Intercultural Communication

Lecture 1
Exam – 50%
Individual portfolio assignment – 50%
Intercultural communication can run smooth but also stormy. If you understand each other and you
know the expectations of one another culture it can go smooth, but it can stormy when there is a lot
of differences in the communication and you do not understand each other.

Power distance – there is a difference in who has more power and who doesn’t. A manager is seen as
higher than a car driver.

Communication: sending and receiving messages. We always think that what we send is received the
same way, but with people with different backgrounds this is not always the case.

Going global has potential problems such as challenges US and European senior executives say they
face when managing across different countries: accounting and tax differences, labor law differences,
headquarters are too remote, business practices are different but,

Cultural differences are the hardest challenges

Surface Culture – music, art, food, architecture

Anthropological Culture – Hofstede: Collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the
members of one human group from another.

…. Culture in this sense, include systems of values and values are among the building blocks of culture.

Human mind program by heredity and experience on three levels

You cannot blame everything on culture, people are also human.

- Individual: Inherited, learned/ Personality, some people like soccer, some like books and so
on.
- Collective by group: Learned/ Culture, how you eat (fork & knife)
- Common to all mankind : Inherited/ human nature, we all need to eat.

Cultural Programming –

Culture is like a pair of glasses that shows you what is right or wrong, what is normal or abnormal. It
can also lead to misunderstandings because of cultural differences.

What is Culture?

Is an accumulated pattern of values, beliefs and behaviors, shared by an identifiable groups of people
with a common history and verbal and nonverbal symbol systems.
Values broad preferences for one state of affairs over others to which strong emotions are attached.

Evil versus Good

Irrational versus Rational

Forbidden versus Permitted

Dangerous versus Safe

Micro-cultural groups (subgroups) groups within groups.

Benefits of Intercultural Communication

1. Healthier communities
2. Increased commerce
3. Reduced conflict
4. Personal growth through respect

Lecture 2

Cultural Dimensions

High and Low context

Way how people communicate:

- Culture (dimensions)
- Physical environment (office, church)
- Social relationship (superior/ subordinate, friend or parent)
- Perceptual (attitudes/ emotions)

High context:

- Do not say much words but focuses more on nonverbal communication.

- Collectivism
- You understand someone without needing much words
- Silence is a very comfortable situation.
- Cannot separate the person from the situation

Example: Japanese tea ceremony. No talking but a lot of gestures that have meaning.

Low context:

- Focuses more on verbal communication

- Individualistic
- Need to have more words to understand someone. For example in the Netherlands making an
appointment it is set in stone.
- Silence is very uncomfortable situation
- Separating the issue you talk about from the person you talk to. For example with a
disagreement.
 Example: a computer only understands the command you give him. If you type a the computer
shows you a.

Power Distance

Low power distance:

- Do not really see their managers or bosses higher than them

- There is equality even if you’re a boss, teacher or student
- Power and wealth is seen as you earned it and for that people have respect, but not really if
you inherited it.

High power distance:

- Do see themselves lower than their bosses, teachers or managers.

- Inequality because of different status
- Having respect for those who are superior is needed
- Differences because of power and wealth

Uncertainty Avoidance

High uncertainty avoidance:

- People do not like uncertainty and try to avoid it

- People get very anxious with unpredictable situations

Low uncertainty avoidance:

- People do not mind situations that are uncertain or unpredictable

- Become active with unpredictable situations and want to solve them or do something with it.
- More flexible

Alcohol consumption relieves stress that helps them to be more secure with unpredictable clothing.

Designer clothing because in some cultures better overdressed than to be underdressed

Expertise, it is important that you have your official and academic titles. Some cultures create more
value for people with those titles than people who do not have those.

Collectivism vs Individualism

Collectivism:

- Strong in groups and group loyalty

- The groups values are more important than your individual’s.
- Group harmony is very important
- Interdependence (shared responsibility)
- As an individual you are seen first as part of a group than an individual

Examples: Greece, most of Africa, Asia and Latin America. (often warmer climates, because they are
more outside so they see each other more and economically less developed countries there is a
tendency to help each other out).
Individualism:

- More self-sufficient. Those people do not like to borrow things from other people. They like
to be self sufficient
- Individuals values are more important
- Nuclear family is the most important, so your mother, father and siblings
- They have to stand up for yourself in a way that people hear you

Examples: USA, Canada, Germany, Switzerland, England, The Netherlands. (Modern, fast-
changing cultures, economically advantaged and colder climates).

Communication:

Collectivistic – more guided by the group and focuses more on cooperation.

Individualistic – more guided by the individual and focuses more on competition

Lecture 3:

Perceptual context

The mental interpretation of external stimuli via sensation

Perception

1. Selection of stimuli: direct focusing on an object

2. Organization: categorizing perception based on coding from a cultural perspective
3. Interpretation: attaching meaning to sense data. As you encounter people from your culture,
you make judgments, but these same judgments may not work with someone from another
culture.

Each step is affected by your culture

Sensation: gathering of visual (eyes) , auditory (hearing) , olfactic (nose) and taste stimuli/ information.

Perceptual filters: physiological, sociological and psychological processes that screen and bias incoming
stimuli.

Carpentered-world hypothesis: learned tendency of those living in industrialized cultures to interpret

nonrectangular figures as rectangles in perspective.

Categorization

- People put information into boxes to sort, classify and arrange information in order to process
it quickly and easily (mental economy)
- The process is universal and probably impossible to get rid of it
- Categories are often based on difference
- People have trouble seeing each other as individuals or as part of one whole
- Not necessarily a bad thing: it can reduce uncertainty and aide recall or information
- But it plays a role in the development of bias and discrimination.

Categories are based on perceived differences for example: race, language or how people dress.
Stereotypes

- They can be positive or negative judgements made about people based on (observable or
believed) group membership (labeling)
- Universal and automatic activity
- Stereotypes are not necessarily incorrect and are not set in stone.
- Can be based on regions in the world or regions in their country, but as well gender, race,
occupation.

Why?

- Mental economy/ categorization

- Outgroup homogeneity effect: we tend to see others as less diverse, part of a similar group
- Illusory Correlation Principe: illusion that a correlation always exists. One person’s behavior
represents all – for example gypsies and crime. Not all gypsies are in crime, but people think
that
- Stereotypes are often maintained by dominant groups, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy. To
make them feel better.
- Stereotypes can also be maintained by stereotype threat: when members of a stereotypes
group start to believe the stereotype.

Stereotypes influences expectation for example French always drink wine and cheese.

The danger of stereotypes: prejudice (pre judge)

- Pre-judging someone before having fact or evidence

- Stereotyping/ categorization can lead to prejudice = negative attitudes/ feelings towards
people based on stereotypes
- Mainly thought of feeling which could lead to discriminating behavior when the person takes
action

Discrimination

- An action or observable behavior of treating people differently based on your prejudice

- Can be conscious (you know that you do it) or unconscious (you are not aware of it)
- Based on race, gender, religion age, appearance, sexual orientation

Racism

- Discrimination based on perceived race. It is a form of discrimination but it is based on race.

- One racial group is superior than others.

Ethnocentrism

- You view that your culture and views are better than the ones around you. Your culture is
normal and sometimes more superior than those of others.
- Something we all do to a certain extend. Not necessarily a negative thing but can be.

Relationship of ethnocentrism and racism

- Unlikely to be racist and not ethnocentric

- Possible to be ethnocentric and not racist
- Ethnocentrism is considered that you are born with
- Racism is considered learned.
 Social relational context

Reference group: A group to which a person may or may not belong but with which the person
identifies in some way in terms of values and goals.

Role: One’s relative hierarchical position or rank in a group. A role is prescribed set of behaviors that
is expected to fulfill the role. Roles prescribe with whom, about what, and how to interact.

Formal roles: well-defined and often contractual, behavioral expectations associated with them. E.g.
president of your college and the president of another college are likely to have the same sets of
behaviors.

Informal roles: are learned informally and are much less explicit than formal roles. E.g. brother and
sisters can have different roles in other families.

Social identity: the total combination of one’s group roles; a part of the individual’s self-concept that
is derived from the person’s membership groups.

Social stratification: A culture’s organization of roles into a hierarchical vertical status structure.

Role Differentiation: A undifferentiated culture might distinguish among only a few roles, such as
family, social and occupational roles. A highly differentiated culture make numerous role distinctions
from corporate: such as owners, vice president, managers, to religious: Islamic, Christianity,
Educational roles: teachers, principals, Military roles: general, colonel.

Sex and Gender groups

1. Sex role: a prescribed set of behaviors assigned to different sexes

2. Sex: A designation of people based on biological genital differences
3. Gender: A socially constructed and learned creation usually associated with one’s sex;
masculinity and femininity. People are born into a sex group but learn to become masculine
or feminine. The meaning of gender stems from the particular culture’s value system.

Lecture 4

Nonverbal communication

Many scientists believe that our verbal communication is evolved from the nonverbal communication
of animals.

Many unconscious behaviors such as the expression of emotions are universal. People from different
cultures express anger, happiness or fear the same way. But there are other forms of nonverbal
communication among different cultures that are expressed or done differently, such as gestures. The
forms of nonverbal communication that are done differently in other cultures are called the channels
of nonverbal communication. These are: kinesics, oculesics, proxemics, haptics, paralanguage, olfactics
and physical appearance.

Sometimes our nonverbal behaviors violate others expectancies for example some cultures like their
personal space than other cultures or in some cultures subordinates do not make eye contact with
their superiors. The violation can be seen positively or negatively. This depends on the person who
makes the violation.
Digital communication: Verbal communication

Analogic communication: Nonverbal communication

Denotative meaning: the literal meaning of a word that is written in a dictionary

People violate nonverbal expectations

Cultures differ in repertoire of behaviors: nonverbal; behavior is specific to certain culture (shoulder
shrugging is hardly used in Asia)

Display rules: when and in what context is certain nonverbal behavior required/ permitted/ preferred/
prohibited (example: Arab men kiss as a greeting, Japanese bow, other shake hands)

Meaning of particular nonverbal behavior differs from culture to culture (for example, smiling at
stranger for some cultures normal, in Asia perceived as odd)

Functions of nonverbal communication

- It can complement, repeat or accent the verbal message.

- It can substitute verbal messages
- It can even contradict a verbal message
-

Channels of nonverbal communication

Kinesics – General category of body motion, including emblems, illustrators, affect displays, and
adaptors

Emblems: primarily hand gestures that have a direct verbal translation; can be used to repeat or to
substitute for verbal communication

Illustrators: primarily hand and arm movements that function to accent or complement speech

Affect displays: nonverbal presentations of emotion, primarily communicated through facial

expressions.

Regulators - Nonverbal acts that manage and govern communication between people, such as stance,
distance, and eye contact.

Adaptors: mostly unconscious nonverbal actions that satisfy physiological needs, such as scratching an
itch

Oculesics – the study of eye contact

Paralanguage – characteristics of the voice, such as pitch, rhythm, intensity, volume and rate

Proxemics – the perception and use of space, including territoriality and personal space

Haptics – the use of touch and physical contact between interactants

Olfactics – the perception and use of smell, scent and odor

Physical appearance and dress – the way you dress (clothing). For example in India a sari and in Japan
a kimono

Chronemics – the use of time (timing)

Polychronic vs Monochronic

Polychronic

More focused on the present

Not clock bound

Lateness

Ad-hoc planning

Monochronic

Time in blocks, one thing at the time

Time in linear progression (past to future)

Time is tangible, precise

Punctuality

Focused on schedules

Nonverbal expectancy violations theory

The theory that posits that people hold expectations about the nonverbal behavior of other. When
these expectation are violated, people evaluate the violation positively or negatively. This depends on
the source (the person who violated) of the violation.

Lecture 5

The structure of human language

Language: systematic sets of sounds, combined with sets of rules, for the sole purpose of
communicating.

Sounds of Symbols

Phonemes: smallest units of sound, as in consonants or vowels

Morphemes: smallest meaningful units of sound; combinations of phonemes.

Syntax and Universal Grammar

Syntax: through syntax, sound and meaning are connected. Because of syntax sentences are made.

Universal grammar: the idea that all languages share a common rule structure or grammar that is
innate to human beings, regardless of culture.
Generative Grammar

The idea that finite set of rules, a speaker of any language can create or generate an infinite number
of sentences, many of which have never before been uttered.

Elaborated and Restricted codes

Restricted code: A cultural context wherein the speakers of a language are limited as to what they can
say or do verbally; a status-oriented system. More in high context cultures.

Elaborated code: A cultural context in which the speakers of a language have a variety of linguistic
options open to them to explicitly communicate their intent via verbal messages. More in low context
cultures.

Cross-Cultural Communication styles

Direct style: Manner of speaking in which one employs over expressions of intention

Indirect style: Manner of speaking in which the intentions of the speakers are hidden or only hinted at
during interaction

Elaborate style: Mode of speaking that emphasizes rich, expressive language

Exacting style: Manner of speaking in which persons say no more or less than needed to communicate
a point.

Succinct style: Manner of concise speaking often accompanied by silence

Personal and Contextual Styles

Personal style: Manner of speaking that relies on the use of personal pronouns and stresses informality
and symmetrical power relationship

Contextual style: Role-centered mode of speaking in which one’s choice of messages is influenced by
one’s relative status in the conversation.

Instrumental and Affective Styles

Instrumental style: Sender-focused manner of speaking that is goal and outcome oriented.
Instrumental speakers use communication to achieve some goal or purpose.

Affective style: Communication manner in which the process of interaction is emphasized, placing the
burden of understanding on both the speaker and the listener; relies heavily on nonverbal cues.

Lecture 6

The concept of face, facework, and communication conflict styles.

Intercultural Conflict:

- Is inevitable
- Occurs when cultural group membership affects the way individuals approach, avoid and
manage interpersonal communication and conflict
- Usually involves a certain amount of ethnocentric perceptions.
 - Refers to misunderstandings that result from different communication styles. E.g.
Individualistic countries are more direct or low context.

Emotional struggle, frustration or mismatched expectations between individuals from different

cultures who, during an intercultural exchange, perceive an incompatibility between their:

- Values
- Situational Norms
- Goals
- Face orientations
- Resources
- Outcomes

Kim’s Model Intercultural Conflict occurs on 3 levels:

Macro level: History of subjugation, Ideological or structural inequalities, minority group strength.

Intermediary level: Segregation/ contact, intergroup salience, status discrepancy

Micro level: cognitive simplicity and rigidity, in-group bias, insecurity.

Concept of Face

Face: A person’s sense of favorable self-worth or self-image experienced during communicative

situations. Face is an emotional extension of the self-concept. It is considered a universal concept.

Self-Face: The concern for one’s own image during communication, especially during conflict.

Other-face: Concern for another’s image during communication, especially conflict.

Mutual face: Concern for both parties’ images or the image of the relationship during communication,
especially conflict.

Facework

Facework: Communicative strategies employed to manage one’s own face or to support or challenge
another’s facer self-face

Dominating facework: Communicative behaviors charactered by an individual’s need to control the

situation and defend his or her self-face.

Avoiding facework: Communicative behaviors that focus on an attempt to save the face of the other
person during communication or conflict.

Integrating facework: Communicative behaviors that allow for the shared concern for self- and other-
face and strive for closure during communication conflict.

Resolving Cross-Cultural Conflict: A Contingency Model

There are several communication strategies one can use when addressing cross-cultural conflicts.
These include:

1. Avoiding: The person using an avoiding style to manage conflict ignores both self-face need
and other- face need. This person might keep the conflict to himself or herself and not discuss
 it. Often, persons with little power or influence choose to avoid addressing conflict. Avoiding
may an effective strategy if one needs to do more research on the topic of conflict.
2. Forcing: A forcing strategy to resolve conflict is used when one coerces another into
compliance. Forcing eliminates choice and is often used by persons who possess power over
others.
3. Education/ Persuasion: This strategy to resolve conflict is defined by one’s use of information,
logic, or emotional appeals to influence another.
4. Infiltration: With this strategy to manage conflict, one introduces his or her value orientation,
hoping that the opposing party will see the value and adopt it.
5. Negotiation/ Comprise: Using this strategy to manage conflict, both parties give up something.
Often with compromise neither party is completely satisfied with the outcome.
6. Accommodation: With this conflict-resolution strategy, one of the conflicting parties simply
adopts or cooperates with the position of the opposition. This is the ‘When In Rome, do as the
Romans do’ strategy.
7. Collaboration/ Problem-solving: With this conflict-resolution approach, the conflicting parties
work together to find a mutually agreeable solution in which each party accomplishes is or her
goal without compromise. This is the win-win strategy.

Acculturation, Culture Shock, and Intercultural Competence

Acculturation: The process of cultural change that results from ongoing contact between two or more
culturally different groups.

Culture shock: The effects associated with the tension and anxiety of entering a new culture, combined
with the sensations of loss, confusion, and powerlessness resulting from the forfeiture of cultural
norms and social rituals.

Acculturative stress: The degree of physical and psychological stress persons experience when they
enter a culture different from their own as a result of the adaptation required to function in a new and
different cultural context.

Four modes of acculturation:

1. Assimilation: The degree to which an individual takes on the behaviors and language habits
and practices the basic rules and norms of the host culture while giving up the ties with the
native culture.
2. Integration: Mode of acculturation in which the individuals develops a kind of bicultural
orientation that successfully blends an synthesizes cultural dimensions from both groups while
maintaining an identity in each group.
3. Separation: A mode of acculturation in which individuals prefer low levels of interaction with
their host culture while maintaining a close connection with their native culture.
4. Marginalization: A mode of acculturation in which an individual chooses not to identify with
his or her native culture or with the host culture.
5. Cultural Transmutation: Mode of acculturation in which the individual chooses to identify with
a third cultural group (microculture) that materializes out of the native and host cultural
groups.

Stages of Culture Shock:

- Tourist Phase: Interest in Culture, Honeymoon, Positive reaction to stress, Euphoria,
Photographs.
- Culture Shock: Confusion, Frustration, Preoccupation with cleanliness, Lack of Control, Fatigue,
Stress/ Anxiety, Depression, Paranoia.
- Adjustment: Problem-Solving skills, Conflict Resolution, Appreciation of Host Culture,
Intercultural Relationships.
- Adaptation/ Acculturation: Bicultural Identity, Constructive Responses, Stable Adaptations,
Personal Growth.

Adjustment phase: Third stage of culture shock, in which people actively seek out effective
problem-solving and conflict-resolution strategies.

Reentry Shock: The effects associated with the tension and anxiety of returning to one’s native
culture after an extended stay in a foreign culture.

Knowledge Component: The extent of one’s awareness of another culture’s values and so forth;
also, the extent to which one is cognitively simple, rigid, and ethnocentric.

Affective Component: Approach-avoidance tendencies during intercultural communication: the

extent to which one experiences intercultural communication apprehension and one’s willingness
to communicate.

Intercultural willingness to communicate: Predisposition to initiate intercultural interaction with

persons from different cultures, even when completely free to choose whether or not to
communicate.

Psychomotor component: The extent to which one can translate cultural knowledge into verbal
and nonverbal performance and role enactment.

Situational features: The extent to which the environmental context, previous contact, status
differential, and third-party intervention affect one’s competence during intercultural
communication.