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Materials For Mechanical Parts PDF
Materials For Mechanical Parts PDF
Materials For Mechanical Parts PDF
Common materials from which machine or structural parts are made are:
(a) Cast iron;
(b) Steel;
(c) Copper and its alloys;
(d) Aluminium and its alloys;
(e) Plastics.
The factors to be considered in selecting the material for machine part are:
(a) Mechanical properties;
(b) Non mechanical properties
(c) Manufacturing considerations;
(d) Availability;
(e) Cost.
Mechanical properties
Mechanical properties of engineering materials are properties that describe the response of a
material to the application of a force. Factors that serve as indicators of these mechanical
properties are:
The mechanical factors listed above are often dominant performance requirements that
machine (or structural) parts must satisfy. The choice of material from which a machine part
is made must therefore consider the appropriateness of the mechanical properties.
Non-mechanical properties
A number of mechanical properties can be defined precisely, others rather vaguely. The terms
used have developed over a period of many years, during which metal technology has been
advancing. Means are available to quantitatively evaluate many properties, while others are
only evaluated qualitatively ( i.e. relative to the alternative material).
a) Strength is the ability of a material to resist the intensity of applied load or stress. It
may be qualified according to the type of load, as tensile strength, compressive
strength, or shear strength. It varies with the time rate of loading, temperature, and
fluctuations of stress.
c) Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original size and shape after a
deforming force has been removed. Elasticity does not necessarily imply a large
amount of deformation. Soft rubber is elastic, not because it stretches, but because it
returns to its original shape after being deformed. Stiffness and rigidity are related
mechanical properties indicating the ability of the material to resist deflection.
g) Brittleness is the opposite of toughness, and implies that a material will fracture with
no appreciable deformation. Brittle materials exhibit little ductility, because ductility
is one of the indicators of toughness.
It is not possible to predict all the mechanical properties of a metal after measuring only one
or two. Laboratory tests have been developed to study the behaviour of materials under
various types of loads. These tests are classified as either static or dynamic, according to
whether the metal's response to constant or varying load is to be investigated.
Static tests are those in which the load is constant, or slowly and gradually increased. The
assumption is made that at any particular point, conditions are the same as though the
specimens were carrying a constant load of that magnitude. Static tests are:
Engineering stress-strain diagram depicts the variation of stress with strain based on the
original gauge length lo and diameter d o of the specimen.
P l − lo
The stress is then computed as σ = , while the strain is computed as ε = .
Ao lo
Stress σ
Strain Strain
DUCTILE MATERIALS
a) Proportional limit pl identifies region of linear relationship between stress and strain
where stress-strain curve σ = Eε is linear and Hooke’s Law applies
b) Elastic limit el identifies where permanent set starts
c) Yield point S y identifies where large deformation occurs without increase in stress. Some
materials do not show the yield point
d) Point of ultimate tensile strength Sut is the highest stress in the diagram
e) Point of fracture S fracture is the stress and strain at which fracture of the specimen occurs in
the diagram
f) For materials where yield point is not obvious, the offset method is used to identify a
yield stress. A value of 0.2 % of gauge length is often used, implying a strain of 0.002.
a) Brittle material such as cast iron and some high strength steels fracture while the stress
strain curve is still rising
b) The fracture strength and the ultimate tensile strength therefore coincide
c) The plastic deformation represented by percentage elongation and reduction in area at
fracture is much lower for brittle materials
COMPRESSION TEST
This is run in the same general way as a tension test. It is usually limited to those materials
which are primarily loaded in compression, such as concrete and cast iron.
TORSION TEST
One end of the specimen is held in a fixed grip, and the other end is rotated about its own
axis. The measured variables are torque and angular displacement. Stress-strain curves
plotted from these tests are similar to those from tensile tests.
HARDNESS TEST
A number of instruments have been developed for the determination of indentation type
hardness. These are:
a) The Brinnell hardness tester forces a hardened steel or tungsten carbide ball of
specified diameter (10, 5, 2.5, or 1 mm.) into the surface of the specimen by means of
a fixed weight. The Brinell hardness number (BHN) is the weight used, divided by the
area of the hemi-spherical impression. Thus the harder metals have the higher
numbers. In practice, the diameter of the impression is measured and referred to a
table to find the BHN. A 3000 Kg. Load is standard for hard metals and a 500 Kg. for
soft metals.
b) In the Rockwell test, the depth of indentation is measured and a dial records an
arbitrary number which is related inversely to the depth of indentation.
1.854 * W
V .P.N . =
D
Where,
W is the load , and D is the length of the diagonal of the impression
in the plane of the metal , measured in mm.
The hardness values of materials provide a means of determining the relative hardness of the
material. By making hardness measurements over a surface, the uniformity of the sample can
be tested.
In addition, the uniformity of a metallurgical process such as heat treatment can be found by
hardness measurements over the samples.
c) Estimation of Strength
Correlation between hardness and tensile strength shows that hardness values can be used as
a means of approximately predicting the tensile strength of steels.
The hardness test is perhaps one of the most widely used non-destructive methods of testing.
The test is used in all manufacturing operations as a measure of uniformity and quality.
Inspection and control operations in manufacturing often use the hardness test as the most
reliable measure of quality.
Dynamic tests are those in which the load is suddenly applied, or is pulsating. Many machine
parts are subject to such loads and dynamic loads cause the large majority of all failures.
Dynamic loads can also be classified into impact loads and cyclic loads. Impact loads are
cases where the load is applied once but suddenly, while cyclic loads are cases where stresses
are applied repeatedly.
Cyclic stresses can arise from a constant load whose direction of action changes, such as in
the case of a constant load acting on a rotating member.
Past experience is a good guide for the selection of material, but possibilities of applying new
materials should not be ignored. Therefore, consider and exploit past experience, but avoid
enslavement by the past.
In Table 6.1, the various mechanical properties of materials are shown against the indicators
commonly used to measure their values. The indicators are determined from laboratory tests
on specimens.
From Table 6.1, it is seen that the simple tension test provides measures for static strength,
rigidity, and ductility. An indication of toughness is also obtained from the values of strength
and ductility.
The choice of material for part must consider the intended manufacturing method.
6.3.2 Availability
The cost of a machine part is made up of components shown in Table below. The choice of
manufacturing process must therefore consider this cost components of manufacturing:
Cost category Cost components
1 Direct costs Material and direct labour
2 Indirect costs Energy, Water, indirect labour such as supervision and maintenance
3 Overheads Management and management services, Depreciation of assets
Materials for Machine Part Nyangasi
6.4 STEEL AND STEEL STANDARDS
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, in which the carbon content is less than 2.0 %. Other
alloying elements present in steel are:
Sulphur and Phosphorus occur as impurities originating from the ore and refining process.
The choice of steel for a particular application is initially made by choosing the carbon
content. Table 6.3 gives guidelines1 on the carbon content suitable for various common
applications.
After the approximate carbon content of the steel to be used is determined, the decision is
then made whether to use plain carbon steel, or an alloy.
Alloying elements are added to steel to enhance desired properties, and to minimise undesired
properties. Alloys are also added to modify manufacturing processes such as to permit
simpler heat treatment processes. Table 6.4, summarises the effects of various alloying
elements.
1
Shigley, Joseph E., Engineering Design, pp.222., McGraw-Hill Book C0mpany Inc., 1963.
Appendix B shows the applications of various plain and alloy steels from American standard
specifications and their recommended heat treatment. This may be summarised as in Table
6.5 below.
The distinction between plain carbon steels and alloy steels is based on the percentage by
weight of the alloy content. For a single alloy element, the maximum value of alloy content
above which the steel moves from plain to alloy classification are:
However, when more than one alloy element is present simultaneously, then the limiting sum
of the elements content is reduced to 70 % of the sum of the limits for individual alloy
elements.
For example, when Chromium and Nickel are present simultaneously, the limit for
classifying the product as plain is reduced to 70 % of ( 0.3 + 0.3 ), or 0.42 %.
From suppliers who produce steels to various national standards, steel is also classified by
application into categories shown in the Table 6.6 below:
In many national standards, steels for general structural purposes are specified based on the
minimum ultimate tensile strength required.
Table 6.7 shows standard specifications for steels for general structural purposes, according
to four national standards. The grade specification indicates the minimum ultimate tensile
strength allowed. For example, the material with the designation DIN 17000 St 42 is
equivalent to BS 4360 Grade 43A. Both materials are expected to have a minimum ultimate
tensile strength of 410-490 (Average of 420-430) Mpa. The figure 42 or 43 in the designation
St 42 and 43A therefore represents 1/10 of the minimum ultimate tensile strength allowed, in
Mpa.
Table 6.7: National standards for Steels for general structural purposes
Standards Organisation and its Code Tensile Chemical Composition
DIN2 BS3 4360 ASTM4 JIS5 Strength
1700 Grade A283-78 G3101- Mpa C P S
Grade G3125 % % %
St 34 - A283 B SS 34 330-410 <=0.17 <=0.06 <=0.05
St 37 - A283 B - 360-440 <=0.17 <=0.05 <=0.05
St 42 43A A283 B SM 41 410-490 <=0.25 <=0.05 <=0.05
St 50 50C A573Gr70 SM 50 490-590 0.25 <=0.08 <=0.05
St 50-3 - A633GrE SS 33 510-610 <=0.22 <=0.45 <=0.45
St 60 - - - 590-700 0.4 <=0.05 <=0.05
St 70 - -- - 685-830 0.5 <=0.05 <=0.05
2
German Industrial Standards
3
British Standards
4
American Standard for the Testing of Materials
5
Japanese Industrial Standards
This approach is adopted in most national standards for the specification of steels for general
structural purposes. Steels for general structural purposes are plain carbon steels, even though
carbon content is not the primary factor used in their specification.
Steels for general structural purposes are intended to be used without further processing, for
example in building structures.
They are produced by hot rolling into shapes such as bar shapes (round, square, flat, hexagon)
and structural shapes (Tee, Channel, Angle, Wide flange, Zee).
Specification by carbon and alloy content is used for plain carbon and alloy steels for general
engineering purposes in most national standards. These steels are intended for engineering
purposes other than general structural purposes.
The designation of the steel is then based on the carbon content such that the figure
representing the carbon grade is 100 times the carbon content of the steel. For example, plain
carbon steel with carbon content of 0.10 % would be designated as 10.
Table 6.8 shows standard specifications for case hardening steels from four national
standards. The table includes both plain carbon and alloy steels. The material designated as
DIN 17210 C10, and Ck10 are equivalent to BS 970 045A10, and the materials are case
hardening plain carbon steels with 0.10 % carbon content.
Table 6.8: National standards for some case hardening steels for general engineering
Standard Organisation and its standard codes Chemical composition
DIN BS ASTM JIS
17210 970 A576 C Cr Ni Si Mn
A331 % % % % %
C10, G405L
Ck10 1010 510C
045A1 0.07- 0.15- 0.30-
0 0.13 0.35 0.60
C15, 1015 G4051
Ck15 S15C 0.12- 0.15- 0.30-
0.18 0.35 0.60
15Cr3 523A1 0.12- 0.40- - 0.10- 0.30-
4 0.18 0.70 0.40 0.60
5015
16Mn 0.14- 0.80- - 0.15- 1.00-
CrNi5 0.19 1.10 0.40 1.30
17Cr 822A1 0.14- 1.5-1.8 1.4-1.7 0.15- 0.40-
NiMo6 7 0.19 0.40 0.60
For example, the material shown in Table 6.8 as DIN 17210 15Cr3, is equivalent to BS 970
523A14. Both materials are expected to have a carbon content of 0.14 - 0.15 %. This part of
the specification is the same as that for plain carbon steels.
Table 6.9: National standards for some heat treatable steels for general engineering
Standard Organisation and its codes Chemical composition
DIN BS 970 ASTM JIS C Cr Ni Mo Si Mn
17200 Part A576 G4051 % % % % % %
17210 2&3 A331 G4106
17211
Ck22 040A20 1020 S20C 0.18-.25 - - - 0.15-.35 0.30-.60
Ck35 080A35 1035 S35C 0.32-39 - - - 0.15-.35 0.50-.80
Ck45 080M4 1045 S45C 0.42-.50 - - - 0.15-.35 0.50-.80
6
34Cr4 530A36 5135 SCr435 0.30-.37 0.90-1.2 - - 0.15-.40 0.60-.90
34Mn4
41Cr4 530A40 - SCr445 0.38-.45 0.90-1.2 - - 0.15-.40 0.50-.80
42CrM 708M4 4140 SCM44 0.38-.45 0.90-1.2 - 0.15-.30 0.15-.40 0.50-.80
o4 0 0
50CrM - 4150 SCM44 0.46-.54 0.90-1.2 - 0.15-.30 0.15-.40 0.50-.80
o4 5
30CrNi 823M3 - - 0.26-.33 1.80-2.2 1.80-2.2 0.30-.50 0.15-.40 0.30-.60
Mo8 0
To specify the content of the Chromium alloying element, the DIN standard designates the
material as Cr3. The figure 3 represents the alloy content multiplied by a factor of 4. This
means that the actual content of the Chromium alloying element is 3/4 %, or 0.75 %. The
material therefore is an alloy steel with:
For the BS specification, the alloy content is not readily determined from the numbering in
the designation.
The steels shown in Tables 6.8 and 6.9 are intended for use in machine parts. Carbon and
alloy content, as well as heat treatment, if any, are therefore selected to achieve desired
mechanical properties such as strength and hardness. At the same time, efforts are made to
keep undesired properties such as brittleness to their minimum values.
When selecting a starting material for a particular application, it is necessary to correlate the
desired properties of strength and hardness with the carbon and alloy content, as well as to
identify these with a particular material from a national standard specification. Appendix A
provides guidelines for selecting material specification that will provide the desired
properties of strength, hardness and ductility.
University of Nairobi Page 11 of 20
Materials for Machine Part Nyangasi
Table 6.10 shows specifications for steel plates for boilers and pressure vessels from four
national standards. These are specified with minimum tensile strength at specified
temperatures. These requirements are achieved by combination of low carbon and specified
content of alloying elements. The alloy elements used are Chromium, Nickel, Molybdenum,
and Manganese.
Table 6.10: National standards for some Steel plates for boilers and pressure vessels
Standard Organisation and its codes Tensile Chemical composition
DIN BS ASTM JIS strengt C Mn Mo Cr Ni
17006 1501 A 285 G 3115 h % % % % %
Part A 516 G3116 UTS
1&2 A 387 G 4109 Mpa
HI 141 Gr B - 340 <=0.16 <=0.40 <=0.10 <=0.30 <=0.30
HII Gr26C1 Gr 60 5PV 24 400 <=0.20 <=0.50 <=0.10 <=0.30 <=0.30
.1
HIII 161 Gr 65 SG 30 430 <=0.22 <=0.55 <=0.10 <=0.30 <=0.30
HIV 211 460 <=0.26 <=0.60 <=0.10 <=0.30 <=0.30
17Mn4 213 460 0.14-.20 0.90-1.2 <=0.10 <=0.30 <=0.30
Tool steels are therefore primarily high carbon steels in the range of 0.6 to 1.9 % carbon.
Some tool steels are therefore plain carbon, while the majority are alloy steels. For example,
the material designated BS 4659 BW1 (A-C) is a plain carbon steel, while BS 4659 BW2
includes a small percentage of Vanadium.
Vanadium and Tungsten serve to increase the hardness. Other alloys such as Chromium and
Nickel modify properties such as strength, ductility toughness, and response to heat
treatment,
6
Extracted from KSB Etanorm Product Sheet
Heat treatment given to steel may be roughly classified into non-quenching and quenching
types:
These types of heat treatment are usually applied as preliminary or intermediate treatments
used to condition the steel for further processing and heat treating. They include:
This is performed to relieve stresses caused by cold working. Process consists of heating
to just below the critical temperature, followed by cooling slowly, usually in air. Stresses
relieved include those caused by straightening and machining.
(2) Annealing
This is an intermediate process used to reduce the hardness caused by casting and forging
steels above 0.35 % carbon, so that the parts may thereafter be machined. The process
consists of heating the steel above the critical temperature followed by cooling slowly in a
furnace.
This is applied in parts that have been rolled, or forged, to refine the grain structure so
that it may subsequently respond uniformly to heat treatment. The process consists of
heating the steel to above the critical temperature and cooling in still air.
(b) Quenching
Quenching types of heat treatment is given to steel to impart the final physical properties
desired for the part. The heat treatment types include:
This is the most common heat treatment of steel, and involves heating the part to above
the critical temperature, followed by quenching and tempering.
(2) Tempering
Tempering consists of re-heating the steel to a temperature below the critical point and
then cooling it at a pre-determined rate. The purpose is to reduce or draw back the as
quenched hardness.
This involves hardening the surface layer of the part by the addition of carbon or nitrogen.
After the addition of carbon, the part is then heated to above the critical temperature and
then quenched. The purpose is to create a hard case on the part A hardened case of depth
ranging from 0.25 to 2.5 mm. can be produced in this way.
This is a form of case hardening, but in which the surface of the steel is heated directly to
a point above the critical temperature and then quenched. It is usually performed on steels
with a sufficiently high carbon content such as 0.30 % carbon and above. The steel is
therefore able to respond to heating and quenching without the preliminary procedure of
addition of carbon used in case hardening.
All the three forms of cast iron are alloys of iron and carbon, with carbon content by weight
ranging from 2 % to 4 %. Cast irons also contain a high amount of silicon, often in excess of
1 %. Other elements that occur in small quantities ( often less than 1 %) are Sulphur,
Manganese, and Phosphorus.
Grey cast iron is obtained when casting conditions combine with the chemical composition to
yield a product in which the carbon occurs in the form of flakes of graphite. These thin flakes
of graphite are distributed evenly through the ferrite and cause the appearance of the micro-
structure to darken, hence the name grey cast iron.
Grey cast iron is widely used. In most national standards, it is classified according to its
tensile strength, as shown in Table 6.2 with the example from British Standard specifications.
Table 6.2:Mechanical properties of grey cast iron (Tensile strength corresponds to the
BS Grade)
Other national standards apply a classification scheme similiar to that shown in Table 6.2. For
example, grey cast iron Grade FG 150 in the Indian standards is equivalent to Grade 150 in
the British standards.
(i) Availability;
(ii) Low cost for volume production;
(iii) Amenability to production of complex shapes, thereby reducing the requirements for
machining operations;
(iv) High compressive strength compared to steel. Therefore preferred for compressive
loading situations;
(v) Ability to damp vibrations;
(vi) Resistance to wear;
(vii) Resistance to corrosion (relative to untreated steel).
(c) Applications
(i) Machine tool beds, frames, guides, pulleys, hydraulic cylinders e.t.c;
(ii) I.C. Engine parts, such as cylinder blocks, cylinder heads, crank-cases, exhaust
manifolds, e.t.c;
(iii) Flywheels, brake drums, brake shoes e.t.c;
(iv) Hydraulic pipes, pipe fittings, valve bodies e.t.c.
White cast iron is a product in which the carbon is combined with iron to form Cementite ( a
compound of iron Fe, and carbon C), with no free graphite present. The product is obtained
by a specified combination of casting process, and chemical composition of the melt.
Cementite is very hard, and white cast iron therefore also displays this property. White cast
iron is therefore very hard, brittle, and difficult to machine.
Malleable cast iron is obtained, when white cast iron, within a certain composition range, is
annealed. The annealing process breaks down the Cementite, and frees the carbon from the
Cementite. The free carbon then reconstitutes itself into graphite. However, instead of the
free graphite taking the form of flakes, as in grey cast iron, the annealing process causes it to
form rosettes of free graphite.
This transformation of graphite into form of rosettes changes the properties of the resultant
material from hard and brittle, to softer and ductile. The tensile strength of the material is also
increased.
Malleable iron therefore has properties somewhat similar to low carbon steel, but with the
added advantage of easier casting. The significant properties are the combination of ductility,
strength, and castability.
The heat treatment process required to transform white cast iron, into malleable iron is
however long, taking a period of days. The product is therefore expensive to produce.
The microstructure of Ductile iron is similar to that of malleable iron, to the extent that it also
contains free graphite, although in nodular form. The material is therefore sometimes referred
to as nodular iron.
The difference between malleable and ductile iron is in the process of production. Instead of
the lengthy and expensive heat treatment given to white cast iron to yield malleable iron,
ductile iron is produced in the as cast condition, and thereafter it is given a simpler heat
treatment of 1 hour annealing.
The transformation of free graphite from flakes to nodules is achieved by innoculating the
cast iron melt with cesium and magnesium. These additives cause the carbon in the melt to
form nodules of free graphite during cooling and solidification.
Ductile iron, in the as cast condition, therefore exhibits properties similiar to malleable iron,
after it is given a simpler heat treatment of 1 hour annealing.
References
7
Shigley, Joseph E., Mechanical Engineering Design, pp. 664, McGraw-Hill Inc., 1986
8
British Standards Institution, BS 970: Part 1: 1983
9
HR-Hot rolled and normalised
10
CD-Cold drawn
11
H&T-Hardened and tempered
12
pp. 10, ASME Handbook, Metals Engineering-Processes, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1958