDS

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, in which the carbon content is less than 2.0 %. Other
alloying elements present in steel are:

(a) Silicon, (d) Nickel, (g) Vanadium.


(b) Manganese, (e) Molybdenum,
(c) Chromium, (f) Tungsten,

Sulphur and Phosphorus occur as impurities originating from the ore and refining process.

6.4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL BY APPLICATION

The choice of steel for a particular application is initially made by choosing the carbon
content. Table 6.3 gives guidelines1 on the carbon content suitable for various common
applications.

Table 6.3:Uses for steel by carbon content


Carbon Carbon Use
class range, %
Low 0.05-0.15 Chain, Nails, Pipe rivets, Sheets for pressing and stamping, wire
Medium 0.15-0.30 Bars, Plates, Structural shapes
0.30-0.45 Axles, connecting rods, shafting
High 0.45-0.60 Crankshafts, scraper blades
0.60-0.75 Automobile springs, Anvils, Band saws, Drop hammer dies
Very High 0.75-0.90 Chisels, punches, hand tools
0.90-1.00 Knives, Shear blades, springs
1.00-1.10 Milling Cutters, Dies, Taps
1.10-1.20 Lathe Tools, Woodworking Tools
1.20-1.30 Files, Reamers
1.30-1.40 Dies for wire drawing
1.40-1.50 Metal cutting saws

After the approximate carbon content of the steel to be used is determined, the decision is
then made whether to use plain carbon steel, or an alloy.

6.5.3 Effects of alloying elements

Alloying elements are added to steel to enhance desired properties, and to minimise undesired
properties. Alloys are also added to modify manufacturing processes such as to permit
simpler heat treatment processes. Table 6.4, summarises the effects of various alloying
elements.

1
Shigley, Joseph E., Engineering Design, pp.222., McGraw-Hill Book C0mpany Inc., 1963.

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Table 6.4: Alloying elements and there effects on the steel
Alloying Effect on the steel
element
Chromium Increases hardness, without reducing ductility. Refines grain structure and increases
toughness. Simplifies heat treatment requirements.
Nickel Increases strength without reducing ductility. Refines grain structure and increases
toughness. Simplifies heat treatment requirements.
Manganese Added as a deoxidising and desulphurising agent. Considered as alloy when above 1
%. Enables oil quenching.
Silicon Added as a deoxidising agent. Stabilises carbides formed by other alloying elements.
Molybdenum Improves oil hardening and air hardening properties. Used with Chromium and Nickel
to simplify heat treatment.
Vanadium Widely used in tool steels. Steel retains its hardness at high temperatures.
Tungsten Widely used in tool steels. Tool maintains its hardness even at red heat.

Appendix B shows the applications of various plain and alloy steels from American standard
specifications and their recommended heat treatment. This may be summarised as in Table
6.5 below.

Table 6.5: Classification of steels by application, carbon and alloy content


No alloy Low alloy Medium Alloy High alloy
Low carbon (1)Structural, (2)Case (2)Case Hardening, (3)General (5)Stainless
0.10-0.25 % Hardening, (3)General Engineering, Steels
(3)General Engineering, (4)Boiler Plates
Engineering steels (4)Boiler Plates
Medium carbon (3)General (3)General (3)General
0.30-0.50 % Engineering Engineering Engineering
High Carbon (6)Tool Steels (6)Tool Steels (6)Tool Steels (6)Tool
>.60 % Steels

6.5.4 Limit of alloy content in plain carbon steels

The distinction between plain carbon steels and alloy steels is based on the percentage by
weight of the alloy content. For a single alloy element, the maximum value of alloy content
above which the steel moves from plain to alloy classification are:

(a) Chromium Cr, ( 0.3 %) ; (d) Nickel Ni, ( 0.3 %) ;


(b) Manganese Mn, ( 1.6 %) ; (e) Silicon Si, ( 0.5 %) .
(c) Molybdenum Mo, ( 0.08 %) ;

However, when more than one alloy element is present simultaneously, then the limiting sum
of the elements content is reduced to 70 % of the sum of the limits for individual alloy
elements.

For example, when Chromium and Nickel are present simultaneously, the limit for
classifying the product as plain is reduced to 70 % of ( 0.3 + 0.3 ), or 0.42 %.

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6.5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS IN VARIOUS NATIONAL STANDARDS

From suppliers who produce steels to various national standards, steel is also classified by
application into categories shown in the Table 6.6 below:

Table 6.6: Classification of steels in National Standards


Application of the steel Criterion for standard & supplier classification
1 Steels for general structural purposes ultimate tensile strength (plain carbon steels)
2 Case hardening steels for general engineering carbon and alloy content (plain carbon & alloy steels)
purposes (Heat treatable)
3 Heat treatable steels for general engineering carbon and alloy content (plain carbon & alloy steels)
purposes
4 Steel plates for boilers and pressure vessels ultimate tensile strength and temperature (plain carbon
& alloy steels)
5 Stainless steels carbon and alloy content (alloys only)
6 Tool steels carbon and alloy content (plain carbon & alloy steels)

6.5.5 Specification of steels by application in national standards


Steels are produced according to various national standard specifications. Many of these
national standard specifications classify steels according to properties shown below:
(a) Ultimate tensile strength, or yield strength;
(b) Carbon content;
(c) Content of alloying elements.

6.6 GENERAL STRUCTURAL STEELS: Specified By Ultimate Tensile Strength

In many national standards, steels for general structural purposes are specified based on the
minimum ultimate tensile strength required.

Table 6.7 shows standard specifications for steels for general structural purposes, according
to four national standards. The grade specification indicates the minimum ultimate tensile
strength allowed. For example, the material with the designation DIN 17000 St 42 is
equivalent to BS 4360 Grade 43A. Both materials are expected to have a minimum ultimate
tensile strength of 410-490 (Average of 420-430) Mpa. The figure 42 or 43 in the designation
St 42 and 43A therefore represents 1/10 of the minimum ultimate tensile strength allowed, in
Mpa.

Table 6.7: National standards for Steels for general structural purposes
Standards Organisation and its Code Tensile Chemical Composition
DIN2 BS3 4360 ASTM4 JIS5 Strength
1700 Grade A283-78 G3101- Mpa C P S
Grade G3125 % % %
St 34 - A283 B SS 34 330-410 <=0.17 <=0.06 <=0.05
St 37 - A283 B - 360-440 <=0.17 <=0.05 <=0.05
St 42 43A A283 B SM 41 410-490 <=0.25 <=0.05 <=0.05
St 50 50C A573Gr70 SM 50 490-590 0.25 <=0.08 <=0.05
St 50-3 - A633GrE SS 33 510-610 <=0.22 <=0.45 <=0.45
St 60 - - - 590-700 0.4 <=0.05 <=0.05
St 70 - -- - 685-830 0.5 <=0.05 <=0.05

2
German Industrial Standards
3
British Standards
4
American Standard for the Testing of Materials
5
Japanese Industrial Standards

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This approach is adopted in most national standards for the specification of steels for general
structural purposes. Steels for general structural purposes are plain carbon steels, even though
carbon content is not the primary factor used in their specification.

Steels for general structural purposes are intended to be used without further processing, for
example in building structures.

They are produced by hot rolling into shapes such as bar shapes (round, square, flat, hexagon)
and structural shapes (Tee, Channel, Angle, Wide flange, Zee).

6.7 STEELS FOR GENERAL ENGINEERING PURPOSES: Specification By


CARBON AND ALLOY CONTENT

Specification by carbon and alloy content is used for plain carbon and alloy steels for general
engineering purposes in most national standards. These steels are intended for engineering
purposes other than general structural purposes.

The designation of the steel is then based on the carbon content such that the figure
representing the carbon grade is 100 times the carbon content of the steel. For example, plain
carbon steel with carbon content of 0.10 % would be designated as 10.

6.7.1 CASE HARDENING STEELS FOR GENERAL ENGINEERING PURPOSES

Table 6.8 shows standard specifications for case hardening steels from four national
standards. The table includes both plain carbon and alloy steels. The material designated as
DIN 17210 C10, and Ck10 are equivalent to BS 970 045A10, and the materials are case
hardening plain carbon steels with 0.10 % carbon content.

Table 6.8: National standards for some case hardening steels for general engineering
Standard Organisation and its standard codes Chemical composition
DIN BS ASTM JIS
17210 970 A576 C Cr Ni Si Mn
A331 % % % % %
C10, G405L
Ck10 1010 510C
045A1 0.07- 0.15- 0.30-
0 0.13 0.35 0.60
C15, 1015 G4051
Ck15 S15C 0.12- 0.15- 0.30-
0.18 0.35 0.60
15Cr3 523A1 0.12- 0.40- - 0.10- 0.30-
4 0.18 0.70 0.40 0.60
5015
16Mn 0.14- 0.80- - 0.15- 1.00-
CrNi5 0.19 1.10 0.40 1.30
17Cr 822A1 0.14- 1.5-1.8 1.4-1.7 0.15- 0.40-
NiMo6 7 0.19 0.40 0.60

6.7.2 OTHER HEAT TREATABLE STEELS FOR GENERAL ENGINEERING


PURPOSES
Table 6.9 shows standard specifications for other heat treatable steels from four national
standards. The table includes both plain carbon and alloy steels. The material designated as

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DIN 17200 Ck45 is equivalent to BS 970 080M46 and the materials are heat treatable plain
carbon steels with 0.45-0.46 % carbon content.

6.7.3 Specification by carbon and alloying element content


For alloy steels, both carbon and alloy content are used to specify the product.

For example, the material shown in Table 6.8 as DIN 17210 15Cr3, is equivalent to BS 970
523A14. Both materials are expected to have a carbon content of 0.14 - 0.15 %. This part of
the specification is the same as that for plain carbon steels.

Table 6.9: National standards for some heat treatable steels for general engineering
Standard Organisation and its codes Chemical composition
DIN BS 970 ASTM JIS C Cr Ni Mo Si Mn
17200 Part A576 G4051 % % % % % %
17210 2&3 A331 G4106
17211
Ck22 040A20 1020 S20C 0.18-.25 - - - 0.15-.35 0.30-.60
Ck35 080A35 1035 S35C 0.32-39 - - - 0.15-.35 0.50-.80
Ck45 080M4 1045 S45C 0.42-.50 - - - 0.15-.35 0.50-.80
6
34Cr4 530A36 5135 SCr435 0.30-.37 0.90-1.2 - - 0.15-.40 0.60-.90
34Mn4
41Cr4 530A40 - SCr445 0.38-.45 0.90-1.2 - - 0.15-.40 0.50-.80
42CrM 708M4 4140 SCM44 0.38-.45 0.90-1.2 - 0.15-.30 0.15-.40 0.50-.80
o4 0 0
50CrM - 4150 SCM44 0.46-.54 0.90-1.2 - 0.15-.30 0.15-.40 0.50-.80
o4 5
30CrNi 823M3 - - 0.26-.33 1.80-2.2 1.80-2.2 0.30-.50 0.15-.40 0.30-.60
Mo8 0

To specify the content of the Chromium alloying element, the DIN standard designates the
material as Cr3. The figure 3 represents the alloy content multiplied by a factor of 4. This
means that the actual content of the Chromium alloying element is 3/4 %, or 0.75 %. The
material therefore is an alloy steel with:

Carbon content = 0.15 %


Chromium content = 0.75 %

For the BS specification, the alloy content is not readily determined from the numbering in
the designation.

6.7.4 Strength, Hardness and Ductility of Heat-treatable Steels

The steels shown in Tables 6.8 and 6.9 are intended for use in machine parts. Carbon and
alloy content, as well as heat treatment, if any, are therefore selected to achieve desired
mechanical properties such as strength and hardness. At the same time, efforts are made to
keep undesired properties such as brittleness to their minimum values.

When selecting a starting material for a particular application, it is necessary to correlate the
desired properties of strength and hardness with the carbon and alloy content, as well as to
identify these with a particular material from a national standard specification. Appendix A
provides guidelines for selecting material specification that will provide the desired
properties of strength, hardness and ductility.
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6.8 STEEL PLATES FOR BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS: Specified By


Ultimate Tensile Strength And Temperature

Table 6.10 shows specifications for steel plates for boilers and pressure vessels from four
national standards. These are specified with minimum tensile strength at specified
temperatures. These requirements are achieved by combination of low carbon and specified
content of alloying elements. The alloy elements used are Chromium, Nickel, Molybdenum,
and Manganese.

Table 6.10: National standards for some Steel plates for boilers and pressure vessels
Standard Organisation and its codes Tensile Chemical composition
DIN BS ASTM JIS strengt C Mn Mo Cr Ni
17006 1501 A 285 G 3115 h % % % % %
Part A 516 G3116 UTS
1&2 A 387 G 4109 Mpa
HI 141 Gr B - 340 <=0.16 <=0.40 <=0.10 <=0.30 <=0.30
HII Gr26C1 Gr 60 5PV 24 400 <=0.20 <=0.50 <=0.10 <=0.30 <=0.30
.1
HIII 161 Gr 65 SG 30 430 <=0.22 <=0.55 <=0.10 <=0.30 <=0.30
HIV 211 460 <=0.26 <=0.60 <=0.10 <=0.30 <=0.30
17Mn4 213 460 0.14-.20 0.90-1.2 <=0.10 <=0.30 <=0.30

6.9 STAINLESS STEELS: Specification By Carbon And Alloy Content


Table 6.11 shows specifications for stainless steels from four national standards. Stainless
steels have high alloy content, usually in excess of 10 % alloy. The alloys used are Chromium
and Nickel. The high alloy makes the material resistant to corrosion, even at high
temperature.

Table 6.11: National standards for some stainless steels


Standard Organisation and its codes Chemical composition
DIN BS 970 AISI JIS C Ni Cr Si Mn
17440 Part 4 13 G4303 % % % % %
17224 1479Par G4309
t2
X5CrNi 304 S15 304 SUS304 <=0.07 8.5-10.0 17.0-20.0 <=1.0 <=2.0
189
X12CrNi 303 S21 303 SUS 303 <=0.15 8.0-10.0 17.0-19.0 <=1.0 <=2.0
S
188

In the DIN specification, the designation is interpreted as below:

(a) X indicates high alloy content


(b) Next number represents 1/100 of the carbon content, (12 indicates 0.12 % carbon);
(c) Next Letters indicate alloying constituents;
(d) Next Numbers indicate alloy content in %, CrNi188 indicates 18 % Cr and 8 % Ni..

6.10 TOOL STEELS: Specification By Carbon And Alloy Content


Table 6.12 shows specifications for Tool steels from four national standards. The application
of tool steels includes a wide variety such as Metal cutting tools, Metal forming dies, e.t.c.

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Table 6.12: National standards for some Tool steels
Standard Organisation and its codes Chemical composition
VDE h BS ASTM JIS C Cr Mo W V Si Mn
Wbl 4659 A 686 G4401 % % % % % % %
90- A 681
150,25 A 600
0,320
C80 BW1 W1 SK1- 0.60- - - - - 0.10- 0.10-
W1 (A-C) SK7 1.40 0.40 0.40
BW2 W2 0.85- - - - 0.15- 0.10- 0.10-
1.40 0.35 0.40 0.40
105W BO1 O1 SKS31 0.85- 0.40- - -0.40 -0.30 -0.50 1.00-
Cr6 1.00 0.60 1.40
90Mn BO2 O2 0.85- - - - 0.20 -0.50 1.40-
V8 0.96 2.00
60CrV B31 S1 SKS41 0.35- 1.00- - 1.50- 0.15- -0.60 -0.70
7 0.65 1.80 3.00 0.30
BA2 A2 SKD1 0.95- 4.75- 0.90- - 0.15- -0.40 -1.0
2 1.05 5.50 1.40 0.50
X165C BD2 D2 1.4-1.9 11-13 0.6-1.2 - -1.10 -0.60 -0.60
rMoV1
2
X38Cr BH H11 SKD6 0.32- 4.75- 1.00- - 0.30 0.85- -0.50
MoV5 0.42 5.25 1.50 1.1
1

Tool steels are therefore primarily high carbon steels in the range of 0.6 to 1.9 % carbon.
Some tool steels are therefore plain carbon, while the majority are alloy steels. For example,
the material designated BS 4659 BW1 (A-C) is a plain carbon steel, while BS 4659 BW2
includes a small percentage of Vanadium.

Vanadium and Tungsten serve to increase the hardness. Other alloys such as Chromium and
Nickel modify properties such as strength, ductility toughness, and response to heat
treatment,

6.11 EXAMPLE OF MATERIAL SELECTION FOR A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP


In Table 6.12, an example is shown of one pump design (KSB Etanorm6 pump series), which
is produced in a variety of materials so as to satisfy varying environmental conditions such as
wear from particles in pumped liquid, resistance to corrosive environment, strength, e.t.c.
Materials used for various pump parts include:
1) Grey cast iron GG
2) Grey cast iron GG-25
3) Nodular cast iron GGG-40.3
4) Tin Bronze G-CuSn10
5) Red Bronze G-CuPb10Sn
6) Tempering steel St 60/45
7) Chrome Molybdenum steel 1.4122
8) Chrome Nickel Molybdenum steel 1.4462
9) Chrome Nickel Molybdenum steel 1.4571
10) Cast Chrome Nickel Molybdenum steel 1.4408
11) Cast Chrome Nickel Molybdenum steel 1.4462

6
Extracted from KSB Etanorm Product Sheet

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Materials for Machine Part Nyangasi
Table 6.12: Material selection: Example from KSB Etanorm Pump Series
PART Material used for each part in each pump designation
Etanorm G Etanorm M Etanorm B Etanorm S Etanorm C
Volute Grey cast iron Grey cast iron Tin Bronze G- Nodular cast Cast Chrome Nickel
casing GG-25 GG-25 CuSn10 iron GGG-40.3 Molybdenum steel
1.4408
Discharge Grey cast iron Grey cast iron Tin Bronze G- Nodular cast Cast Chrome Nickel
cover GG-25 GG-25 CuSn10 iron GGG-40.3 Molybdenum steel
1.4408
Impeller Grey cast iron Tin Bronze G- Tin Bronze G- Grey cast iron Cast Chrome Nickel
GG-25 CuSn10 CuSn10 GG-25 Molybdenum steel
1.4408
Casing wear Grey cast iron Grey cast iron Red Bronze G- Grey cast iron Chrome Nickel
rings GG GG /Red CuPb10Sn GG Molybdenum steel
Bronze G- 1.4408
CuPb10Sn
Shaft Tempering steel Tempering steel Chrome Nickel Tempering steel Cast Chrome Nickel
St 60/45 St 60/45 Molybdenum St 60/45 Molybdenum steel
steel 1.4462 1.4462
Shaft sleeve Chrome Nickel Chrome Nickel Chrome Nickel Chrome Nickel Chrome Nickel
Molybdenum Molybdenum Molybdenum Molybdenum Molybdenum steel
steel 1.4571 steel 1.4571 steel 1.4571 steel 1.4571 1.4571
Shaft Chrome Chrome Chrome Nickel Chrome Chrome Nickel
protecting Molybdenum Molybdenum Molybdenum Molybdenum Molybdenum steel
sleeve steel 1.4122 steel 1.4122 steel 1.4571 steel 1.4122 1.4571
Bearing Grey cast iron Grey cast iron Grey cast iron Grey cast iron Grey cast iron GG-25
bracket GG-25 GG-25 GG-25 GG-25

6.12 HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS

Heat treatment given to steel may be roughly classified into non-quenching and quenching
types:

(a) Non-quenching types

These types of heat treatment are usually applied as preliminary or intermediate treatments
used to condition the steel for further processing and heat treating. They include:

(1) Stress relieving

This is performed to relieve stresses caused by cold working. Process consists of heating
to just below the critical temperature, followed by cooling slowly, usually in air. Stresses
relieved include those caused by straightening and machining.

(2) Annealing

This is an intermediate process used to reduce the hardness caused by casting and forging
steels above 0.35 % carbon, so that the parts may thereafter be machined. The process
consists of heating the steel above the critical temperature followed by cooling slowly in a
furnace.

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Materials for Machine Part Nyangasi
(3) Normalising

This is applied in parts that have been rolled, or forged, to refine the grain structure so
that it may subsequently respond uniformly to heat treatment. The process consists of
heating the steel to above the critical temperature and cooling in still air.

(b) Quenching

Quenching types of heat treatment is given to steel to impart the final physical properties
desired for the part. The heat treatment types include:

(1) Through hardening

This is the most common heat treatment of steel, and involves heating the part to above
the critical temperature, followed by quenching and tempering.

(2) Tempering

Tempering consists of re-heating the steel to a temperature below the critical point and
then cooling it at a pre-determined rate. The purpose is to reduce or draw back the as
quenched hardness.

(3) Case hardening

This involves hardening the surface layer of the part by the addition of carbon or nitrogen.
After the addition of carbon, the part is then heated to above the critical temperature and
then quenched. The purpose is to create a hard case on the part A hardened case of depth
ranging from 0.25 to 2.5 mm. can be produced in this way.

(4) Surface hardening

This is a form of case hardening, but in which the surface of the steel is heated directly to
a point above the critical temperature and then quenched. It is usually performed on steels
with a sufficiently high carbon content such as 0.30 % carbon and above. The steel is
therefore able to respond to heating and quenching without the preliminary procedure of
addition of carbon used in case hardening.

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Materials for Machine Part Nyangasi
6.5 CAST IRON

Cast iron can be produced in three forms, namely:

(a) Grey cast iron; (c) Ductile (nodular) cast iron;


(b) Malleable cast iron; (d) White iron.

All the three forms of cast iron are alloys of iron and carbon, with carbon content by weight
ranging from 2 % to 4 %. Cast irons also contain a high amount of silicon, often in excess of
1 %. Other elements that occur in small quantities ( often less than 1 %) are Sulphur,
Manganese, and Phosphorus.

6.5.1 Grey cast iron

Grey cast iron is obtained when casting conditions combine with the chemical composition to
yield a product in which the carbon occurs in the form of flakes of graphite. These thin flakes
of graphite are distributed evenly through the ferrite and cause the appearance of the micro-
structure to darken, hence the name grey cast iron.

Grey cast iron is widely used. In most national standards, it is classified according to its
tensile strength, as shown in Table 6.2 with the example from British Standard specifications.

Table 6.2:Mechanical properties of grey cast iron (Tensile strength corresponds to the
BS Grade)

Mechanical Properties Grade Designation (British Standard Specification)


150 180 220 260 300 350 400
Tensile strength (Mpa.) 150 180 220 260 300 350 400
Compressive strength (Mpa.) 587 663 766 868 970 1097 1225
Shear strength (Mpa.) 176 222 284 346 407 484 562
Endurance limit (Mpa.) 71 82 96 111 125 143 161
Young's modulus (Gpa.) 71-96 79-104 89-114 100-124 110-135 124-147 137-160
Modulus of rigidity(Gpa.) 29-40 32-42 36-45 40-48 43-51 48-55 53-58
Hardness (HB) 160 176 196 216 236 261 286

Other national standards apply a classification scheme similiar to that shown in Table 6.2. For
example, grey cast iron Grade FG 150 in the Indian standards is equivalent to Grade 150 in
the British standards.

(a) Advantages of Grey Cast Iron

(i) Availability;
(ii) Low cost for volume production;
(iii) Amenability to production of complex shapes, thereby reducing the requirements for
machining operations;
(iv) High compressive strength compared to steel. Therefore preferred for compressive
loading situations;
(v) Ability to damp vibrations;
(vi) Resistance to wear;
(vii) Resistance to corrosion (relative to untreated steel).

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Materials for Machine Part Nyangasi
(b) Disadvantages

(i) Low tensile strength, compared to steel;


(ii) Section size sensitivity i.e. Tensile strength decreases as section size increases;
(iii) Brittleness. Little plastic deformation before fracture, and no yield point. Cast iron is
therefore subject to brittle failure, and therefore not suitable for applications in which
failure by yielding, rather than sudden fracture would be preferred.
(iv) Low impact resistance;
(v) Poor machinability, compared to steel;

(c) Applications

(i) Machine tool beds, frames, guides, pulleys, hydraulic cylinders e.t.c;
(ii) I.C. Engine parts, such as cylinder blocks, cylinder heads, crank-cases, exhaust
manifolds, e.t.c;
(iii) Flywheels, brake drums, brake shoes e.t.c;
(iv) Hydraulic pipes, pipe fittings, valve bodies e.t.c.

6.5.2 White cast iron

White cast iron is a product in which the carbon is combined with iron to form Cementite ( a
compound of iron Fe, and carbon C), with no free graphite present. The product is obtained
by a specified combination of casting process, and chemical composition of the melt.
Cementite is very hard, and white cast iron therefore also displays this property. White cast
iron is therefore very hard, brittle, and difficult to machine.

6.5.3 Malleable cast iron

Malleable iron is made by the heat treatment of white cast iron.

Malleable cast iron is obtained, when white cast iron, within a certain composition range, is
annealed. The annealing process breaks down the Cementite, and frees the carbon from the
Cementite. The free carbon then reconstitutes itself into graphite. However, instead of the
free graphite taking the form of flakes, as in grey cast iron, the annealing process causes it to
form rosettes of free graphite.

This transformation of graphite into form of rosettes changes the properties of the resultant
material from hard and brittle, to softer and ductile. The tensile strength of the material is also
increased.

Malleable iron therefore has properties somewhat similar to low carbon steel, but with the
added advantage of easier casting. The significant properties are the combination of ductility,
strength, and castability.

The heat treatment process required to transform white cast iron, into malleable iron is
however long, taking a period of days. The product is therefore expensive to produce.

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Materials for Machine Part Nyangasi
6.5.4 Ductile (Nodular) cast iron

The microstructure of Ductile iron is similar to that of malleable iron, to the extent that it also
contains free graphite, although in nodular form. The material is therefore sometimes referred
to as nodular iron.

The difference between malleable and ductile iron is in the process of production. Instead of
the lengthy and expensive heat treatment given to white cast iron to yield malleable iron,
ductile iron is produced in the as cast condition, and thereafter it is given a simpler heat
treatment of 1 hour annealing.

The transformation of free graphite from flakes to nodules is achieved by innoculating the
cast iron melt with cesium and magnesium. These additives cause the carbon in the melt to
form nodules of free graphite during cooling and solidification.

Ductile iron, in the as cast condition, therefore exhibits properties similiar to malleable iron,
after it is given a simpler heat treatment of 1 hour annealing.

6.13 COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

6.14 ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS

References

1) Mechanical properties of Metallic materials, Beaumont, J.


2) Mechanical Behaviour of Engineering Materials, Mariu, Joseph.
3) Strength of Materials, VOL. II, Timoshenko, S.
4) Design of machine elements, Bhandari, V.B., TATA McGraw-Hill, 1994.
5) Mechanical Engineering Design, Shigley, J., McGraw-Hill International Edition, 1986
6) Drawing and design, Bhandari, V.B., University of Dar-es-salaam, 1983.

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Materials for Machine Part Nyangasi
APPENDIX A7: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME STEELS

Material British Productio Maximum Yield Tensile Elong Hardness


Standard8 n process section Strength Strength, ation Number,
size, mm. Mpa Mpa % HB
0.20C 070M20 HR9 152 215 430 22 126-179
254 200 400 20 116-170
CD10 13 385 530 12 154
76 340 430 14 125
0.30C 080M30 HR 152 245 490 20 143-192
254 230 460 19 134-183
CD 13 470 600 10 174
63 385 530 12 154
H&T11 63 385 550-700 13 152-207
0.40C 080M40 HR 150 280 550 16 152-207
CD 63 430 570 10 165
H&T 63 385 625-775 16 179-229
0.50C 080M50 HR 150 310 620 14 179-229
CD 63 510 650 10 188
H&T 150 430 625-775 11 179-229
1Cr 530M40 H&T 100 525 700-850 17 202-255
29 680 850-1000 13 248-302
1.5MnMo 605M36 H&T 150 525 700-850 17 202-255
29 755 925-1075 12 269-331
1.25NiCr 640M40 H&T 152 525 700-850 17 202-255
102 585 770-930 15 223-277
64 680 850-1000 13 248-302
29 755 930-1080 12 269-331
3NiCr 653M31 H&T 64 755 930-1080 12 269-331
680 850-1000 12 248-302
1CrMo 708M40 H&T 150 525 700-850 17 201-255
13 940 1075-1225 12 311-375
3CrMo 722M24 H&T 152 680 850-1000 13 269-331
755 930-1080 12 269-331
2.5NiCrMo 826M40 H&T 150 755 925-1075 12 269-331
850 1000-1150 12 293-352
1020 1150-1300 10 341-401
3NiCrMo 830M31 H&T 254 650 850-1000 13 248-302
152 680 850-1000 12 248-302
64 940 1080-1240 11 311-375
1.5MnNiCrMo 945M38 H&T 152 525 690-850 17 201-255
64 680 850-1000 13 248-302
29 850 1000-1160 12 293-352

7
Shigley, Joseph E., Mechanical Engineering Design, pp. 664, McGraw-Hill Inc., 1986
8
British Standards Institution, BS 970: Part 1: 1983
9
HR-Hot rolled and normalised
10
CD-Cold drawn
11
H&T-Hardened and tempered

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Materials for Machine Part Nyangasi
APPENDIX B: STEEL APPLICATION AND HEAT-TREATING GUIDE12

Low-Carbon Medium-Carbon High-Carbon


USE Plain Alloy Plain Medium Rich
Carbon Carbon Alloy Alloy
Or Or
Lean Lean
OR Alloy Alloy
C 1020 A2315-20 C1040-50 A3140-50 A 4340 Oil Water
C 1117 3115-20 4140-50 3250 Hard- Hard-
4615-20 5145 ening ening
PART 5120 8640-50 Tool Tool
8620 8740-50 Steel Steel
6145
Arbors N,T T T
Armature shafts T T T
Axles C C N,T,A, S,T, T T
Ball races C S T T T
Bolts and studs T,A T T
Bushings C C T
Cams C T T
Camshaft C C T T
Cant dogs T
Chain Links T
Chain Pins C C
Chuck Jaws C T T
Chuck screws N,A T
Clutches T T
Collets T T
Connecting Rods T T
Crankshafts N,S,A S,T S,T
Drift Pins N T
Engine bolts C C N,T T
Gears C C N,S,T,A S,T S,T T
Guide Pins T T
Mandrels C C T
Pinions C C N,S,T S,T S,T T
Pins C T T
Pistons C T
Pump Shafts N,T,A T
Rollers C C
Rolls C C S S,T S,T T T
Lead Screws N,A T
Set Screws T T
Spindles C C S,T,A, S,T, S,T T T
Stay Bolts N A
Thrust washers C T
Turbine Shafts N,T,A T
Turnbuckles T T
U bolts T T
Universal Joint Pins C C
Universal joint bodies N,T,A, T T
Worm Gears C C S,T S,T
N=Normalised; C= Case-hardened; S= Surface-hardened; T= Through-hardened; A= As-rolled

12
pp. 10, ASME Handbook, Metals Engineering-Processes, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1958

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