The weekly meeting journal

The first meeting

Gerund and part of speech

Gerund is a verb of the verb. This could be functioned as a subject in a sentence. As for
some of the functions of the gerund itself is:

The gerund is one of the uses of the form of the verb ending in -ing (for details of its formation
and spelling, see English verbs). This same verb form has other uses besides the gerund: it can
serve as a present participle (used adjectivally or adverbially), and as a pure verbal noun.

A gerund behaves as a verb within a clause (so that it may be modified by an adverb or have
an object); but the resulting clause as a whole (sometimes consisting of only one word, the
gerund itself) functions as a noun within the larger sentence.

For example, consider the sentence "Eating this cake is easy." Here the gerund is the verb eating,
which takes an object this cake. The entire clause eating this cake is then used as a noun, which
in this case serves as the subject of the larger sentence.

An item such as eating this cake in the foregoing example is an example of a non-finite verb
phrase; however, because phrases of this type do not require a subject, it is also a complete
clause. (Traditionally such an item would be referred to as a phrase, but in modern linguistics it
has become common to call it a clause.) A gerund clause such as this is one of the types of non-
finite clause.

A gerund has four forms — two for the active voice and two for the passive:

Active Passive

Present or Continuous Loving Being loved

Perfect Having loved Having been loved

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Examples of use

The following sentences illustrate some uses of gerund clauses, showing how such a clause
serves as a noun within the larger sentence. In some cases the clause consists of just the gerund
(although in many such cases the word could equally be analyzed as a pure verbal noun).

 Swimming is fun. (gerund as subject of the sentence)

 I like swimming. (gerund as direct object)

 I never gave swimming all that much effort. (gerund as indirect object)

 Eating biscuits in front of the television is one way to relax. (gerund phrase as subject)

 Do you fancy going out? (gerund phrase as direct object)

 On being elected president, he moved with his family to the capital. (gerund phrase as
complement of a preposition)

Using gerunds of the appropriate auxiliary verbs, one can form gerund clauses that
express perfect aspect and passive voice:

 Being deceived can make someone feel angry. (passive)

 Having read the book once before makes me more prepared. (perfect)

 He is ashamed of having been gambling all night. (perfect progressive aspect)

For more detail on when it is appropriate to use a gerund, see Verb patterns with the
gerund below, and also Uses of English verb forms: Gerund.

Distinction from other uses of the -ing form

Gerunds are distinguished grammatically from other uses of a verb's -ing form: the present
participle (which is a non-finite verb form like the gerund, but is adjectival or adverbial in
function), and the pure verbal noun or deverbal noun.

The distinction between gerund and present participle is illustrated in the following sentences:

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 John suggested asking Bill. (asking Bill is the object of the verb, i.e. a noun, so asking is a
gerund)

 I heard John asking Bill. (asking Bill is adjectival, describing John, so asking is a participle)

The distinction between the gerund and the pure verbal (deverbal) noun is that the gerund itself
behaves as a verb, forming a verb phrase which is then used as a noun, whereas the pure noun
does not in any way behave grammatically as a verb.[3] This is illustrated in the following
examples:

 I like playing football. (playing takes an object, so is a gerund)

 Her playing of the Bach fugues was inspiring. (playing takes a prepositional phrase rather
than an object; not a gerund)

For more details and examples of the distinctions introduced here, see -ing: uses.

Gerunds with a specified subject

A gerund cannot take a grammatical subject as a finite verb does. (The -ing verb form can take a
subject in nominative absolute constructions such as The day being over, ..., but here it is a
present participle rather than a gerund.) Normally the subject of the gerund is considered
unspecified, or is understood to be the same as the subject of the main clause: in a sentence like
"Meg likes eating apricots", the subject of eating is understood to be the same as the subject of
the main clause, namely Meg – what Meg likes is a situation where she herself is eating apricots
(see also raising verb). However in other cases it is necessary to specify explicitly who or what is
to be understood as the subject of the gerund.

Many prescriptive grammarians prefer the subject of such a gerund to be expressed using
the possessive form, since the gerund clause serves as a noun phrase. Hence:

 We enjoyed their singing. (i.e. the singing that was done by them)

 The cat's licking the cream was not generally appreciated. (i.e. the licking that was done by
the cat)

 We were delighted at Paul's being awarded the prize. (i.e. the awarding of the prize to Paul)

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The above construction is common in formal English; however in informal English it is often
more usual to use just the noun or noun phrase (in the objective case, in the case of personal
pronouns) to indicate the subject, without any possessive marker.

 We enjoyed them singing.

 The cat licking the cream was not generally appreciated.

 We were delighted at Paul being awarded the prize.

The above usage, though common, is criticized by some prescriptivists, since it apparently places
two noun phrases (the agent and the gerund clause) together without any indication of their
syntactic relation. It is compared with a superficially identical construction in which the -
ing form is a present participle, and it is entirely appropriate for it to be preceded by a noun
phrase, since the participial clause can be taken to qualify that noun phrase:

 I saw the cat licking the cream. (i.e. I saw the cat, and the cat was licking the cream)

However others say that it is entirely acceptable to express the subject of the gerund with just the
noun or the noun phrase in the nominative case or in the objective case, since the gerund is not
a deverbal noun, but a verbal noun, i.e., a normal verb in a dependent noun clause.

The use of a non-possessive noun to precede a gerund is said to arise as a result of confusion
with the above usage with a participle, and is thus sometimes called fused
participle[4] or geriple.[5] This construction represents common informal usage with gerunds;
however, if the prescriptive rule is followed, the difference between the two forms may be used
to make a slight distinction in meaning:

 The teacher's shouting startled the student. (shouting is a gerund, the shouting startled the
student)

 The teacher shouting startled the student. (shouting can be interpreted as a participle,
qualifying the teacher; the teacher startled the student by shouting)

 I don't like Jim's drinking wine. (I don't like the drinking)

 I don't like Jim drinking wine. (I don't like Jim when he is drinking wine)

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In some cases, particularly with a non-personal subject, the use of the possessive before a gerund
may be considered redundant even in quite a formal register. For example, "There is no chance
of the snow falling" (rather than the prescriptively correct "There is no chance of the snow's
falling").

Verb patterns with the gerund

Verbs that are often followed by a gerund include admit, adore, anticipate, appreciate, avoid,
carry on, consider, contemplate, delay, deny, describe, detest, dislike, enjoy, escape, fancy, feel,
finish, give, hear, imagine, include, justify, listen to, mention, mind, miss, notice, observe,
perceive, postpone, practice, quit, recall, report, resent, resume, risk, see, sense, sleep, stop,
suggest, tolerate and watch. Additionally, prepositions are often followed by a gerund.

For example:

 I will never quit smoking.

 We postponed making any decision.

 After two years of analyzing, we finally made a decision.

 We heard whispering.

 They denied having avoided me.

 He talked me into coming to the party.

 They frightened her out of voicing her opinion.

Verbs followed by a gerund or a to-infinitive[edit]

With little change in meaning[edit]

advise, recommend, forbid:

These are followed by a to-infinitive when there is an object as well, but by a gerund otherwise.

 The police advised us not to enter the building, for a murder had occurred. (Us is the object
of advised.)

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 The police advised against our entering the building. (Our is used for the gerund entering.)

consider, contemplate, recommend:

These verbs are followed by a to-infinitive only in the passive or with an object pronoun.

 People consider her to be the best. – She is considered to be the best.

 I am considering sleeping over, if you do not mind.

begin, continue, start; hate, like, love, prefer:

With would, the verbs hate, like, love, and prefer are usually followed by the to-infinitive.

 I would like to work there. (more usual than working)

When talking about sports, there is usually a difference in meaning between the infinitive and
gerund (see the next section).

With a change in meaning[edit]

like, love, prefer:

In some contexts, following these verbs with a to-infinitive when the subject of the first verb is
the subject of the second verb provides more clarity than a gerund.

 I like to box. (I enjoy doing it myself.)

 I like boxing. (Either I enjoy watching it, I enjoy doing it myself, or the idea of boxing is
otherwise appealing.)

 I do not like gambling, but I do like to gamble."

dread, hate, cannot bear:

These verbs are followed by a to-infinitive when talking subjunctively (often when using to
think), but by a gerund when talking about general dislikes.

 I dread / hate to think what she will do.

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 I dread / hate seeing him.

 I cannot bear to see you suffer like this. (You are suffering now.)

 I cannot bear being pushed around in crowds. (I never like that.)

forget, remember:

When these have meanings that are used to talk about the future from the given time, the to-
infinitive is used, but when looking back in time, the gerund.

 She forgot to tell me her plans. (She did not tell me, although she should have.)

 She forgot telling me her plans. (She told me, but then forgot having done so.)

 I remembered to go to work. (I remembered that I needed to go to work.)

 I remembered going to work. (I remembered that I went to work.)

go on:

 After winning the semi-finals, he went on to play in the finals. (He completed the semi-finals
and later played in the finals.)

 He went on giggling, not having noticed the teacher enter. (He continued doing so.)

mean:

 I did not mean to scare you off. (I did not intend to scare you off.)

 Taking a new job in the city meant leaving behind her familiar surroundings. (If she took the
job, she would have to leave behind her familiar surroundings.)

regret:

 We regret to inform you that you have failed your exam. (polite or formal form of apology)

 I very much regret saying what I said. (I wish that I had not said that.)

try:

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When a to-infinitive is used, the subject is shown to make an effort at something, attempt or
endeavor to do something. If a gerund is used, the subject is shown to attempt to do something in
testing to see what might happen.

 Please try to remember to post my letter.

 I have tried being stern, but to no avail.

stop, quit:

When the infinitive is used after 'stop' or 'quit', it means that the subject stops one activity and
starts the activity indicated by the infinitive. If the gerund is used, it means that the subject stops
the activity indicated by the gerund.

 She stopped to smell the flowers.

 She stopped smelling the flowers.

Or more concisely:

 She stopped walking to smell the flowers.

 He quit working there to travel abroad.

1. Progressive/Continous

Happening or developing gradually or in stages; proceeding step by step.

Example :

 Playing man
 Lying man
 Sleeping beauty

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2. Direct Object

A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb or shows the result
of the action. An action verb with a direct object is called a transitive verb.

Example :

 I read reading, (dalam bahasa indonesia kita dapat mengartikannya seperti “aku sedang
membaca bacaan).
 I like jogging, (sama halnya seperti contoh pada nomor satu bahwa disini gerund
berfungsi sebagai objek langsung baik itu sebagai kata benda ataupun sebagai kata ganti).
3. Subject Complement

A subject complement is the adjective, noun, or pronoun that follows a linking verb. The
following verbs are true linking verbs: any form of the verb be [am, is, are, was, were, has been,
are being, might have been, etc.], become, and seem. These true linking verbs are always linking
verbs.

Example :

 My hobby is writing a book, (kalau diartikan kedalam bahasa indonesia adalah hobi saya
adalah menulis sebuah buku). so it can be concluded that the gerund here functioning as
a noun to complete it as a subject that can be called a subject complement.
4. Object Complement

A word or phrase (usually a noun, pronoun, or adjective) that comes after a direct object
and renames, describes, or locates it. Also called an objective complement or an object(ive)
predicate.

Example :

 Staying at home makes me boring.

S O.C

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 Dalam bahasa indonesia kita dapat menemukan arti bahwa “berada di dalam rumah
membuat saya bosan”. Kata”berada di dalam rumah” itu bisa disebut sebagai subjeknya
sedangkan kata “me boring” itu bisa disebut sebagai objek pelengkapnya atau object
complement.

 The meeting made you crying, (dapat kita temukan artinya adalah “pertemuan itu
membuatmu menangis”).
5. Adjective Complement

An adjective complement is a clause or phrase that adds to the meaning of an adjective or

modifies it. The adjective complement always follows the adjective it complements and it is a
noun clause or a prepositional phrase. A word (one of the parts of speech and a member of a
closed word class) that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a
sentence.

Example :

 I am crazy reading Al-qur’an. (saya tergila-gila membaca Al-Quran).

 She is slow working.
6. Preposition

The combination of a preposition and a noun phrase is called a prepositional phrase. A

word group (such as in front of or on top of) that functions like a simple, one-word preposition is
called a complex preposition.

Example :

 I saw you last night in dreaming.

 You come here for staying.
7. Gerunds after Certain Verbs

Sometimes use one verb after another verb. Often the second verb is in the infinitive
form.

This depends on the first verb. Here is a list of verbs that are usually followed by a verb
in gerund form:

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  admit, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, defer, delay, deny, detest, dislike, endure,
enjoy, escape, excuse, face, feel like, finish, forgive, give up, can't help, imagine, involve,
leave off, mention, mind, miss, postpone, practise, put off, report, resent, risk, can't stand,
suggest, understand.

Examples:

 She is considering having a holiday.

 Do you feel like going out?
 I can't help falling in love with you.
 I can't stand not seeing you.

Some verbs can be followed by the gerund form or the infinitive form without a big
change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start,etc.

 I like to play tennis.

 I like playing tennis.
 It started to rain.
 It started raining.
8. Part of Speech

Part of speech is a things for build a language. Type of part of speech :

1. Verb
2. Noun
3. Adjective
4. Adverb
5. Preposition
6. Conjunction
7. Article
8. Interjection

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 Verb

Verbs constitute one of the main word classes in the English language. Like other types
of words in the language, English verbs are not heavily inflected. Most combinations of tense,
aspect, mood and voice are expressed periphrastically, using constructions with auxiliary verbs
and modal verbs.

Generally, the only inflected forms of an English verb are a third person singular present tense
form in -s, a past tense (also called preterite), a past participle (which may be the same as the
past tense), and a form in -ing that serves as a present participle and gerund. Most verbs inflect in
a simple regular fashion, although there are about 200 irregular verbs; the irregularity in nearly
all cases concerns the past tense and past participle forms. The copula verb be has a larger
number of different inflected forms, and is highly irregular.

A verb, from the Latin verbum meaning word, is a word (part of speech) that in syntax
conveys an action (bring, read, walk, run, learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a state of
being (be, exist, stand). In the usual description of English, the basic form, with or without the
particle to, is the infinitive. In many languages, verbs are inflected (modified in form) to encode
tense, aspect, mood, and voice. A verb may also agree with the person, gender, and/or number of
some of its arguments, such as its subject, or object. Verbs have tenses: present, to indicate that
an action is being carried out; past, to indicate that an action has been done; future, to indicate
that an action will be done.

Verb types

Verbs vary by type, and each type is determined by the kinds of words that follow it and
the relationship those words have with the verb itself. There are six types: intransitive, transitive,
infinitives, to-be verbs, and two-place transitive (Vg- verb give), and two-place transitive (Vc-
verb consider).

1. Intransitive verbs

An intransitive verb is one that does not have a direct object. Intransitive
verbs may be followed by an adverb (a word that addresses how, where, when,

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 and how often) or end a sentence. For example: "The woman spoke softly." "The
athlete ran faster than the official." "The boy wept."

2. Linking verbs

A linking verb cannot be followed by an adverb or end a sentence but

instead must be followed by a noun or adjective, whether in a single word or
phrase. Common linking verbs include seem, become, appear, look, and remain.
For example: "His mother looked worried." "Josh remained a reliable friend."
Therefore, linking verbs 'link' the adjective or noun to the subject.

Adjectives that come after linking verbs are predicate adjectives, and
nouns that come after linking verbs are predicate nouns.

3. Transitive verbs

A transitive verb is followed by a noun or noun phrase. These noun

phrases are not called predicate nouns but are instead called direct objects because
they refer to the object that is being acted upon. For example: "My friend read the
newspaper." "The teenager earned a speeding ticket."

A way to identify a transitive verb is to invert the sentence, making it

passive. For example: "The newspaper was read by my friend." "A speeding ticket
was earned by the teenager."

4. Two-place transitive: Vg verbs

Vg verbs (named after the verb give) precede either two noun phrases or a
noun phrase and then a prepositional phrase often led by to or for. For example:
"The players gave their teammates high fives." "The players gave high fives to
their teammates."

When two noun phrases follow a transitive verb, the first is an indirect
object, that which is receiving something, and the second is a direct object, that
being acted upon. Indirect objects can be noun phrases or prepositional phrases.[1]

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 5. Transitive Verbs: Vc verbs

Vc verbs (named after the verb consider) are followed by a noun phrase
that serves as a direct object and then a second noun phrase, adjective, or
infinitive phrase. The second element (noun phrase, adjective, or infinitive) is
called a complement, which completes a clause that would not otherwise have the
same meaning. For example: "The young couple considers the neighbors wealthy
people." "Some students perceive adults quite inaccurately." "Sarah deemed her
project to be the hardest she has ever completed."

6. To be verbs

The verb be is manifested in eight forms: be, is, am, are, was, were, been,
and being. These verbs precede nouns or adjectives in a sentence, which become
predicate nouns and predicate adjectives similar to those that function with a
linking verb. They can also be followed by an adverb of place, which is
sometimes referred to as a predicate adverb. For example: "Her daughter was a
writing tutor." "The singers were very nervous." "My house is down the street."

Valency

The number of arguments that a verb takes is called its valency or valence. Verbs can be
classified according to their valency:

 Avalent (valency = 0): the verb has neither a subject nor an object. Zero valency does not
occur in English; in some languages such as Mandarin Chinese, weather verbs like
snow(s) take no subject or object.

 Intransitive (valency = 1, monovalent): the verb only has a subject. For example: "he
runs", "it falls".

 Transitive (valency = 2, divalent): the verb has a subject and a direct object. For example:
"she eats fish", "we hunt nothing".

 Ditransitive (valency = 3, trivalent): the verb has a subject, a direct object, and an indirect
object. For example: "He gives her a flower" or "She gave the watch to John".

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A few English verbs, particularly those concerned with financial transactions, take four
arguments, as in "Pat1 sold Chris2 a lawnmower3 for $204" or "Chris1 paid Pat2 $203 for a
lawnmower4".

Weather verbs often appear to be impersonal (subjectless, or avalent) in null-subject languages

like Spanish, where the verb llueve means "It rains". In English, French and German, they
require a dummy pronoun, and therefore formally have a valency of 1. However, as verbs in
Spanish incorporate the subject as a TAM suffix, Spanish is not actually a null-subject language,
unlike Mandarin (see above). Such verbs in Spanish also have a valency of 1.

Intransitive and transitive verbs are the most common, but the impersonal and objective verbs are
somewhat different from the norm. In the objective the verb takes an object but no subject; the
nonreferent subject in some uses may be marked in the verb by an incorporated dummy pronoun
similar to that used with the English weather verbs. Impersonal verbs in null subject languages
take neither subject nor object, as is true of other verbs, but again the verb may show
incorporated dummy pronouns despite the lack of subject and object phrases.

Verbs are often flexible with regard to valency. In non-valency marking languages such as
English, a transitive verb can often drop its object and become intransitive; or an intransitive
verb can take an object and become transitive. For example, in English the verb move has no
grammatical object in he moves (though in this case, the subject itself may be an implied object,
also expressible explicitly as in he moves himself); but in he moves the car, the subject and
object are distinct and the verb has a different valency. Some verbs in English, however, have
historically derived forms that show change of valency in some causative verbs, such as fall-fell-
fallen:fell-felled-felled; rise-rose-risen:raise-raised-raised; cost-cost-cost:cost-costed-costed.

In valency marking languages, valency change is shown by inflecting the verb in order to change
the valency. In Kalaw Lagaw Ya of Australia, for example, verbs distinguish valency by
argument agreement suffixes and TAM endings:

Nui mangema "He arrived earlier today" (mangema today past singular subject active intransitive
perfective)

Palai mangemanu "They [dual] arrived earlier today"

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Thana mangemainu "They [plural] arrived earlier today"

verb structure : manga-i-[number]-TAM "arrive+active+singular/dual/plural+TAM"

Nuidh wapi manganu "He took the fish [to that place] earlier today" (manganu today past
singular object attainative transitive perfective)

Nuidh wapi mangamanu "He took the two fish [to that place] earlier today"

Nuidh wapil mangamainu "He took the [three or more] fish [to that place] earlier today"

verb structure : manga-Ø-[number]-TAM "arrive+attainative+singular/dual/plural+TAM"

The verb stem manga- take/come/arrive at the destination takes the active suffix -i (> mangai-) in
the intransitive form, and as a transitive verb the stem is not suffixed. The TAM ending -nu is the
general today past attainative perfective, found with all numbers in the perfective except the
singular active, where -ma is found.

Tense, aspect, and modality

A single-word verb in Spanish contains information about time (past, present, future), person and
number. The process of grammatically modifying a verb to express this information is called
conjugation.

Main articles: Grammatical tense, Aspect (linguistics), Linguistic modality and Tense–aspect–
mood

Depending on the language, verbs may express grammatical tense, aspect, or modality.
Grammatical tense[3][4][5] is the use of auxiliary verbs or inflections to convey whether the action
or state is before, simultaneous with, or after some reference point. The reference point could be
the time of utterance, in which case the verb expresses absolute tense, or it could be a past,
present, or future time of reference previously established in the sentence, in which case the verb
expresses relative tense.

Aspect expresses how the action or state occurs through time. Important examples include:

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  perfective aspect, in which the action is viewed in its entirety through completion
(as in "I saw the car")

 imperfective aspect, in which the action is viewed as ongoing; in some languages

a verb could express imperfective aspect more narrowly as:

o habitual aspect, in which the action occurs repeatedly (as in "I used to go
there every day"), or

o continuous aspect, in which the action occurs without pause; continuous

aspect can be further subdivided into

 stative aspect, in which the situation is a fixed, unevolving state (as

in "I know French"), and

 progressive aspect, in which the situation continuously evolves (as

in "I am running")

o perfect, which combines elements of both aspect and tense and in which
both a prior event and the state resulting from it are expressed (as in "I
have studied well")

Aspect can either be lexical, in which case the aspect is embedded in the verb's meaning (as in
"the sun shines," where "shines" is lexically stative), or it can be grammatically expressed, as in
"I am running."

Modality expresses the speaker's attitude toward the action or state given by the verb, especially
with regard to degree of necessity, obligation, or permission ("You must go", "You should go",
"You may go"), determination or willingness ("I will do this no matter what"), degree of
probability ("It must be raining by now", "It may be raining", "It might be raining"), or ability ("I
can speak French"). All languages can express modality with adverbs, but some also use verbal
forms as in the given examples. If the verbal expression of modality involves the use of an
auxiliary verb, that auxiliary is called a modal verb. If the verbal expression of modality involves
inflection, we have the special case of mood; moods include the indicative (as in "I am there"),
the subjunctive (as in "I wish I were there"), and the imperative ("Be there!").

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 Intensive action is a verbs that can be viewed by the senses. words that show the work
associated with feelings. can not be in the form or in the form of being passive. example is the
need, like, miss, love. Intensive divided into two parts, namely intensive pure or can be in the
form of Be + S.C (noun phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, propositional phrases, gerund).
ing action can not use the form. action is divided into two parts of intransitive and transitive.
intransitive is a sentence where the sentence is no object or objects are given. intransitive split in
two forms, namely pure Intransitive verb (sleep, cry, go, stay, take) or ungiven object verb (i
drinks). whereas transitive divided into three parts, namely mono, di, complek. mono is a
transitive sentence that has only one object. The is a transitive sentence which has two objects
either direct or indirect object is always in close proximity to the object of the verb. complex is
only one object, but the object has a complement between an object and a complement that can
not be separated and pacified.

Example :

 She bought a book = mono

 She bought a book and a pen = mono
 She made me the cake = di
 Father sent me here = c
 We need you = intensive
 We are in the class = intensive
 You made me crying = c
9. Sentence Complement

A subordinate clause that functions as the subject, direct object, or prepositional object of
a verb, as that you like it in I'm surprised that you like it.

Example :

 She made the cake for me.

 You sleep every night with your friend.
S.C

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 (di awali oleh preposition)

 Mother was cooking the cake at 8.am today.

The second meeting

NOUN

Noun is nouns are often described as referring to persons, places, things, states, or
qualities, and the word noun is itself often used as an attributive modifier, as in noun compound;
noun group. See also noun adjunct, noun clause, noun phrase.

Noun is a words (other than a pronoun) used to identify any of a class of people, places,
or things common noun, or to name a particular one of these proper noun.

a. Abstract Noun

An abstract noun is a word which denotes some quality, state or action a part from
anything that possesses the quality, state or action, or a word for a concept – it is an idea that
exist in our mind only, for example:

- quality: the teacher will be happy with your cleverness.

- State: we have good pleasure today.
- Action: tony is our choice.
b. Concrete Noun

Concrete nouns are things that you can experience through your five senses: sight, smell,
hearing, taste, and touch. Concrete noun divided in two part that is seem and un-seem. Seem
(real) like dog, music,etc. un-seem (abstract) like ghost,etc. in seem and un-seem divided into
countable noun and uncountable noun.

 Countable noun is a noun can be counted by it self. It is usually made plural by

the addition of “s” and it is divided into two forms:
a. Singular
e.g: a book
a chair

19
 a letter
b. Plural
e.g: water
money
woman
 Uncountable noun is something that can be calculated with a rate as water,
oxygen, wind, kilograms, liters and more. For example water, oil, paper, mea, etc.
 Category of count and uncount
 Some = books, women, water, money can enter two part that is countable
and uncountable noun.
 Many/much = books, much water.
 A lot of = many or much.
A noun is a words that functions as the name of some specific thing or set of
things, such as living creatures, objects, places and actions.
c. Noun clause

Clause is Group of function which have a meaning which in the end with ( ., !, ?).

Clause is NC, ADV C, AC

Example: what you bought yesterday is very interesting

S P SC

(a good novel)

Father gave you what you asked before

S P O

Noun clause as an object complement

Uyung is whom you love until here after. = noun clause

S p SC

20
 Your boy friend made you what he wanted.

S P O OC noun clause.

Noun clause is an entire clause which takes the place of a noun in another clause
or phrase. Like a noun, a noun clause acts as a subject or object of a verb or the object of
a preposition, answering the questions “who(m)” or “what?” . for example:

Noun = I know latin.

Noun clause = I know that latin is no longer spoken as anative language.

Noun clauses can begin with …

 … a question word:

where he lives

what one says

who the man is

how she survives

 … “whether” or “if”

whether she will stay

if she will stay

 … a question word + TO infinitive

what to say

where to meet

 … “that”

that he is innocent

that she knows three languages

21
 e.g. That she worked hard for the whole term pleased her parents.

In this example, the whole that-clause is the subject of the sentence.

Instead of “that” we can also use the belief that, the fact that, the idea that, the
evidence that.

e.g. The fact that the economic growth rate is lower than the population growth rate
causes problems.

Noun clauses can begin with …

 … a question word:

where he lives

what one says

who the man is

how she survives

 … “whether” or “if”

whether she will stay

if she will stay

 … a question word + TO infinitive

what to say

where to meet

 … “that”

that he is innocent

that she knows three languages

22
e.g. That she worked hard for the whole term pleased her parents.

In this example, the whole that-clause is the subject of the sentence.

Instead of “that” we can also use the belief that, the fact that, the idea that, the evidence
that.

e.g. The fact that the economic growth rate is lower than the population growth rate causes
problems.

d. Noun phrase
Phrase is one word or more in sentences which is placed one function is like subject
only, predicate only, object only, complement only or adverbial only.
Phrase is NP, VP, AP, ADJ P, PP.
S P O C A

NP VP NP NP NP
Complement

SC ST. C (sentence. C)
OC
NP

NP

Noun phrase consists of a pronoun or noun with any associatedmodifiers,

including adjectives, adjective phrase, adjective clause, and other nouns in the possessive
case.
Noun phrases often function as verb subjects and objects, as predicative
expressions, and as the complements of prepositions. Noun phrases can be embedded
inside each other; for instance, the noun phrase some of his constituents contains the
shorter noun phrase his constituents.

23
The third meeting

ADJECTIVE

Adjective is a word that always side by side with objects. each object definitely has an
adjective. An adjective is a kind of word (a part of speech) that modifies (describes) a noun.
Nouns are words that name a place, a person, a thing, or an idea. An adjective is a word that
gives more information about the noun that goes with it (accompanies).

As a rule, in English, the adjective comes before the noun it describes. Adjective changes
of noun. An adjective is a word that gives instant information about a noun to make a clear
picture of the noun in the mind of the reader and create a feeling of the writer.

1. Pure Adjective

Example :

Clever cleverer the cleverest

Diligent most diligent the most diligent

Good better the best

2. Kata sifat jadian seperti past participle / passive

Example :

- This is the opened book.

- You will be the educated pople.
3. Present Participle
4. Adjective Phrase cannot enter to subject
5. Salah satu yang bias melengkapi complement
C BERDIRI SENDIRI (V)

24
 SC OC SC

AP AP PP

COMPLEXS TRANSITIVE SENTENCE

Example :

- She is diligent.
- She is beautiful.
- Mother made me happy.
6. Adjective Clause
a. Adjective clauses perform the same function in sentences that adjectives do: they modify
nouns.
- The teacher has a car. (Car is a noun.)
- It’s a new car. (New is an adjective which modifies car.)
- The car that she is driving is not hers.

(That she is driving is an adjective clause which modifies car. It’s a clause because it
has a subject (she) and a predicate (is driving); it’s an adjective clause because it modifies a
noun.)

Note that adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify; adjective clauses always
follow the nouns they modify.

b. A sentence which contains one adjective clause and one independent clause is the result of
combining two clauses which contain a repeated noun. You can combine two independent
clauses to make one sentence containing an adjective clause by following these steps:
1. You must have two clauses which contain a repeated noun (or pronoun, or noun and
pronoun which refer to the same thing). Here are two examples:

25
 - The book is on the table. + I like the book.
- The man is here. + The man wants the book.
2. Delete the repeated noun and replace it with a relative pronoun in the clause you want to
make dependent. See C. below for information on relative pronouns.
- The book is on the table. + I like which
- The man is here. + who wants the book
3. Move the relative pronoun to the beginning of its clause (if it is not already there). The
clause is now an adjective clause.
- The book is on the table. + which I like
- The man is here. + who wants the book
4. Put the adjective clause immediately after the noun phrase it modifies (the repeated
noun):
- The book which I like is on the table.
- The man who wants the book is here.
c. The subordinators in adjective clauses are called relative pronouns.
1. These are the most important relative pronouns: who, whom, that, which.

These relative pronouns can be omitted when they are objects of verbs. When they are
objects of prepositions, they can be omitted when they do not follow the preposition.

Who replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and
pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. In informal writing
(but not in academic writing), it can be used as the object of a verb.

Whom replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and
pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be the object of a verb or preposition. It cannot
be the subject of a verb.

Which replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It cannot replace
nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the
object of a verb or preposition.

That replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people, animals or things. It can be the
subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition (but that cannot follow a

26
preposition; whom, which, and whose are the only relative pronouns that can follow a
preposition).

2. The following words can also be used as relative pronouns: whose, when, where.

Whose replaces possessive forms of nouns and pronouns (see WF11 and pro in
Correction Symbols Two). It can refer to people, animals or things. It can be part of a subject
or part of an object of a verb or preposition, but it cannot be a complete subject or object.
Whose cannot be omitted. Here are examples with whose:

- The man is happy. + I found the man’s wallet. =

- The man whose wallet I found is happy. \
- The girl is excited. + Her mother won the lottery. =
- The girl whose mother won the lottery is excited.

When replaces a time (in + year, in + month, on + day,...). It cannot be a subject. It can
be omitted. Here is an example with when:

I will never forget the day. + I graduated on that day.=

I will never forget the day when I graduated.
The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:
I will never forget the day on which I graduated.
I will never forget the day that I graduated.
I will never forget the day I graduated.

Where replaces a place (in + country, in + city, at + school,...). It cannot be a subject.

It can be omitted but a preposition (at, in, to) usually must be added. Here is an example with
where:

The building is new. + He works in the building. =

The building where he works is new.
The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:
The building in which he works is new.
The building which he works in is new.
The building that he works in is new.

27
 The building he works in is new.

d. Adjective clauses can be restrictive or nonrestrictive

1. A restrictive adjective clause contains information that is necessary to identify the noun it
modifies. If a restrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the
main clause changes. A restrictive adjective clause is not separated from the main clause
by a comma or commas. Most adjective clauses are restrictive; all of the examples of
adjective clauses above are restrictive. Here is another example:
People who can’t swim should not jump into the ocean.
2. A nonrestrictive adjective clause gives additional information about the noun it modifies
but is not necessary to identify that noun. If a nonrestrictive adjective clause is removed
from a sentence, the meaning of the main clause does not change. A nonrestrictive
adjective clause is separated from the main clause by a comma or commas. The relative
pronoun that cannot be used in nonrestrictive adjective clauses. The relative pronoun
cannot be omitted from a nonrestrictive clause. Here is an example:
Billy, who couldn’t swim, should not have jumped into the ocean.
e. Adjective clauses can often be reduced to phrases. The relative pronoun (RP) must be the
subject of the verb in the adjective clause. Adjective clauses can be reduced to phrases in two
different ways depending on the verb in the adjective clause.
1. RP + BE = 0
People who are living in glass houses should not throw stones. (clause)
People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)
Mary applied for a job that was advertised in the paper. (clause)
Mary applied for a job advertised in the paper. (phrase)
2. RP + OTHER VERB (not BE) = OTHER VERB + ing
People who live in glass houses should not throw stones.(clause)
People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)
Students who sit in the front row usually participate more. (clause)
Students sitting in the front row usually participate more. (phrase)
7. Comparative and Superlative

28
 Sometimes there are different forms of the same adjective. If one joke makes a person
laugh more than another joke, then that joke is funnier. This is called the comparative form of the
adjective. The day that is colder than any other is the coldest day. This is the superlative form of
"cold". Some adjectives need additional words when we want to compare them. For instance, one
car may be cheaper than another, but the second car may be more reliable. (We use "more
reliable", instead of "reliabler".) Reliable means worthy of trust.

The fourth meeting

Relatife clause

Clausa Relatif

Defining RC Non Defining RC

Defining RC = The, tanpa koma.

Example :

- I saw the girl.

We know it

- The man is your father

I saw him yesterday in campus (AC)

The man whom I saw yesterday in campus is your father.

29
Non Defining RC = a/am, nama diri/benda, ada dua koma, tidak tahu siapa yang sedang di
bicarakan.

Example :

- Aisyah is very beautiful.

- I love her so much.

Aisyah, whom I love so much, is very beautiful.

A relative clause is a kind of subordinate clause, one of whose arguments shares a

referent with a main clause element on which the subordinate clause is grammatically dependent.

Typically, a relative clause modifies a noun or noun phrase, and uses some grammatical
device to indicate that one of the arguments within the relative clause has the same referent as
that noun or noun phrase. For example, in the sentence I met a man who wasn't there, the
subordinate clause who wasn't there is a relative clause, since it modifies the noun man, and uses
the pronoun who to indicate that the same "man" is referred to within the subordinate clause (in
this case, as its subject).

In many European languages, relative clauses are introduced by a special class of

pronouns called relative pronouns, such as who in the example just given. In other languages,
relative clauses may be marked in different ways: they may be introduced by a special class of
conjunctions called relativizer, the main verb of the relative clause may appear in a special
morphological variant; or a relative clause may be indicated by word order alone. In some
languages, more than one of these mechanisms may be possible.

Type of Relative clauses :

1. Defining Relative Clauses

Relative clauses add extra information to a sentence by defining a noun. They are usually
divided into two types – defining relative clauses and non-defining relative clauses.

Look at this sentence:

30
 - The woman who lives next door works in a bank.

who lives next door’ is a defining relative clause. It tells us which woman we are talking
about.

Look at some more examples:

- Look out! There’s the dog that bit my brother.

- The film that we saw last week was awful.
- This is the skirt I bought in the sales.

Can you identify the defining relative clauses? They tell us which dog, which film and
which skirt we are talking about.

2. Relative pronouns

https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/grammar-reference/relative-clauses-defining-relative-
clauses

Relative clauses are often introduced by a relative pronoun (usually who, which, that, but
when, where and whose are also possible).

With defining relative clauses we can use who or that to talk about people.

- She’s the woman who cuts my hair.

- She’s the woman that cuts my hair.

And we can use that or which to talk about things.

- Dog that bit my brother.

- The dog which bit my brother.

It is also sometimes possible to omit the relative pronoun.

- This is the skirt that I bought in the sales.

- This is the skirt which I bought in the sales.

31
 - This is the skirt I bought in the sales.
3. Non-defining Relative Clauses

Relative clauses add extra information to a sentence by defining a noun. They are usually
divided into two types – defining relative clauses and non-defining relative clauses.

Non-defining relative clauses

Look at this sentence.

- My grandfather, who is 87, goes swimming every day.

‘who is 87’ is a non-defining relative clause. It adds extra information to the sentence. If
we take the clause out of the sentence, the sentence still has the same meaning.

Look at some more examples.

- The film, which stars Tom Carter, is released on Friday.

- My eldest son, whose work takes him all over the world, is in Hong Kong at the moment.
- The car, which can reach speeds of over 300km/ph, costs over $500,000.

https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/grammar-reference/relative-clauses-non-defining-
relative-clauses

32
the fiveth meeting

ADVERB

When Who Action Who How Where When

(adverb Which (verb) Which (adverb (adverb (adverb
of time) What What of of place) of time)
(subject) (objecy) manner)
Last I Went To the
week movie
I Had A very
good seat
He Took Her To the Last night
movie
She went quickly
An adverb is a word which is used for qualifying the meaning of a verb,an adjective,
other adverbs, a preposition or a conjunction. An adverb can modify averb, an adjective, another
adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An adverbindicates manner, time, place,cause, or degree and
answers questions such as “how, when, how much”. An adverb is a word used to tell more about
a verb, and it almost always answers the questions how?, when?, where?, how often?, and in
what way?. Words like slowly, loudly, carefully, quickly, quietly or sadly are all adverbs.
Adverbs usually, but not always, end in -ly.

Examples of adverbs in a sentence (with the adverb in italics):

 How did the man walk? The man walked slowly.

 How did the dogs bark? The dogs barked loudly.

An adverb can also modify (describe) an adjective or another adverb.

Examples:

 Adverb modifying a verb: He writes well

 Adverb modifying another adverb: He writes very well

 Adverb modifying an adjective: He is very well

33
In the first two examples the word 'well' is an adverb. In the last example, it is an adjective. This
is one example in which the same word can be both an adjective and an adverb but not in the
same sentence.

As a rule, the same word can play different roles but not in the same sentence. It all depends on
what the word is doing in the sentence. It could be a noun, an adjective, an adverb, a verb, etc.
Example: take the word 'cool'. In the sentence, "he walks cool", the word 'cool' is an adverb. In
the sentence, "cool the hot dish", the word 'cool' is a verb. In the sentence, "it is a cool evening",
the word 'cool' is an adjective. In the first example, "he walks cool", the word 'cool' really means
'coolly' as in "play it cool" (do not get excited; be calm).

While some adverb can be identified by their characteristic “ly” suffix, most of them
must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentences or clause as
a whole. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the sentences

1. Type of adverb
a. Adverb of time.
b. Adverb of place.
c. Adverb of frequency.
d. Adverb of degree.
e. Adverb of manner.
f. Adverb of quality.
g. Adverb of quantity.
h. Adverb of distribution
 Adverb of time is used to tell the time that an action happens or someone does something.
The most important use of adverbs of time are:
1) Now
2) Then
3) Since
4) Before
5) Ago
6) Already
7) Soon

34
 8) Today
9) Yesterday
10) Tomorrow, ect.

For example: I will go Bali tomorrow.

Yesterday, she met me at Jakarta.

The students are writing lesson now.

 Adverb of place is used to tell the place where an action occurs or where someone does
something. The most important use of an adverb of place are:
1) Here.
2) There
3) Above
4) Below
5) In
6) Out
7) Inside
8) Without
9) Near
10) Anywhere

For example: you may stay here

Professor teachers science everywhere

My home is near the market.

 Adverb of frequency is used to expresses how often something happens or someone does
something.

Always

everyday usually

normally

35
 generally often

frequently

sometime

occasionally seldom rarely

hardly ever never

Subject + Adverb of Frequency + Verb + Complement

Example:

- They always do their homework at afternoon.

- We sometime go to the market at the weekend.

 Adverb of degree is used to give information about the extent or degree of something.
Andadverb of degrre can participate in several layers of modification__he drunk far too
much coffee; he can finish this job ever so much more quickly than I can.The most
important use of an adverb of degree are:
1) Very
2) Quite
3) Fairly
4) Extremely
5) Too
6) Enough
7) Almost, ect.
For example: Subject + Intransitive Verb + Adverb of Degree

- My friends talk a lot.

- The economy grows extremely.

Sub +Transitive Verb + Object + Adverb of Degree

- My boss treats all workers fairly.

36
 - Children study English, too.

Subject +Linking Verb + Adverb of Degree + Adjective

- She seems too hungry.

- I feel too much better.

Adverb of time and adverb of place always stand in complement and adverbial.

Example :

1 Always love you.

Usually

Often

Sometimes

Seldom

Really

never

ne

Frequency diletakan sebelum predikat.

- I love you seriously.

Manner diletakan setelah verb, menjelaskan verb.

 She is hard.
 She is a hard girl.
 She works hard.
- I love you much
I love you so much
I love you very much degree

37
 I love you too much
I do love you

Example :

When, while, where

- Mother was cooking at 6.am

- My father come home at 6.am
My mother was cooking and my father come home at 6.a.m.

 Adverb of manner is used to tell how an actionhappens.

Those Adverbs of Manner are:

Badly, beautifully, carefully, quickly, softly, lately, hardly, late, hard, truly, fast, easily,
fully, automatically,etc.

For example:

She dances beautifully.

He runs quickly.

She hardly believes you.

He lately goes to L.E.

PP

Note: adverb of time just filled in C + A = Adverb Adv p Adv.c

Adverb of place

S P O C A NP

SC OC St.C

38
The sixth meeting

PREPOSITION

The preposition is classified as a art of speech in traditional grammar. It denotes

the relationship to same other word in a sentence which are placed before a noun of
pronoun. However, preposition as well as conjunctions differ from otherpart of speech in
that (1) each is composed of a small class of words that have no formal characteristic
endings, (2) each signal syntactic structure that function as one of the other parts of
speech.

A preposition signals that a noun or noun structure follows it: the preposition +
noun combination constitutes a prepositional phrase, for example he walked into the
house. A prepositional phrase may function as an adverb, adjective or noun. Since the
preposition is an integral part of the prepositional phrase.

1. Type of preposition
a. Simple preposition
b. Double preposition
c. Compound preposition
d. Participial preposition
e. Preposition phrase
a) Simple preposition, the most commonly used simple prepositions are:
after, at, by, for, from, at, over, on, in, through, to, off, until, under, up,
with, ect.
Example: I saw him on Friday.
He was at school when I was sick.
They come from Bandung.
b) Double preposition, the most commonly use double prepositions are: into,
onto, from under, from among, from off, from within, over again, etc.
Example : the boy gets into beds.
There is a most intelligent from among student.

39
 c) Compound preposition is a preposition which is formed from noun,
adjective or adverb and it is combined with prepositions “be (by) or a
(an)”.
The most commonly used double prepositions are: across (on cross),
along, amidst (on middle), behind (by hind), etc.
d) Participial preposition the most commonly used participial preposition are:
during, not withstanding, past, expect, save, considering, touching,
concerning, regarding, and own to.
Example: it is equater past one.
He works every day except on Friday.
Don’t think saveyour study.
e) Preposition phrase, the most commonly used preposition phrase are:
because of, by reasons, for the purpose of, for the shake of, in place of, on
behalf of, with regard to, in fron of, in apposition of, etc.
Example:
Ahmad doesnot enter the class because of his illness.
A student goes to the school in spite of raining heavily.
2. The functions of preposition.
a. The preposition has the function of connecting a noun or pronoun to another
verb, usually a noun, verb or adjective.
Example: The girl with the red hair is beautiful.

With connects hair with the noun girl.

They arrived in the morning.

In connects morning with the verb arrived

40
 She is fond of rose.

Of connects roses with the adjective fond

Other nominals than noun or pronoun that may be joined to a sentence by preposition are:

Gerund phrase: the jeweler did not object to showing the diamond ring to her.

Noun phrase: the jeweler showed the diamond ring to whoever might be a potential
buyer
After a verb of motion, a preposition of position or direction may be used without anoun
object. Such a prepositional form is usually classified as an adverb. For example:

preposition He fell down the stairs. (down as a preposition is unstressed)

Please come in the house.
adverb He fell down. (down as an adverb is stressed)
Please come in.
b. A preposition may be combine with a verb to form anew vocabulary item. This
verb-preposition combination goes by several names-two part vertb, composite
verb, phrasal verb. The prepositional form used with the verb may be reffered to
as an adverb, a prepositional adverb, or by the more general term “particle”.the
verbs in such combinations are mostly one-sylablle wors, the most common
preposition are those denoting place-in, out, on, off, over, up, down.
1. The preposition in

The rules in the use of the preposition in is as follows:

1. To declare the place to be used in front of the noun as a variation of the word in the
front. As for example is not to play in the classroom, the pen is stored in a bag, and so
forth.
2. To declare to be in a situation or event in use in front of the noun. For example, we have
to be careful when walking alone in the big city.
3. To declare a period of use advance word that declares a long time. Example: the house
will be finished in a few days, within five days I'll finish the homework.

41
2. Said Home top

The use of prepositions above are as follows:

1. To declare the place used before a noun as a variant of the word above. example:
 I live on strength.
 Various calamity has befallen upon me.
2. To connect the intransitive predicate with its equipment. example:
 I was to inherit it.
 I'm sorry for what happened yesterday.
 I condolences over the death of the host Ridwan.

The preposition above can also be used also in some expressions that are fixed, such as:

- On behalf of the

- Top of the will

- On the advice

- At the request of

- At the urging

C. The preposition between

The use of the preposition between are as follows :

1. To declare the distance, in use in front of two nouns that states place coupled with a
preposition. example:
 I have trouble choosing between you and him.
 The distance between my house and the house very much.
 The difference between the hut and palace.
2. To declare that there are two parties in use in the face of two nouns that states or the
people in action. example:
 Tensions between FPI and Ahok heats up.

42
  Peace between Israeli forces and Palestinians in Gaza will never happen.
3. To declare a place, a time, a situation or thing, for example:
 The plane crashed between regions of Russia and the Netherlands.
 The accident occurred between a car and a motorcycle.
D. Preposition to

The use of prepositions is as follows:

1. To declare the destination. example:

- I have sent a letter to the principal.

- I'll tell you.

- I will inform them.

2. To declare the intended direction. example:

- I was terrified to you.

- I always remember to duty.

E. The preposition will

As for the future use of the word will is as follows:

1. For a pointed object. example:

- I still remember the kindness.

- I will always think of your loyalty over the years.

F. Preposition to

43
 The use of the preposition to is as follows:

1. Fatherly stated target actions. example:

- I am obedient to your orders.

- I am very respectful of his mother's orders.

2. To declare the subject. example:

- I have no doubt of the words.

G. form of the preposition

1. single preposition is a preposition which consists of a single word. namely:

- Prepositions which form the basic word consisting of one morpheme. Example: will, between,
for.

- Prepositions, which are words formed by adding the suffix affixed to the basic shape in the
form of verbs, nouns, adjectives or nouns.

- In the form prefixed preposition.

- Proposition suffixed form.

- Prepositions are prefixed and suffixed.

The seventh meeting

CONDITIONAL SENTENCE

the condition clause (protasis) is a dependent clause, most commonly introduced by

the conjunction if. Other conjunctions or equivalent expressions may also be used, such
as unless (meaning "if...not"), provided (that), providing (that) and as long as. Certain condition
clauses can also be formulated using inversion without any conjunction; see Inversion in
condition clauses below.

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The apodosis, expressing the consequence of the stated condition, is generally the main clause of
the sentence. Depending on the sentence type, it may be a statement, question, or order. It may
appear before or after the condition clause:

If I see him, I will tell him. (declarative sentence, condition first)

I will tell him if I see him. (declarative sentence, condition second)

If you saw him, would you tell him? (interrogative sentence, condition first)

Would you tell him if you saw him? (interrogative sentence, condition second)

If you see it, photograph it. (imperative sentence, condition first)

Photograph it if you see it. (imperative sentence, condition second)

As with other dependent clauses in English, it is common for a comma to be used to separate
the clauses if the dependent clause comes first (as is done in the above examples).
See Comma: Separation of clauses.

It is possible for the consequence clause to appear alone in a sentence, without a condition
clause, if the condition has been previously stated or is understood from the context. It may
also be shortened by verb phrase ellipsis; a minimal conditional sentence could therefore be
something like "Would you?" or "I would."

1. Probable

The definition of probable is likely to happen or to be true. Probable is likely but not
certain to be or become true or real, “a likely result”. Probable in adjective is :

 Likely
 Possible
 Apparent
 Reasonable to think

45
  Most likely
 Presumed
 Credible
 Plausible
 Feasible
 Odds-on
 On the cards
 Presumable it is probable that food prices will increase
2. Improbable

The definition of improbable is something unlikely to happen or unlikely o be true. The

idea that the sun spins around the Earth is an example of something that would be described as a
improbable idea. When they are calling for a 90 percent chance of rain, this is an example of a
time when sunshine is improbable.

For example :

a. Not likely to be true.

“it’s highly improbable that aliens abducted you”.
b. Not likely to happen.
“Due to the loss of power, it is improbable that we will begin on time”.

3. Impossible

In cambridge dictionaries the definition of impossible divided into five described, that is :

a. If an action or event is impossible, it cannot happen or be achieved. For example :

- It was impossible to sleep because of the noise.
- It seems impossible that I could have walked by without noticing her.
- He made it impossible for me to say no.
b. Describes a situasion that is extremely difficult to deal with or solve. For example :
- It’s an impossible situasion.
- She’s got to leave him but she can’t bear losing her children.

46
c. Describes a person who behaves very badly or is extremely difficult to deal with. For example
:
- I had to leave the job because my boss was impossible.
- My niece is impossible when she’s tired you can’t do anything to please her.
d. Something that cannot be expected to happen or exist. For example :
- She wants a man who is attractive and funny as well, which is asking the impossible in my
opinion.
4. Imajinary

Imajinary is a existing only in the imagination. Imajinary is a number or quantity that

expressed in terms of the square root of a negative number.

For example all of materials:

- I will/shall take a prayer of ashar today. (Present Future)

(new planning) or or niat or still planning.

- I would/should take a prayer of Ashar today.

(the meaning of this examples that you didn’t take a prayer).
- I am taking a prayer of Ashar today. (S.P.C)
- I am going to take a prayer of Ashar today. (Pr. C)
- I will take a prayer if I have taken ablution.

Would/should adalah segala sesuatu yang tidak dilakukan atau belum terjadi karena
sebenarnya hal tersebut harus dilakukan tetapi ini tidak dilakukan mungkin karena lupa atau
yang lainnya.

For example :

- You would go to the store if you had some money yesterday.

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 (dalam contoh ini dapat disimpulkan bahwa seharusnya kemarin dia bisa pergi ke took
tetapi tidak dilakukannya sebab dia tidak mempunyai uang dan jika kemarin dia mempunyai
uang maka dia akan pergi ke took tetapi kenyataannya tidak).

5. Promising

In adjective promising is a showing signs of future success. In a verb the definition of

promising is a assure someone that one will definitely do, give, or arrange something or
undertake or declare that something will happen. Promising always limited time and place.

For example :

- If you want to see me, please come to my homeat 9.p.m. tonight.

- I will be staying at my home at 8.p.m. tonight.
- She will be watching Masha and the Bear at 3.p.m. at her home.

Will be + ing

- Present future continuous

- He will have taken a prayer of Ashar at 3.30 p.m. today.

That is limited time and place.

- Present perfect continuous
- He will have been taking a prayer of Ashar for 5 minutes today.

Selama
- She will have eaten at 4 p.m. if you come home. ( she will have eaten forever before you
coming but if you come home she will be stop it).
- I will have stopped loving you if you are died.

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 Logic

6. Impossible
The other definition of impossible is not able to occur, exist or be done. Examples for
impossible :
- She would have been at home yesterday if she had come early.
- Aisyah will receive Ahmad’s love if he asked her to her father, (that is probable).
- It’s kind of impossible not to notice the weird emphasis on cleaning here. “They are lots
of fun, nut getting good results can often range from frustrating to impossible.
- In practice, marshaling the efforts of laboratories across the world to do that would be an
impossible task.

It is impossible to do something :

a. Extremely difficult to do or to deal with : “the job makes impossible demands on your
patience”.
b. Be impossible to do something : “ this book is impossible to read without crying”.
c. Make something impssible : “Dealing with her illness makes life pretty impossible for the
rest of the family”.

The eight meeting

Constaraint of passive voice

FUNCTION Subject Predicate Object (O) Complement Adverbial

ROLE (S) (P) (C) (A)
Subjective V - V
Predicate - V -
Objective V - V

49
 Experiencer V - V
Locative V - V
Instrument V - V

The passive voice is a grammatical construction (specifically, a "voice"). The noun or noun
phrase that would be the object of an active sentence (such as Our troops defeated the enemy)
appears as the subject of a sentence with passive voice (e.g. The enemy was defeated by our
troops).

The subject of a sentence or clause featuring the passive voice typically denotes the recipient of
the action (the patient) rather than the performer (the agent). The passive voice in English is
formed periphrastically: the usual form uses the auxiliary verb be (or get) together with the past
participle of the main verb.

For example, Caesar was stabbed by Brutus uses the passive voice. The subject denotes the
person (Caesar) affected by the action of the verb. The agent is expressed here with the phrase by
Brutus, but this can be omitted. The equivalent sentence in active voice is Brutus stabbed
Caesar, in which the subject denotes the doer, or agent, Brutus. A sentence featuring the passive
voice is sometimes called a passive sentence, and a verb phrase in passive voice is sometimes
called a passive verb.

English allows a number of passive constructions which are not possible in many of the other
languages with similar passive formation. These include promotion of an indirect object to
subject (as in Tom was given a bag) and promotion of the complement of a preposition (as in Sue
was operated on, leaving a stranded preposition).

The passive voice is a specific grammatical construction; not every expression that serves to take
focus away from the performer of an action is classified as an instance of passive voice. The
essential components of the English passive voice are a form of the auxiliary verb be (or
sometimes get), and the past participle of the main verb denoting the action. For example:

... that all men are created equal...

We have been cruelly deceived.

50
 The captain was struck by a missile.

I got kicked in the face during the fight.

(For exceptions, see Additional passive constructions below.) The agent (the doer of the
action) may be specified, using a prepositional phrase with the preposition by, as in the third
example, but it is equally possible to omit this, as is done in the other examples.

A distinction is made between the above type of clause, and those of similar form in which
the past participle is used as an ordinary adjective, and the verb be or similar is simply
a copula linking the subject of the sentence to that adjective. For example:

I am excited (right now).

This would not normally be classed as a passive sentence, since the

participle excited is used adjectivally to denote a state, not to denote an action of
excitation (as it would in the passive the electron was excited with a laser pulse).
See Stative and adjectival uses below.

Sentences which do not follow the pattern described above are not considered to be in the
passive voice, even if they have a similar function of avoiding or marginalizing reference
to the agent. An example is the sentence A stabbing occurred, where mention of the
stabber is avoided, but the sentence is nonetheless cast in the active voice, with the verbal
noun stabbing forming the subject of the simple past tense of the verb occur.
(Similarly There was a stabbing.) Occasionally, however, writers misapply the term
"passive voice" to sentences of this type.[8] An example of this loose usage can be found
in the following extract from an article from The New Yorker about Bernard
Madoff(bolding and italics added; bold text indicates the verbs misidentified as passive
voice):

Two sentences later, Madoff said, "When I began the Ponzi scheme, I believed it would
end shortly, and I would be able to extricate myself, and my clients, from the scheme."
As he read this, he betrayed no sense of how absurd it was to use the passive voice in
regard to his scheme, as if it were a spell of bad weather that had descended on him . . .
In most of the rest of the statement, one not only heard the aggrieved passive voice, but

51
 felt the hand of a lawyer: "To the best of my recollection, my fraud began in the early
nineteen-nineties."[9]

The intransitive verbs would end and began are in fact in the active voice. Although the
speaker uses the words in a manner that subtly diverts responsibility from him, this is not
accomplished by use of passive voice.

Example:

Ruangan ini memuat 50 orang = locative

Kudaitu membawa barang- banrang= instrument

Cant to be transform to passive voice

# intensive structure.

# intransitive structure.

# complex transitive.

# the sentence which is subject is not subjective may as: objective, locative,
instrumentative, experience.

Use of the passive voice:

1. Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known,
however, who or what is performing the action.

Example: "A letter was written."

The focus, here, is on the fact that a letter was written. We don't know, however, who
wrote it.

2. Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following
example shows:
Example: A vase was broken.

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 Focus, here, is on the fact that a vase was broken, but we don't blame anyone. Compare
this to: "You broke the vase."

Form of the passive voice:

Subject + the appropriate form of to be + Past Participle

NOTE: The appropriate form of to be = To be is put in the the tense of the active voice main
verb.

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

 The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.

 The form of the verb is the appropriate form of to be (the tense of the active voice main
verb) + the past participle.

 The subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is
dropped.

Example:

Nancy makes tea

Active
subject verb object

Tea is made (by Nancy)

Passive
object becoming subject verb subject becoming object or is dropped

Examples of the passive voice:

53
Tense Subject Verb Object

Active: Nancy makes tea.

Simple Present
Passive: Tea is made by Nancy.

Active: Nancy is making tea.

Present
Progressive
Passive: Tea is being made by Nancy.

Active: Nancy made tea.

Simple Past
Passive: Tea was made by Nancy.

Active: Nancy was making tea.

Past Progressive
Passive: Tea was being made by Nancy.

Active: Nancy has made Tea.

Present Perfect
Passive: Tea has been made by Nancy.

Active: Nancy had made tea.

Past Perfect
Passive: Tea had been made by Nancy.

Active: Nancy will make tea.

Future simple
Passive: Tea will be made by Nancy.

Future perfect Active: Nancy will have made tea.

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 Passive: Tea will have been made by Nancy.

Active: Nancy would make tea.

Conditional
Passive: Tea would be made by Nancy.

Active: Nancy can make tea.

Modals
Passive: Tea can be made by Nancy.

Passive voice sentences with two Objects:

Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects
becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject
depends on what you want to put the focus on.

Active/Passive Subject Verb Object 1 Object 2

Active: Nancy offered a flower to me.

Passive: A flower was offered to me by Nancy.

Passive: I was offered a flower by Nancy.

Impersonal Passive:

Study these examples:

 They say that the planet is in danger.

 It is said that the planet is in danger.

This type of passive is called impersonal because we use the impersonal form "it is..." This is
only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know ...)

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Examples:

 It is said that...

 It is thought that...

 It is believed that...

 It is known that...

It is also common that we start the passive form of these sentences with the subject of the that-
clause:

Examples:

 They say that the planet is in danger.= The planet is said to be in danger.

 They think that women live longer than men. = Women are thought to live longer.

The tenth meeting

AMBIGUOUS SENTENCES

A word, phrase, or sentence is ambiguous if it has more than one meaning. The word
'light', for example, can mean not very heavy or not very dark. Words like 'light', 'note', 'bear' and
'over' are lexically ambiguous. They induce ambiguity in phrases or sentences in which they
occur, such as 'light suit' and 'The duchess can't bear children'. However, phrases and sentences
can be ambiguous even if none of their constituents is. The phrase 'porcelain egg container' is

56
structurally ambiguous, as is the sentence 'The police shot the rioters with guns'. Ambiguity can
have both a lexical and a structural basis, as with sentences like 'I left her behind for you' and 'He
saw her duck'.

The lexical ambiguity of a word or phrase pertains to its having more than one meaning
in the language to which the word belongs. "Meaning" here refers to whatever should be
captured by a good dictionary. For instance, the word "bank" has several distinct lexical
definitions, including "financial institution" and "edge of a river". Another example is as in
"apothecary". One could say "I bought herbs from the apothecary". This could mean one actually
spoke to the apothecary (pharmacist) or went to the apothecary (pharmacy).

The context in which an ambiguous word is used often makes it evident which of the
meanings is intended. If, for instance, someone says "I buried $100 in the bank", most people
would not think someone used a shovel to dig in the mud. However, some linguistic contexts do
not provide sufficient information to disambiguate a used word. For example,

Lexical ambiguity can be addressed by algorithmic methods that automatically associate

the appropriate meaning with a word in context, a task referred to as word sense disambiguation.

The use of multi-defined words requires the author or speaker to clarify their context, and
sometimes elaborate on their specific intended meaning (in which case, a less ambiguous term
should have been used). The goal of clear concise communication is that the receiver(s) have no
misunderstanding about what was meant to be conveyed. An exception to this could include a
politician whose "weasel words" and obfuscation are necessary to gain support from multiple
constituents with mutually exclusive conflicting desires from their candidate of choice.
Ambiguity is a powerful tool of political science.

More problematic are words whose senses express closely related concepts. "Good", for
example, can mean "useful" or "functional" (That's a good hammer), "exemplary" (She's a good
student), "pleasing" (This is good soup), "moral" (a good person versus the lesson to be learned
from a story), "righteous", etc. " I have a good daughter" is not clear about which sense is
intended. The various ways to apply prefixes and suffixes can also create ambiguity
("unlockable" can mean "capable of being unlocked" or "impossible to lock").

57
 Syntactic ambiguity arises when a sentence can have two (or more) different meanings
because of the structure of the sentence—its syntax. This is often due to a modifying expression,
such as a prepositional phrase, the application of which is unclear. "He ate the cookies on the
couch", for example, could mean that he ate those cookies that were on the couch (as opposed to
those that were on the table), or it could mean that he was sitting on the couch when he ate the
cookies. "To get in, you will need an entrance fee of $10 or your voucher and your drivers'
license." This could mean that you need EITHER ten dollars OR BOTH your voucher and your
license. Or it could mean that you need EITHER ten dollars OR a voucher AND you also need
your license. Only rewriting the sentence, or placing appropriate punctuation can resolve a
syntactic ambiguity.[2] For the notion of, and theoretic results about, syntactic ambiguity in
artificial, formal languages (such as computer programming languages), see Ambiguous
grammar.

Spoken language can contain many more types of ambiguities, where there is more than
one way to compose a set of sounds into words, for example "ice cream" and "I scream". Such
ambiguity is generally resolved according to the context. A mishearing of such, based on
incorrectly resolved ambiguity, is called a mondegreen.

Semantic ambiguity happens when a sentence contains an ambiguous word or phrase—a

word or phrase that has more than one meaning. In "We saw her duck" (example due to Richard
Nordquist), the word "duck" can refer either

1. to the person's bird (the noun "duck", modified by the possessive pronoun "her"), or

2. to a motion she made (the verb "duck", the subject of which is the objective pronoun "her", object
of the verb "saw").

For example, "You could do with a new automobile. How about a test drive?" The clause
"You could do with" presents a statement with such wide possible interpretation as to be
essentially meaningless. Lexical ambiguity is contrasted with semantic ambiguity. The former
represents a choice between a finite number of known and meaningful context-dependent
interpretations. The latter represents a choice between any number of possible interpretations,

58
none of which may have a standard agreed-upon meaning. This form of ambiguity is closely
related to vagueness.

 Ability

Snakes and other spider, frog = venompoisent

Example : she talked to me in the class

Post-modified

S P O Adv

We were in the class when she talked to me

I was in the class when she talked to me

In the class she talked to me

We were in the class when she talked to me

She in the class talked to me

# I saw a man on a hill with a telescope

Simple present simple past

4 interpretation 1 interpretion

a. As simple present tense

We were on a hill. I was cutting him by using a telescope.
b. As simple past tense
# there was a man on a hill, I was watching him by using my telescope.
# there was a man on a hill, I was watching and he used a telescope.
# there was a man on a hill, I was watching and he used a telescope

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 # I was on a hill and I was watching a man by my telescope. (a man not on a
hill).

Translate into English and than give your interpretation.

Istri kopral yang nakal itu pergi ke pasar kematin.

I. The wife of naughty corporal went to market yesterday.

The naughty corporal’s wife went to the market yesterday.
II. The naughty wife of corporal went to the market yesterday.
The corporal’s naughty wife went to market yesterday.

He looked at the dog with one eye.

a. He looked at the dog with his one eye.

b. He looked at the dog which had one eye.
c. He used one eye of his eyes to talked at the dog.
d. According to rere he looked at the dog it had one eye.

The eleventh meeting

CLAUSE

Noun clause adjective clause adverb clause.

60
Clauses come in four types: main [or independent], subordinate [or dependent], adjective [or
relative], and noun. Every clause has at least a subject and a verb. Other characteristics will help
you distinguish one type of clause from another.

Main Clauses

Every main clause will follow this pattern:

subject + verb = complete thought.

Here are some examples:

Lazy students whine.

Students = subject; whine = verb.

Cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter.

Cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs.

My dog loves pizza crusts.

Dog = subject; loves = verb.

The important point to remember is that every sentence must have at least one main clause.
Otherwise, you have a fragment, a major error.

Subordinate Clauses

A subordinate clause will follow this pattern:

subordinate conjunction + subject + verb = incomplete thought.

Here are some examples:

61
Whenever lazy students whine

Whenever = subordinate conjunction; students = subject; whine = verb.

As cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter

As = subordinate conjunction; cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs.

Because my dog loves pizza crusts

Because = subordinate conjunction; dog = subject; loves = verb.

The important point to remember about subordinate clauses is that they can never stand alone as
complete sentences. To complete the thought, you must attach each subordinate clause to a main
clause. Generally, the punctuation looks like this:

main clause + Ø + subordinate clause.

subordinate clause + , + main clause.

Check out these revisions to the subordinate clauses above:

Whenever lazy students whine, Mrs. Russell throws chalk erasers at their heads.

Anthony ran for the paper towels as cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter.

Because my dog loves pizza crusts, he never barks at the deliveryman.

Relative Clauses

A relative clause will begin with a relative pronoun [such as who, whom, whose, which, or that]
or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. The patterns look like these:

relative pronoun or adverb + subject + verb = incomplete thought.

62
relative pronoun as subject + verb = incomplete thought.

Here are some examples:

Whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser

Whom = relative pronoun; Mrs. Russell = subject; hit = verb.

Where he chews and drools with great enthusiasm

Where = relative adverb; he = subject; chews, drools = verbs.

That had spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter

That = relative pronoun; had spilled, splashed = verbs.

Who loves pizza crusts

Who = relative pronoun; loves = verb.

Like subordinate clauses, relative clauses cannot stand alone as complete sentences. You must
connect them to main clauses to finish the thought. Look at these revisions of the relative clauses
above:

The lazy students whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser soon learned to keep
their complaints to themselves.

My dog Floyd, who loves pizza crusts, eats them under the kitchen table, where he chews and
drools with great enthusiasm.

Anthony ran to get paper towels for the cola that had spilled over the glass and splashed onto the
counter.

Punctuating relative clauses can be tricky. You have to decide if the relative clause is essential or
nonessential and then use commas accordingly.

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Essential relative clauses do not require commas. A relative clause is essential when you need
the information it provides. Look at this example:

A dog that eats too much pizza will soon develop pepperoni breath.

Dog is nonspecific. To know which dog we are talking about, we must have the information in
the relative clause. Thus, the relative clause is essential and requires no commas.

If, however, we revise dog and choose more specific words instead, the relative clause becomes
nonessential and does require commas to separate it from the rest of the sentence. Read this
revision:

My dog Floyd, who eats too much pizza, has developed pepperoni breath.

Noun Clauses

Any clause that functions as a noun becomes a noun clause. Look at this example:

You really do not want to know the ingredients in Aunt Nancy's stew.

Ingredients = noun.

If we replace the noun ingredients with a clause, we have a noun clause:

You really do not want to know what Aunt Nancy adds to her stew.

What Aunt Nancy adds to her stew = noun clause.

Clause is a sentences but it is not ending by point, interjection mark and question mark.
In the other definition clause is the smallest grammatical unit that can express a complete
proposition. A typical clause consists of a subject and a predicate, where the predicate is
typically a verb phrase – a verb together with any objects and other modifiers. However the
subject is sometimes not expressed; this is often the case in null-subject languages if the subject
is retrievable from context, but it also occurs in certain cases in other languages such as English
(as in imperative sentences and non-finite clauses).

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 A simple sentence usually consists of a single finite clause with a finite verb that is
independent. More complex sentences may contain multiple clauses. Main clauses (i.e. matrix
clauses, independent clauses) are those that can stand alone as a sentence. Subordinate clauses
(i.e. embedded clauses, dependent clauses) are those that would be awkward or incomplete
alone.

A primary division for the discussion of clauses is the distinction between main clauses
(i.e. matrix clauses, independent clauses) and subordinate clauses (i.e. embedded clauses,
dependent clauses). A main clause can stand alone, i.e. it can constitute a complete sentence by
itself. A subordinate clause (i.e. embedded clause), in contrast, is reliant on the appearance of a
main clause; it depends on the main clause and is therefore a dependent clause, whereas the main
clause is an independent clause.

A second major distinction concerns the difference between finite and non-finite clauses.
A finite clause contains a structurally central finite verb, whereas the structurally central word of
a non-finite clause is often a non-finite verb. Traditional grammar focuses on finite clauses, the
awareness of non-finite clauses having arisen much later in connection with the modern study of
syntax. The discussion here also focuses on finite clauses, although some aspects of non-finite
clauses are considered further below.

Clauses can be classified according to a distinctive trait that is a prominent characteristic

of their syntactic form. The position of the finite verb is one major trait used for classification,
and the appearance of a specific type of focusing word (e.g. wh-word) is another. These two
criteria overlap to an extent, which means that often no single aspect of syntactic form is always
decisive in determining how the clause functions. There are, however, strong tendencies.

Adjective clauses is modify nouns or pronouns. An adjective clause nearly always appears
immediately following the noun or pronoun.
To test for adjective clauses there are a couple of questions that you can ask. Which one? What
kind? Most adjective clauses begin with "who," "whom," "which," or "that." Sometimes the
word may be understood. The words "that" or "who," for example, might not specifically be in

65
the sentence, but they could be implied. To determine the subject of a clause ask "who?" or
"what?" and then insert the verb.
Example:
 The book that is on the floor should be returned to the library.
Occasionally, an adjective clause is introduced by a relative adverb, usually "when," "where," or
"why."
Example:
 Home is the place where you relax.
Adverb clauses is usually modify verbs, in which case they may appear anywhere in a sentence.
They tell why, where, under what conditions, or to what degree the action occurred or situation
existed. Unlike adjective clauses, they are frequently movable within the sentence.
Example:
 When the timer rings, we know the cake is done. OR
 We know the cake is done when the timer rings.
Adverb clauses always begin with a subordinating conjunction. Subordinating conjunctions
introduce clauses and express their relation to the rest of the sentence.
Noun clauses are not modifiers, so they are not subordinators like adjectives and adverbs, and
they cannot stand alone. They must function within another sentence pattern, always as nouns. A
noun clause functions as a subject, subject complement, direct object, or object of a preposition.
A noun clause usually begins with a relative pronoun like "that," "which," "who," "whoever,"
"whomever," "whose," "what," and "whatsoever." It can also begin with the subordinating
conjunctions "how," "when," "where," "whether," and "why."
Example:
 Whoever wins the game will play in the tournament.
Dependent clause

A dependent clause is a clause that does not express a complete thought.

A clause can be dependent because of the presence of a:

 Marker Word (Before, after, because, since, in order to, although, though, whenever,
wherever, whether, while, even though, even if)

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  Conjunction (And, or, nor, but, yet)

Dependent clauses MUST be joined to another clause, in order to avoid creating a sentence
fragment.

 Because I forgot my homework.

This is a sentence fragment. We have a "because" but not a "why" or anything accompanying
and following what happened "because" they forgot.

 Because I forgot my homework, I got sent home.

Here, the error is corrected. "I got sent home" is an independent clause. "I" is the subject, "got" is
the verb, "sent home" is the object. A complete thought is expressed.

Dependent clauses can become more complex if we add subjects, objects, and modifying
phrases:

 Jim, who likes books, read a book.

Jim is the subject.

"Who likes to read" is a dependent clause that modifies Jim. It contains "likes" which is a verb.

Read is a verb.

A book is the object.

Like independent clauses, a dependent clause can also be complex. The important thing to
remember is that the dependent clause does not stand on its own as a complete thought.

Independent clause

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An independent clause is a clause that can stand on its own, by itself. It does not need to be
joined to any other clauses, because it contains all the information necessary to be a complete
sentences.

Independent clauses have three components:

1. They have a subject - they tell the reader what the sentence is about.

2. They have an action or predicate - they tell the reader what the subject is doing.

3. They express a complete thought - something happened or was said.

An independent clause can be as simple as a subject and a verb:

 Jim reads.

Jim is the subject. Reads is the action or verb. A complete thought was expressed - something
was said, and the reader now knows that Jim likes to read.

Independent clauses can also be joined to other independent clauses, if the independent clauses
are related. However, they MUST be joined using the proper punctuation.

 Jim read a book; he really enjoyed the book.

The first clause is an independent clause. Jim is the subject, read is the action, book is the object.

The second clause is an independent clause. He is the subject, enjoyed is the action and the book
is the object.

The independent clauses are related, so they can be joined to create a complex sentence. They are
correctly joined by a semicolon.

 Jim read a book, he really enjoyed the book.

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Again, we have two independent clauses, but the independent clauses are not joined properly.
When two independent clauses are joined only be a comma, it is a grammatical error called a
comma splice.

Independent clauses can be quite complex, but the important thing to remember is that they stand
on their own and make sense alone.

Example of dependent clause:

1. What she is here.

2. How you went.
3. That she came.

Example of independent clause: cam stand alone.

1. she is here.
2. You went

Relative clauses

Relative clauses are a mixed group. In English they can be standard SV-clauses if they are
introduced by that or lack a relative pronoun entirely, or they can be wh-clauses if they are
introduced by a wh-word that serves as a relative pronoun.

a. Something happened twice. - Standard declarative SV-clause

b. something that happened twice - Relative clause introduced by the relative pronoun that
and modifying the indefinite pronoun something

c. I know everyone. - Standard declarative SV-clause.

d. the woman who sang a song. - Relative clause introduced by the relative pronoun who
and modifying the noun woman
e. the time when they left early - Relative clause introduced by the relative proform when
and modifying the noun time

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 As embedded clauses, relative clauses in English cannot display subject-auxiliary
inversion.A particular type of wh-relative-clause is the so-called free relative clause. Free
relatives typically function as arguments.

Example: What he did was unexpected. - Free relative clause functioning as subject argument

He will flatter whomever is present. - Free relative clause functioning as object

argument.

These relative clauses are "free" because they can appear in a variety of syntactic
positions; they are not limited to appearing as modifiers of nominals. The suffix -ever is often
employed to render a standard relative pronoun as a pronoun that can introduce a free relative
clause.

And this is the question and answered of Middle test.

Middle Test Advanced Structure

1. What is a Verb?
2. Explain the difference between Action Verb and Intensive Verb!
3. What is Phrase?
4. What is the difference between Verb and Verb Phrase?
5. What is countable noun? Give the example!
6. What is abstract noun?
7. How is the relation between noun phrase and some function in a sentence?
8. What is noun clause? Give the example!
9. What is an adjective?
10. How is the relation between adjective and noun? Give the example!
11. How is the relation between adjective phrase and some functions in a sentence? Give the
example!
12. Explain about the relative clause! Give some examples!
13. What is the reason that adjective clause cannot stand alone as a clause in a sentence?
14. How do you know about intensive sentence?
15. How to differ between Di-transitive sentence and Complex transitive sentence?

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Answer.

1) A verb is a kind of word (part of speech) that tells about an action or a state. It is the
main part of a sentence: every sentence has a verb. In English, verbs are the only kind of
word that changes to show past or present tense.

Kinds of Verbs

English has two main kinds of verbs: normal verbs (called lexical verbs) and auxiliary
verbs. The difference between them is mainly in where they can go in a sentence. Some
verbs are in both groups, but there are very few auxiliary verbs in English. There are also
two kinds of auxiliary verbs: modal verbs and non-modal verbs. The table below shows
most of the English auxiliaries and a small number of other verbs.

Kinds of English verbs

auxiliary verbs lexical verbs

Can you play

I fell
the piano?

I will not be
I didn't fall
modal there
verbs Shall we go I had breakfast.
Yes, you may I'm playing soccer.
You must be Must you make that
joking noise?
Have you
non- Have you seen him?
seen him?
modal
I did see it I did see it
verbs
He is sleeping He is sleeping

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There are several auxiliary verbs:

 To do (do, does, did)

 To be (am, is, are, was, were): Creates a progressive tense
 To have (have, has, had): Creates a perfect tense

The following verbs are modal auxiliaries.

 Can
 Could
 May
 Might
 Must
 Shall
 Should

Auxiliary verbs also inflect for negation. Usually this is done by adding not or n't.[1]

 You shouldn't be here.

 He isn't at home.
 We haven't started yet.

Use of the auxiliary do

Sometimes the verb do. It does not really change the meaning.

 I do talk (Present)
 I did go (Past)

It is also used in the negative when no other auxiliary verbs are used.

 I don't talk (Present)

 I didn't go (Past)

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Many other languages do not use the verb do as an auxiliary verb. They use the simple present
for do, and the simple past or perfect for 'did.

2) Intensive Verbs

We use intensive verbs to describe the subject. Intensive verbs are also called copula verb
are usually followed by a noun or a noun phrase, an adjective or a prepositional phrase.

Intensive means to focus on one thing; in this case, the subject. The words or phrases
following an intensive verb work as the subject complement. This means they apply to
the subject, not the verb.

Examples:

“Rose is a student” – The focus of this sentence is Rose and what she is.
“Tomas looks very young for his age” - The focus of this sentence is Tomas and what he
looks like.

B. Action verb

An action verb describes an action. In the previous sentence, "describes" is the action
verb, because it tells what the direct object ("an action") is doing. Action verbs generally
describe any movement and have tenses: past, present, and future. Generally the past
tense is created by putting on an "ed" ending. For example: "I stopped the car quickly to
avoid an accident.".

3) What is phrase?

A phrase is a small group of words that adds meaning to a sentence. A phrase is not a
sentence because it is not a complete idea with a subject, verb and a predicate.

In English there are five different kinds of phrases, one for each of the main parts of
speech. In a phrase, the main word, or the word that is what the phrase is about, is called
the head. In these examples, it is printed in bold. The other words in the phrase do the
work of changing or modifying the head.

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In a noun phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about a
noun.

 all my dear children

 the information age

 seventeen hungry lions in the rocks

In an adjective phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about
an adjective.

 so very sweet

 earnest in her desire

 very happy with his work

In a verb phrase, one or more words work together to give more meaning to a verb. In
English, the verb phrase is very complex, but a good description of its many forms can be
found here.

In an adverb phrase, one or more words work together to give more information about
an adverb.

 especially softly

 formerly of the city of Perth

 much too quickly to see clearly

In a prepositional phrase, one or more words work together to give information about
time, location, or possession, or condition. The preposition always appears at the front of
the phrase (preposition = pre-position).

 after a very long walk

 behind the old building

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  for all the hungry children

 in case it should happen again.

4) What is the difference between Verb and Verb Phrase?

A verb is a kind of word (part of speech) that tells about an action or a state. It is the
main part of a sentence: every sentence has a verb. In English, verbs are the only kind of
word that changes to show past or present tense.

Every language in the world has verbs, but they are not always used in the same ways.
They also can have different properties in different languages. For example, in some
other languages (e.g., Chinese & Indonesian) verbs do not change for past and present
tense. This means the definition above only works well for English verbs.

A verb phrase or VP is a syntactic unit composed of at least one verb and its
dependents—objects, complements and other modifiers—but not always including the
subject. Thus in the sentence A fat man put the jewels quickly in the box, the words put
the jewels quickly in the box is a verb phrase; it consists of the verb put and its
dependents, but not the subject a fat man. A verb phrase is similar to what is considered a
predicate in more traditional grammars.

Verb phrases generally are divided among two types: finite, of which the head of the
phrase is a finite verb; and nonfinite, where the head is a nonfinite verb, such as an
infinitive, participle or gerund. Phrase structure grammars acknowledge both types, but
dependency grammars treat the subject as just another verbal dependent, and they do not
recognize the finite verbal phrase constituent. Understanding verb phrase analysis
depends upon knowing which theory obtains in context.

5) What is abstrack noun

A noun (such as courage or freedom) that names an idea, event, quality, or concept.
Contrast with concrete noun.

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