THE DYNAMIC EARTH

INITIAL STATE- A HOMOGENOUS CONGLOMERATION

 About 4.7 billion years ago, the initial earth is a group of Si
compounds and Fe and Mg oxides and smaller amounts of natural
chemical element. Because of this, plus gravity compression and
spontaneous breakdown of the radioelements (e.g. U, TH, K), the
Earth’s interior heated up for billions of years.
THE EARTH HEATS UP- THE FE CATASTROPHE AND PLANETARY DIFFERENTIATION
 Radioactive heat was generated more rapidly than it could flow
away and the temperature at the depths of 400- 800 km was enough
to melt F. Since Fe is a heavy mineral, large drops of it have
fallen towards the center, displacing the lighter minerals. About
1/3 of the material sank to the center, a large part being
converted to a molten state. The molten material, being lighter
than the parent material from which it separated, floated upward
to cool and form a primitive crust.
 Such differentiation resulted in the Earth’s internal layering,
with a dense iron core, a superficial crust composed of lighter
materials with lower melting points and, between them the
remaining mantle.
 Differentiation probably initiated the escape of gases from the
interior which eventually led to the formation of the atmosphere
and oceans, and ultimately, life.
CONVECTIVE OVERTURN AND CHEMICAL ZONATION
 When the Earth’s interior become soft and/or molten, which the
hotter material expands, become lighter and floats carrying its
heat in the surface. There the hot material cools and sinks
again.
 The heat dissipated rapidly causing the planet to cool. The
mantle solidified and still in the process of convection, though
at a very slow rate, but the outer core remains molten, since it
takes more than billions of years to be cooled off.
 The convection overturn also caused a chemically zoned Earth:
o Surface- Ca, Na and K which have low melting points (700-
1000C)
o Mantle- Mg and Fe which have high melting points (1000C-
1500C)
o Crust- oxides and silicate compounds of U and Th.
 Relative abundance of elements in whole Earth:
o Iron (Fe)- 35%
o Oxygen (O)- 30%
o Silicon (Si)- 15%
o Magnesium (Mg)- 13%
o Nickel (Ni)- 2.4%
o Sulfur (S)- 1.9%
o Calcium (Ca)- 1.1%
o Aluminum (Al)- 1.1%
o Others- less than 1%
 Relative abundance of elements in Earth’s crust
o Oxygen (O)- 46%
o Silicon (Si)- 28%
o Aluminum (Al)- 8%
o Iron (Fe)- 6%
 o Magnesium (Mg)- 4%
o Calcium (Ca)- 2.4%
o Potassium (K)- 2.3%
o Sodium (Na)- 2.1%
o Others- less than 1%
THE MAJOR STRUCTURAL UNITS OF EARTH
 Earth is a changed planet where constituent materials are
separated and segregated into layers according to density. The
denser materials are concentrated near the center while the less
dense near the surface.
LAYERS BASED ON COMPOSITION
 Crust
o Outermost layer of the Earth.
o Crust of continents is different from the crust beneath the
ocean basins.
 Continental crust – it is more thicker (50 km thick)
,composed of relatively light "granitic" rocks that
includes the oldest rock of the crust, generally
richer in Na and K and its thickness ranges from 30-80
km, sometimes attaining 100 km in some portions.
 Ocean crust
 Only about 8 km thick,
 Composed of dark, dense volcanic rocks (basalt)
with gravities much greater than granite,
 Also Fe-rich than continental crust
 Thinner ranging from 3-10 km thickness,
 Young and relatively undeformed by folding
 Mantle
 Surrounds or cover the core, constitutes the great
bulk of Earth (82% of it volume and 68%) and composed
of iron and magnesium silicate rock.
 The Core
Central mass about 7000 km in diameter, mostly iron,
density increases with depth but averages about 10.78
g/ cm3 and constitutes only 16% of Earth’s volume but
accounts for 32% of Earth’s volume
INTERNAL LAYERS BASED ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Lithosphere
o Strong rigid outer layer consisting of the crust and a
portion of the upper mantle
 Asthenosphere
o The “weak sphere”, major zone within upper mantle where
temperature and pressure are at just right balance so that
part of the material melts, rocks lose much of their
strength, becoming soft plastic and flowing like warm tar
and distinctive zone in the upper mantle and is as much as
200 km thick
 Mesosphere
o it is the region between asthenosphere and the core-mantle
and the rock below the asthenosphere is stronger and more
rigid because of the high pressure at this depth offsets
the effect of high temperature and it is the region between
asthenosphere and the core-mantle.
  The Core
o Marks a change in both physical properties and composition
,composed mostly iron and as two distinct parts – solid
inner core and a liquid outer core/
EARTH’S OUTER LAYERS
 Atmosphere
It is an envelope of gas surrounding the Earth, constitutes an
insignificantly small fraction of Earth (less than 0.01%), but
significant because it plays a part in the evolution of the most
features of the landscape and is essential to life. It is in constant
motion, composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and minor amounts of
other gases and divided into several layers:
1. Troposphere
a. From the Greek word tropos which means turn or change, the
part closest to the Earth, extends from the surface to a
height of about 13 km, contains almost all the water vapor
and nearly all clouds, storms and precipitation
2. Stratosphere
a. An overlying layer, extends to about 55 km above the
surface, and contains the ozone layer which absorbs much of
the sun’s stronger ultraviolet rays.
 Biosphere
Part of the Earth where life exists, includes the forests,
grasslands and familiar animals of the land, consists more that 1.5
million described species and perhaps as many as 3 million not yet
described, most of the biosphere exists in a narrow zone extending
from the depth to which sunlight penetrates the ocean to the snowline
in the tropical and sub-tropical mountain ranges, relatively small
compared with other major layers of Earth, has been a major geologic
force operating the surface.
THE CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS
 Ocean Basins
Occupy about 2/3 of Earth’s surface and characterized by a
spectacular topography, most of which originated from extensive
volcanic activity and Earth movements that continue today.
 Continents
o Rise above the ocean basins as large platforms
o Continental rocks are less dense than the rocks of the
ocean basins.
Major features:
 Most are roughly triangular in shape
 Concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere
 Have three basic components a.) a shield b.) a stable platform
c.) folded mountains
 Geologic differences between continents are mostly in size, shape
and proportions of these components
 Consists of rock that is less dense than the rock in ocean basins
 Continental rocks are old, some as old as 3.8 billion years
 The climate zone usually determines the style and variety of
landforms developed on it.
 Cratons- extensive flat, stable regions of the continents in
which complex crystalline rocks are exposed or buried beneath a
relatively thin sedimentary cover
  Cratons includes the shield, where large areas of highly deformed
igneous and metamorphic rocks, the basement complex are exposed.
The stable platforms are those regions of the craton where the
basement rocks are covered with a relatively thin veneer of
sedimentary rocks.
Shields
 Regional surface of low relief (resistant rocks that rise 50-100
m above their surroundings) that generally has an elevation
within a few hundred meters of sea level.
 Second characteristic is their complex structure and rock types-
all rocks are crystalline and were formed several kilometers
below surface.
Stable Platforms
 Large parts of cratons that are covered with a veneer of
sedimentary rocks
 Relatively stable throughout the last 600 million or 7 million
years
 They have not been uplifted a great distance above sea level or
submerged far below it
Folded Mountains
 One of the most significant features of the continents that
typically occur along their margins
 Mountain belt- a long, linear zone in Earth’s crust where the
rocks have been intensely deformed by horizontal stresses and
generally intruded by molten rock material.
MAJOR FEATURES OF THE OCEAN FLOOR
 Ocean crust
o Mostly basalt
o Dense volcanic rock
o Its major topographic features are somehow related to
volcanic activity
o Different form continental crust
 Rocks
o young in geologic time frame
o most are less than 150 million years ago
o have not been deformed by compressions
o undeformed structure is in marked contrast to the complex
deformation of rocks in the folded mountains and basements
of the continents
o the major provinces of the ocean floor are:
The Oceanic Ridge
 Most striking and important feature on the ocean floor
 Extends from the Arctic basin down the center of the Atlantic
Ocean, into the Indian Ocean and across the South Pacific
 Essentially a broad, fractured swell generally more than 1400 km
wide
 Higher peaks rise as much as 3000 km above ocean floor
The Abyssal Floor
 Vast areas of broad, relatively smooth, deep-ocean basins
 Extends from the flanks of the oceanic ridge to the continental
margins and generally lies at depths of 4000 m.
 Subdivided into two sections:
Abyssal hills
 a. Small hills, rising as much as 900 m above the surrounding
ocean floor
b. Cover from 80-85% of the Pacific sea floor
c. Most widespread landforms on Earth
Abyssal Plain
a. Forms near the continental margins where land-derived
sediment completely covers the abyssal hills
 Seamounts
 Isolated peaks of submarine volcanoes
 Some rise above sea level and form islands
 Most are completely submerged and are known only
form oceanographic surroundings
 Trenches
 Lowest areas on Earth’s surface.
 Invariably adjacent to island arcs or coastal
ranges of the continents
 Example is the Mariana Trench in the Pacific
Ocean (11,000 km below sea level)
 Continental Margins
 Zone of transition between a continental mass and
an ocean basin
 Continental Shelf
o Submerged part of the continent
o Part of the continent
o Constitute 11% of the continental surface
 Continental Slope
o Formed when the sea floor descends in a
long, continuous slope from the outer edge
of continental shelf to the deep-ocean
basin.
o Marks the edge of the continental rock mass
o Cut by deep submarine canyons which are
remarkably similar to canyons but by rivers
into continental mountains and plateaus.

IGNEOUS ACTIVITY

IGNEOUS ROCK
It came from Latin word “ignis” means fire, formed when hot
liquid rock which is magma, cools and then solidify and Earth’s crust
is composed of igneous rock before.
MAGMA
A hot-liquid molten material and when it solidifies, it became
igneous rocks. Most of it came from the partial melting of upper
mantle or the lowest areas of the crust usually at a depth of 50 to
200 kilometers. When magma rise to the surface, there are two things
happened to them: either stored or erupted.
When magma is stored they can form intrusive bodies called
plutons.
EXMAPLES: granite, basalt and largest of the is batholith
When the magma is erupted to the surface as lava or small
fragments it is known as extrusive rocks.
STORED = INTRUSIVE = PLUTONS ERUPTED = EXTRUSIVE = LAVA
Plutons can be deposited either concordant or discordant bodies
depending on the position of layering of the intruded rock or host
rock.
Concordant- runs parallel to the pre-existing bedrock
Example: SILLS are concordant plutons, because they intruded parallel
to the layering of the intruded rock or host rock. Their appearance
also is flat and tubular.
Discordant- cut across the pre-existing rock bed
Example: DIKES are discordant plutons because it cuts across the
layering of the host rock. When no layering in the host rock is
evident it is called dike.

VOLCANIC NECK it is formed in the throat of a volcano and it is an

intrusive structure.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS BASED ON MINERAL COMPOSITIONS AND SILICA

CONTENT
CATEGORIES OF ROCKS BASED ON SILICA CONTENT
FELSIC- High Silica content 65% or more with high amount of Sodium and
Potassium and also composed of minerals like quartz and feldspar (e.g.
Rhyolite and Granite).
INTERMEDIATE- Contains Silica between 53% and 65% also contain
Potassium and plagioclase feldspar with small amount of quartz (e.g.
Diorite and Andesite)
BASIC/MAFIC- Composed of less than 52% Silica and a large amount of
plagioclase feldspar and very rarely quartz (e.g. basalts and gabbros)
ULTRABASIC/ULTRAMAFIC- Composed of less than 45% Silica, containing no
quartz or feldspar. Composed mainly of the minerals Olivine and
Pyroxene (e.g. Periodite)

PLAGIOCLASE is the name of a group of feldspar minerals. It is the

most common rock-forming minerals. Also most igneous rocks like
granite, diorite, gabbro, rhyolite, andesite and basalt contains
plagioclase.
LACCOLITHS are dome shape or mushroom-shaped body that rises near the
surface and domes the overlying layers while it spreads laterally.
BATHOLITHS are enormous, complex rock bodies that cover at least 100
km2. STOCKS are plutons similar to batholiths but smaller in size (it
is less than 100 km2).
IGNEOUS ROCK TEXTURES

PHANERITIC TEXTURE
 Its characteristic
describes deep intrusive
rocks that slowly cooled
 It has grains that are
rough
 Also its mineral components
can be seen through the
naked the eye.

APHANITIC TEXTURE
 It’s the opposite of phaneritic texture
 It is fine grained
  The mineral components are not visible to the eye you need a
microscope or any instrument to see it
 Formed from volcanic rocks that relatively cool faster example is
basalt.

GLASSY
 A kind of texture of igneous rock that
has high glass content because of the
mineral’s rapid cooling phase it has no
time to form crystals.

PORPHYRITIC
 crystals are visible to the naked eye,
and it has similar matrix of aphanitic
texture porphyritic resulted from solidifying
magma that had suddenly erupted to the
surface

CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

PERIDOTITE FAMILY
 Peridotite
o dark
o coarse-grained intrusive rock
o made of olivine
o with lesser amount of pyroxene and with little or no
plagioclase
o It is also known for being ULTRAMAFIC due to its high Mg
and Fe content.
o It is believed to be found and formed in the upper mantle
thus making it the possible source of most igneous rock.

BASALT-GABBRO FAMILY
 BASALT
o characteristics is fine-textured
o dark brown to black extrusive rock
o It contains primarily of Ca-plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene
and olivine.
 GABBRO it is coarse-textured and its mineral composition is
similar to basalt
o It is deep intrusive rock
 DOELRITE or DIABASE is an intermediate between basalt and gabbro,
as it is intruded near the surface.
o They are also mafic rocks as Mg and Fe minerals remain
important component but in lesser amounts than those in
ultramafic rocks.
o Mainly oceanic crust is made of basalt forming the upper
layers and dolerite and gabbro forming the thicker internal
layer upon which the basalt rests.
o Basalts came from hotspot volcanoes and some arc volcanoes
in which they erupted.
ANDESITE-DIORITE FAMILY
 ANDESITE
o is gray colored rock
o fine-grained volcanic rock
o Consisting of plagioclase-has about equal amounts of Ca and
Na ions, ± pyroxene, amphibole and/or biotite (mica).
 DIORITE
o It is the coarse-grained intrusive equivalent of andesite.
o The term andesite came from the lavas typical of the Andes
Mountains of South America.
o Andesite is referred as intermediate rocks it is also a
family that is typical of subduction-related magmatism-the
process of formation and movement of magma under earth’s
crust.

GRANITE-RHYOLITE FAMILY
 GRANITE
o is a light-colored
o coarse grained intrusive rock
o Contains mainly of quartz, K-feldspar and/or Na-
plagioclase. Also the ferromagnesian minerals such as
hornblende and biotite may or may not be present in
subordinate amounts.
o The most common igneous rocks of continental crust are
granite and its slightly more mafic variety granodiorite.
 RHYOLITE
o is also found on continental crust
o it is also the extrusive equivalent of granite.
o The members of this family have extremely high silica
content, that is why it is also referred to as silicic or
felsic rocks.

HOW MAGMA FORMS?

Although the phrase “melted rock” is used but technically the
rock doesn’t melt at all instead the particles or minerals that form
the rock change, causing crystals. A “rock melts” when the
temperature is higher than the melting points of mineral comprising
the rocks. Minerals in the rock with low melting point are melted
first and spending the heat to it the minerals with high temperature
is unmelted. Due to this the total melting point of rock is
impossible. Thus, magma originates principally by partial melting of
pre-existing rock.

SOURCES OF HEAT:
Geothermal gradient
 is a term used by geologists to define that every after 1 km
depth there is an increase in temperature up to 25-30 Degree
Centigrade
THE HOTTER MANTLE
 Geothermal gradients are higher in hot spots, where mantle
plumes, which are narrow upwellings of hot material within the
mantle occur.

FACTORS AFFECTING MELTING TEMPERATURES:

 1. PRESSURE- in general the higher the pressure the slower the
mineral would melt. Because of this the upwelling mantle material
would melt at shallower portions where there is lower pressure
and the upwelling mantle material originates from deeper high
pressure portions did not melt.
2. Water – water vapor under high pressure can lower the melting
temperature of rocks.

HOW MAGMAS OF DIFFERENT COMPOSITION EVOLVE

1.) Differentiation and Bowen’s reaction theory
Magma stored within the earth’s crust, if allowed to remain
liquid, will undergo differentiation, the process by which different
ingredients separate from an originally homogenous mixture.
Differentiation is attained when minerals crystallize and separate
from the mother magma, altering the magma composition in the process.
According to experiments by N.L. Bowen in the early 20th century,
it is possible to derive mafic and felsic magma-kinds of magma with
different composition-from a common parental source through
differentiation. Bowen showed that minerals with the highest melting
temperature crystallize first, followed successively by minerals of
lower melting temperature

Crystallization begins along two branches:

a) Discontinuous branch – one mineral changes to another at different
temperature during cooling and solidification of the magma. All the
minerals involved are ferromagnesian. The crystallization proceeds as
follows:
Olivine  pyroxene  amphibole biotite

From olivine it changes to pyroxene then to amphibole finally to

biotite and the temperature decreases. Any magma remaining after
biotite has finished crystallizing is devoid of Fe and Mg.

b) Continuous branch – Plagioclase feldspar is the only mineral in the

continuous branch. As the magma cools, the Ca-plagioclase, which has
the highest melting temperature, crystallizes first. As the Ca is
spent, it is replaced by Na, such that subsequent plagioclase crystals
become progressively enriched with Na:
anorthite  bytownite  labradorite  andesine  oligoclase 
albite

Magma left after all the plagioclase has crystallized is richer

in Si and contains K and Al. they combine to form K-feldspar.
Muscovite may also form if water pressure is high. Excess silica
crystallizes as quartz.
The differentiating magma may be interrupted at any point along its
differentiation path and solidify or be erupted at the surface,
resulting in magmas of different compositions.

2.) SOURCE ROCK – magma composition is also dependent upon the nature
of the parent or source rock. The composition of the resultant magma
is, in general, more felsic than the parent magma. Thus, peridotite
melting produces basaltic magma, while melting a basaltic source will
give rise to intermediate to felsic rocks, depending on partial
melting degree.

3) PARTIAL MELTING – The first minerals to melt are those in the later
portion in the Bowen reaction sequence. Thus, the lower the partial
melting degree is, the more felsic the rock becomes.
4) ASSIMILATION – A very hot magma may melt the country rock and
assimilate the newly molten material into the magma.
3 processes
1. Melting of wall rock
2. Diffusion- rock that has lower melting point than magma can be
melted
3. Reaction of fluid to the wall rock

5) MAGMA MIXING – If two magmas meet and merge in the crust, the
combined magma will be compositionally intermediate.

Geologic settings of igneous activity

IGNEOUS ACTIVITY AT DIVERGING PLATE

BOUNDARIES
Basaltic magma produced at diverging
boundaries is due to partial melting of the
asthenosphere. Asthenosphere is plastic probably
because it is at temperature that is only
slightly lower than the temperature required for
partial melting of mantle rock. Extra heat added
or pressure reduced will cause melting to take
place. The resulting magma is mafic and will
solidify as basalt or gabbro. The portion that
did not melt remains behind as ultramafic rock.

IGNEOUS ACTIVITY AT CONVERGING PLATE BOUNDARIES

Magmas for most of the
composite volcanoes in volcanic
arc seem to originate from a
depth of about 100-120 km,
coinciding with the depth at
which the subducting plate is
expected to slide beneath the
asthenosphere. Partial melting
of the asthenosphere is deemed
possible as the subducting plate releases water to the mantle, thereby
lowering its melting temperature. The resulting magma is basaltic to
andesitic. In special cases where the subducting plate is subjected to
elevated temperature, it may encounter partial melting and give rise
to intermediate to felsic rocks.

subducting plate releases water to the mantle(causes low melting

temperature) = basaltic to andesitic

subducting plate is subjected to elevated temperature = intermediate

to felsic rocks.

VOLCANISM
VOLCANISM
 Refers to the ejection of molten materials from a volcano
VOLCANO
 Mountain or a hill in a restricted vent in the earth’s crust.
 Through its vent, gases and other hot materials are expelled.
  These ejected materials accumulate around the vent and form
volcanic cone forms.
CRATER
 Top of the volcano
According to PHIVOLCS (Philippine Institute of Volcanologist and
Seismology):
 there are 32 volcanoes in the Philippines; the most famous and
most beautiful is Mt. Mayon Volcano in Albay Province
 another popular volcano is Mt. Pinatubo in the province of
Zambales
Volcanic Products
 are materials that come out of a volcano
 mixture of gaseous, liquid and solid materials
Fragmental Materials
 fragments of magma quickly solidifies and for pyroclastic (fire-
broken)fragments
 lapilli
o fragments are from 2-64 mm in size
 ash
o smaller than 2 mm
o tiny, powder like fragments
Lava
 molten rock that flows at the earth’s surface
 melting of solid rock to form magma is controlled by its three
physical parameters: its temperature, pressure and composition
Gases
 the most abundant are water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide
and hydrogen sulfide
Volcanic Hazards
 volcanic gases
o 50%-80% of all volcanism gases are water vapor
o Less amount of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, sulfur gases
(sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide
 Formation of lava
o melting of solid rock to form magma is controlled by its
three physical parameters: its temperature, pressure and
composition
Lava Flows
 The surface produced by the lava flow often reflects their
internal movement in relation of their congealing crust.
 Sheet and pahoehoe lava flows result in continuous surface
o Pahoehoe lavas are thin
o Flow smoothly
o Formed by small volumes of hot, fluid basalt
o The higher the volume of lava emitted the faster the
current
o Pahoehoe flows move forwards in tongues or lobes
o Characterized by a glassy, plastic skin
o When it cools, it solidifies to a smooth surface
o Sheet lava emerge from fissure systems forming flows
ranging between 10 m – 30 m in thickness
o Flow out so fast that vast volumes of basalt are discharge
over an enormous are
  Aa and block flows result in indiscontinuous surfaces
o Emitted from the vent
o Higher viscosity
o When it cools, produces a rough surface
Different Parts of a Volcano
1. Magma
 Molten rocks beneath Earth’s surface
2. Parasitic Cone
 Small cone-shaped volcano formed by an accumulation of
volcano debris
3. Sill
 A flat piece of rock formed when magma hardens in a crack
of a volcano
4. Vent
 Opening in Earth’s surface through which volcanic materials
escape
5. Flank
 Side of a volcano
6. Lava
 Molten rock that erupts from a volcano that solidifies as
it cools
7. Crater
 Mouth of the volcano
 Surround volcano vent
8. Conduit
 Underground passage where magma travels through
9. Summit
 Highest point
 Apex
10. Throat
 Entrance of the volcano
11. Ash
 Fragments of lava smaller than 2 mm
12. Ash clouds
 A cloud of ash formed by volcanic explosions
Ten Largest Volcanoes in the World
1. Mount Mazama/Crater Lake, Oregon
a. 12,000 feet high before the eruption 6000 years ago
b. Replaced by a 1900 foot deep crater
c. Famed by its intense water
2. Mount Etna, Sicily
a. Highest active volcano in Europe
b. Last eruption occurred in December 1991
3. Mount Vesuvius, Italy
a. Still active and has had several eruptions, most deadly
being in 1631
4. Mount Tambora, Indonesia
a. Largest eruption in the history
b. Deadliest volcano recorded in history
c. Exploded in April 10-11, 1815
d. Killed an estimated 92000 people
e. 1816- “The year without summer”
5. Mount Krakatau, Indonesia
 a. Exploded with such force that it was heard in Australia
b. The eruption triggered a series of tsunamis
c. The 5 miles3 covered the surrounding areas in darkness for
over 2 days
d. Left only a remnant of the island above sea level
6. Mount Pelee, Martinique
a. Erupted on May 8, 1902
b. Killed 29000 caused by the resulting pyroclastic flow which
is deadly, fast-moving cloud of hot gas and dense
liquidized volcanic particles
c. Only two residents survived
7. Paricutin, Mexico
a. Mountain began to emerge from Earth with a height of 1200
feet
b. Presented a remarkable opportunity to see the birth of a
volcano
c. Only three people died and it is because of lightning
caused by the eruption
8. Mountain St. Helens, Washington
a. been dormant since 1857 but began to erupt steam after a
series of earthquakes in March 1980
9. Nevada del Ruiz, Colombia
a. Eruption on November 12, 1985 is relatively small
b. Mudslides caused by melting of ice and snow resulted to
death of 23000 people
c. Larger eruption in 1845
10. Mount Pinatubo, Philippines
a. Erupted on June 1991, ten times larger than Mount St.
Helens eruption and one of the biggest of 20th century
Signs that a Volcano is going to Erupt
 The temperature of rocks in the volcanic cone increase
 Changes in shape of the volcanic cone
 Number of increases in small earthquakes or tremors around a
volcano
 Emission of gas and steam from a volcano
Disadvantages of Living near a Volcano
When a volcano erupts, it can do many things:
 kill people
 destroy crops and plantation
 suffocate people from the ashes
Benefits of Living near Volcanoes
1. agriculture
a. Volcanic ashes makes extremely fertile soil
b. Crops can grow very well in volcanic soil
2. Material
a. Volcanic Tuff
b. Pozzoiona- even toughest than concrete
c. Ignimibrite
d. Obsidian
e. Volcanic glass
f. Purrice- was and still today, used for personal hygiene
3. Geothermal Energy
a. Free, renewable, infinite energy and heat
b. Also used to heat water for heating and hygiene
 4. Jobs
a. Provides jobs for local people-specialist rescue experts
would need to be on hand at all cost
5. Aesthetics
a. The provide a peaceful, serene and relaxed scenery for all
to enjoy
6. Tourism
a. the scenery attracts tourists
7. Science
a. Help us understand how Earth was born

What is a Sedimentary Rock?

A Sedimentary Rock is a rock that formed through the accumulation of
particles derived from preexisting rocks, including the dissolved ions
that recombine by chemical and biological processes.
Sedimentary Rocks are types of rocks that are form by the
accumulation and disposition of small particled and subsequent
cementation of minerals or organic particles in the bodies of water at
the earth’s surface. It came from a big rock but crashed into small
pieces.
SEDIMENT PRODUCTION
Sediment is produced by the weathering and erosion of preexisting
rock bodies. Once formed, sediment is transported to a new area where
it is deposited as layers that are subsequently lithified to form
sedimentary rocks.
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
FLUID FLOW
Traction- grain rolling/sliding along substrate
Saltation- grain hopping along substrate
Suspension- permanent grain entrainment
Solution- chemical transport as ions

GRAVITY FLOW
Grain Flow- cohesionless sediment movement.
Liquefied Flow- over-pressured interstitial fluid movement
Density/turbidity flow- slurry movement driven by differential density

TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

Channelized (water)- water derived through subaerial precipitation

moves down-hill under the influence of gravity. Depending upon
discharge, flow velocity, and nature of sediment, a wide variety of
bedforms and a full range of ripple size can develop. Ripples tend to
be highly asymmetrical.

Waves (water)- wind-generated oscillatory motions of water. Height

depends upon wind strength, duration, and fetch. Wave ripples tend to
be symmetrical.

Tides (water)- generated by lunar and solar gravitational attraction.

Tidal cycles are semidiurnal, diurnal, and annual (neap and spring).
Tidal waves tend to be symmetrical.

Swash (water)- generated by breaking waves. Water becomes turbulent,

then laminar as sediments is carried onto and then away from a beach.
Marine currents (water)- generated by temperature and salinity
(thermohaline) contrasts in combination with the Coriolis Effect.
Transport mud in suspension and rework sand along deep sea floor.

Wind- generated by atmospheric pressure gradients. Transport fine-

grained sediment-up to medium sand by traction/saltation and mud by
suspension. Ripples of all sizes form and are highly asymmetrical.

Ice- down-slope movement of ice under the influence of gravity. Highly

competent. Creates very poorly-sorted deposits with few sedimentary
structures.

Gravity- slope failure due to earth’s gravitational pull. Enhanced by

high relief and high water content. Can occur in both subaerial and
subaqueous environments.

SEDIMENTARY ROCK CLASSIFICATION

Clastic- mostly siliciclastics (a.k.a. terrigenous)

Biochemical- mostly carbonates (a.k.a. allochemical)
Chemical- mostly evaporates (a.k.a. orthochemical)
Sedimentary rocks are first divided on the basis of the major set
of processes responsible for their formation.

COMPOSITIONAL CLASSIFICATION

Terrigenous- clastic sediment derived through extrabasinal weathering

and erosion of subarially-exposed rock bodies. (e.g. gravel, sand, and
mud.)
Allochemical- reworked intrabasinal sediment produced through chemical
or biochemical precipitation. (e.g. bioclasts, ooids, and
intraclasts.)
Orthochemical- insitu intrabasinal sediment produced through chemical
or biochemical precipitation. (e.g. micrite, phosphate, halite,
gypsum, and chert.)

WEATHERING
Weathering is the breakdown or decomposition of a rock body.

Physical vs. Chemical Weathering

Physical Weathering refers to the disintegration or disaggregation of
rocks by physically breaking them apart.
 Physical Weathering breaks rock into smaller pieces but does not
change its composition.

Chemical Weathering refers to the decomposition of rocks and minerals

as chemical reactions alter them into new substances.
 Chemical Weathering destroys or alters existing minerals,
changing the rock’s composition and reducing its size.

EROSION
Erosion refers to the removal (entranument) of weather material
(sediment).
DEPOSITION
Eventually, sediment is dropped to form a sedimentary deposit, in this
case, a point bar.
DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis includes all changes (physical and chemical) that occur to
sediment following deposition, including compaction, cementation, and
dissolution. Lithification is part of the diagenetic process.
LITHIFICATION
Through burial and processes related to groundwater, sediment is
converted to rock.

LITHIFICATION/DIAGENESIS
Compaction- caused by overburden pressure from sediment burial.
Decreases rock volume by expelling fluids and forcing grains closer
together. Particularly important in clays and organic materials.
Reduces porosity. Extreme compaction causes pressure solution and the
development of stylolites.
Cementation (authigenic mineraliation)- different minerals are stable
under different combinations of temperature and pressure; therefore,
minerals that dissolve under one set of conditions may precipitate
under another and vice versa. Relative dating principles applied to
changes in mineralogy and to precipitation/dissolution features can be
used to reconstruct burial history.

TRANSPORT
Once sediment has been eroded, it is moved to a new location by
water, wind, ice or mass movement.

SILICLASTIC CLASSIFICATION
Siliclastic sedimentary rocks form through the physical
accumulation of particles (clasts) and are subdivided on the basis of
particle (grain) size.

UDEN-WENTWORTH SCALE
The wentworth scale is the standard classification for clastic
sediment and rocks. Subdivisions are measured in both millimeters and
in phi units (log base 2). Class sizes closely reflect natural
variation.
CONGLOMERATE
Conglomerate is a siliclastic sedimentary rock made up of at
least 30% gravel size particles.
BRECCIA
Breccia is a conglomerate in which most clasts are distinctively
angular.
SANDSTONE
Sandstone is a siliclastic sedimentary rock made up of sand size
particles.
SILSTONE
Silstone is a siliclastic sedimentary rock made up of silt size
particles.
CLAYSTONE
Claystone is a siliclastic sedimentary rock made up of clay size
particles.
COAL
Coal is a rock made up primarily of plant debris and is found in
association with some siliclastic rocks.
COMPOSITION
Composition (provenance) tells us where the sediment came from. The
study of rock composition is referred to as petrography.
PROVENANCE
Provenance studies focuses on composition are designed to determine
the nature of a sediment source area, particularly source rock,
tectonic setting, and climate.
 EXAMPLE FROM NORTH AMERICA
Sandstones from North America show a northward increase in feldspar
content for three reasons:
Source rock: Much more granite is exposed in the northern part of the
continent. Bedrock in southern regions consists mostly of Paleozoic
sedimentary units.
Climate: A colder, drier climate in north favors physical weathering;
whereas, warmer, wetter conditions in south enhance chemical
weathering.
Transport distance: Lack of glaciation in south has resulted in
longer, better-developed fluvial systems than in the north.

TEXTURE
Texture (size, shape, and arrangement of particles) can tell us how
the sediment was carried (water, wind, or ice) and how far it
traveled.
SURFACE TEXTURE
Surface texture is a weathering characteristic that is strongly
influenced by mineralogy, rock type, and weathering history.

SEDIMENTARY ROCK COMPONENTS

Sedimentary Rocks are made up of three main components:
 Framework Grains (allochems in carbonate rocks)
o Framework grains are the larger clasts that are used to
define the rock.
o The nature of grain contacts is influenced by
mineralogy/rock type and can be an indicator of burial
depth.
o Grain form refers to the relative length of perpendicular
axes and is weathering characteristic that is strongly
controlled by mineralogy, rock type, fractures, bedding
planes, etc. Grain form impacts both entrainment and
settling.
 Matrix
o Matrix is composed of smaller particles that occupy some of
the space between framework grains. It can be deposited
together with the framework grains or physically
infiltrated later.
 Cement
o Cement (authigenic mineralization) is chemically
precipitated between framework grains and matrix particles
and is useful for establishing burial history
o Common Authoginic Minerals
 Carbonate cement (calcite, dolomite, ankerite,
siderite)
 Quartz
 Clay minerals (kaolinite, illite)
  Feldspar (albalite) and zeolite are also found in
small amounts.

HEAVY (TRACE) MINERALS

Heavy minerals typically have specific gravities between 3.0 and
5.2., they are mostly found within quartz rich sandstones but carely
make up more than 1% of the rock. Heavy minerals are useful in
provenance studies.
 Tourmaline
 Apalite
 Garnet
 Zircon
 Rutile
 Magnetite
 Cassiterite
 Monazite
 Rarely gold

POROSITY
Porosity is empty space within a rock and can be primary or
secondary in nature. Some of the factors that influence porosity
include grain size (mean, median, and sorting), shape (rounding and
sphericity), composition, compaction, degree of cementation,
dissolution.

PERMEABILITY
Permeability (K) is a measure of how well fluid can migrate
through a rock and is dependent upon the same factors as porosity.

SEDIMENTARY TEXTURES
Sedimentary texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of
clasts and provides information pertaining to the nature and distance
of sediment transport.

ROUNDNESS
Roundness is a measure of surface irregularity and refers to
whether or not the constituent grains have sharp corners.

SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES ON ENVIRONMENT

Pores
 the spaces between grains of sediments
 This can either be empty of filled with finer sediments called
matrix
Cementation
 If the matrix is filled with groundwater or saltwater saturated
with silica, calcium carbonate or iron oxides. These compounds
will precipitate and bind grains together
Recrystallization
 the formation of new crystalline mineral grains in a rock
Sedimentary Rock
 rock that has formed from lithification, precipitation from
solution, consolidation from the remains of plants and animals
Lithification
  It is the process by which sediments combine to form sedimentary
rocks.
 It is derive from the Greek word lithos which means rocks

2 WAYS LITHIFICATION OCCURS

1. Compaction
 It is the consolidation of sediments due to the intense pressing
weight of overlying deposits.
 It happens when sediments get burned
2. Cementation
 Another way lithification of sediment occurs is through
cementation.
 It is the process by which dissolved minerals crystalized and
glue sediment grains together

TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

1. Clastic (or detrital)

a. formed from cemented sediment grains that are fragments or
preexisting rocks (e.g. conglomerate, sandstone, shale)
2. Chemical
a. deposited by precipitation of minerals from solution(e.g
rock, salt, limestone)
3. Organic or Biochemical
a. rocks formed by the accumulation of the remains of
organisms

Examples of Clastic (or detrital)

1. Sedimentary Breccia
a. coarse grained sedimentary rock formed by the cementation
of coarse, angular fragments of rubble; formed not far from
the source (e.g. landslides)
2. Conglomerate
a. coarse grained of the sedimentary rock formed by the
sedimentation of rounded gravel
3. Sandstone
a. a medium grained rock formed by cementation of sand grains
4. Quartz sandstone
a. Sandstone in which more than 90% of the grains are quartz.
b. The sediments or source rock has undergone extensive
weathering such that only the most resistant mineral,
quartz, remains transported over great distances to
concentrate the quartz
5. Arkose
a. sandstone in which more than 25% of the grains are feldspar
b. the rock has not undergone severe chemical weathering
c. transportation distance is relatively short
6. Greywacke (lithic sandstone)
a. More than 15% of the rock's volume consists of fine
grained matrix, often tough and dense, generally dark grey
or green in color.
b. The sand grains consist primarily of lithic (or rock)
fragments, feldspar, quartz
Fine Grained Rocks
1. Shale
a. fine grained sedimentary rock notable for its splitting
capability called feasibility.
b. Splitting takes place along the surface of very thin layers
called laminations

Carbonate Rocks
1. Limestone
a. a sedimentary rock composed mostly of calcite CaCo3,
usually precipitated in shallow seawater through the action
of organisms

Types of Limestone
1. Biochemical limestone
a. Chalk- fine grained limestone consisting of billions of
microscopic organisms that settled in shallow water
b. Coquina- composed of large, poidy cemented shell fragments
c. Micrite- fine grained limestone formed from the line mind
d. Coral reefs- form where warm oceans currents sweep abundant
nutrients to shallow waters
2. Chemical Limestone
3. Oolitic limestone
a. directly precipitated limestone consisting of caviar- sized
particles called ooids

SEDIMENTS
 particles that have mechanically transported by water, wind or
ice or chemically precipitated from solution, or secreted by
organism

Size Qualification
1. Gravel- includes particle coarser than 2mm in diameter (256 mm
cobble 236-64 mm and pebble 64-2 mm)
2. Sand- grains from1/16-2mm
3. Silt- grains from 1/256- 1/16 mm too small to see without
magnifying glass
4. Clay- finest sediment atleast 1/256 mm

Origin of Sedimentary Rocks

1. Weathering
a. the physical disintegration and chemical alternation and
decomposition of rocks exposed to the atmosphere influences
at the Earth's surface
2. Transport
a. the disintegration of rode particles and transported by
water, wind or ice from their source
b. During transport the sediments are subjected to:
i. rounding- the grinding away of sharp edges and corners
of rock fragments during transport
ii. Sorting- process in which sediments grains are
selected and separated according to grain size, shape
and specific gravity