Fire Detector Using Photo Diode: Pragati Engineering College, Surampalem

[FIRE DETECTOR USING PHOTO DIODE] 2018-2019
1. INTRODUCTION
A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical current.

The current is generated when photons are absorbed in the photodiode. Photodiodes
may contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and may have large or small surface areas
. Photodiodes usually have a slower response time as their surface area increases. The
common, traditional solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area
photodiode .Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they
may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window
oroptical fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device.
Manydiodes designed for use specially as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than
ap–n junction, to increase the speed of response. A photodiode is designed to operate
in reverse bias.
A photodiode is a p-n junction or pin semiconductor device that consumes light

energy to generate electric current. It is also sometimes referred as photo-detector,
photo-sensor, or light detector .
Photodiodes are specially designed to operate in reverse bias condition. Reverse bias
means that the p-side of the photodiode is connected to the negative terminal of the
battery and n-side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
Photodiode is very sensitive to light so when light or photons falls on the photodiode
it easily converts light into electric current. Solar cell is also known as large area
photodiode because it converts solar energy or light energy into electric energy.
However, solar cell works only at bright light.
The construction and working of photodiode is almost similar to the normal p-n
junction diode. PIN (p-type, intrinsic and n-type) structure is mostly used for
constructing the photodiode instead of p-n (p-type and n-type) junction structure.
Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 1

How photodiode works?
A normal p-n junction diode allows a small amount of electric current under reverse
bias condition. To increase the electric current under reverse bias condition, we need
to generate more minority carriers.
The external reverse voltage applied to the p-n junction diode will supply energy to
the minority carriers but not increase the population of minority carriers.
However, a small number of minority carriers are generated due to external reverse
bias voltage. The minority carriers generated at n-side or p-side will recombine in the
same material before they cross the junction. As a result, no electric current flows due
to these charge carriers. For example, the minority carriers generated in the p-type
material experience a repulsive force from the external voltage and try to move
towards n-side. However, before crossing the junction, the free electrons recombine
with the holes within the same material. As a result, no electric current flows. To
overcome this problem, we need to apply external energy directly to the depletion
region to generate more charge carriers.
Layers of PIN photodiode
A PN junction photodiode is made of two layers namely p-type and n-type
semiconductor whereas PIN photodiode is made of three layers namely p-type, n-type
and intrinsic semiconductor.

In PIN photodiode, an addition layer called intrinsic semiconductor is placed between

the p-type and n-type semiconductor to increase the minority carrier current.
P-type semiconductor
If trivalent impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, a p-type

semiconductor is formed.
In p-type semiconductors, the number of free electrons in the conduction band is

lesser than the number of holes in the valence band. Therefore, holes are the majority
charge carriers and free electrons are the minority charge carriers. In p-type
semiconductors, holes carry most of the electric current.
N-type semiconductor
If pentavalent impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, an n-type

semiconductor is formed.
In n-type semiconductors, the number of free electrons in the conduction band is

greater than the number of holes in the valence band. Therefore, free electrons are the
majority charge carriers and holes are the minority charge carriers. In n-type
semiconductors, free electrons carry most of the electric current.
Intrinsic semiconductor
Intrinsic semiconductors are the pure form of semiconductors. In intrinsic

semiconductor, the number of free electrons in the conduction band is equal to the
number of holes in the valence band. Therefore, intrinsic semiconductor has no charge
carriers to conduct electric current.
However, at room temperature a small number of charge carriers are generated. These
small number of charge carriers will carry electric current.

PIN photodiode operation
A PIN photodiode is made of p region and n region separated by a highly resistive

intrinsic layer. The intrinsic layer is placed between the p region and n region to
increase the width of depletion region.
The p-type and n-type semiconductors are heavily doped. Therefore, the p region and
n region of the PIN photodiode has large number of charge carriers to carry electric
current. However, these charge carriers will not carry electric current under reverse
bias condition.
On the other hand, intrinsic semiconductor is an undoped semiconductor material.

Therefore, the intrinsic region does not have charge carriers to conduct electric
current.
Under reverse bias condition, the majority charge carriers in n region and p region
moves away from the junction. As a result, the width of depletion region becomes
very wide. Therefore, majority carriers will not carry electric current under reverse
bias condition.
However, the minority carriers will carry electric current because they experience
repulsive force from the external electric field.
In PIN photodiode, the charge carriers generated in the depletion region carry most of
the electric current. The charge carriers generated in the p region or n region carry
only a small electric current.
When light or photon energy is applied to the PIN diode, most part of the energy is
observed by the intrinsic or depletion region because of the wide depletion width. As
a result, a large number of electron-hole pairs are generated.
Free electrons generated in the intrinsic region move towards n-side whereas holes
generated in the intrinsic region move towards p-side. The free electrons and holes
moved from one region to another region carry electric current.

Photodiode operation modes
A photodiode can be operated in one of the two modes: photovoltaic mode or

photoconductive mode.
Operation mode selection of the photodiode is depends upon the speed requirements
of the application and the amount of dark current that is tolerable.
Photovoltaic mode
In the photovoltaic mode, the photodiode is unbiased. In other words, no external
voltage is applied to the photodiode under photovoltaic mode.
In photovoltaic mode, dark current is very low. Photodiodes operated in photovoltaic

mode have low response speed
The photodiodes operated in photovoltaic mode are generally used for low speed
applications or for detecting low light levels.
Photoconductive mode
In photoconductive mode, an external reverse bias voltage is applied to the

photodiode.
Applying a reverse bias voltage increases the width of depletion region and reduces
the junction capacitance which results in increased response speed. The reverse bias
also increases the dark current.
Photodiodes operated in photoconductive mode has high noise current. This is due to
the reverse saturation current flowing through the photodiode.

2. POWER SUPPLY
A power supply is an electrical device that supplies electric power to

an electrical load. The primary function of a power supply is to
convert electric current from a source to the correct voltage, current,
and frequency to power the load. As a result, power supplies are sometimes
referred to as electric power converters. Some power supplies are separate
standalone pieces of equipment, while others are built into the load
appliances that they power. Examples of the latter include power supplies
found in desktop computers and consumer electronics devices. Other
functions that power supplies may perform include limiting the current
drawn by the load to safe levels, shutting off the current in the event of
an electrical fault, power conditioning to prevent electronic noise or voltage
surges on the input from reaching the load, power-factor correction, and
storing energy so it can continue to power the load in the event of a
temporary interruption in the source power (uninterruptible power supply).
All power supplies have a power input connection, which receives energy in
the form of electric current from a source, and one or more power
output connections that deliver current to the load. The source power may
come from the electric power grid, such as an electrical outlet, energy
storage devices such as batteries or fuel cells, generators or alternators, solar
power converters, or another power supply. The input and output are usually
hardwired circuit connections, though some power supplies employ wireless
energy transfer to power their loads without wired connections. Some power
supplies have other types of inputs and outputs as well, for functions such as
external monitoring and control.
Circuit diagram:

3. Components required
IC 555
PHOTO DIODE
GREEN LED
BUZZER
TRANSISTOR(BC548)
RESISTORS(1K,10K,100K )
CAPACITORS(0.1,0.01 uf )
POTENTIOMETER(4.7k )
Components:
Buzzer IC 555
A buzzer or beeper is an audio signalling device,[1] which may
be mechanical, electromechanical, or piezoelectric (piezo for short). Typical uses of
buzzers and beepers include alarm devices, timers, and confirmation of user input such
as a mouse click or keystroke.
The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse
generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as
an oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide two (556) or four (558) timing
circuits in one package.
Introduced in 1972 by Signetics, the 555 is still in widespread use due to its low price,
ease of use, and stability. It is now made by many companies in the original bipolar and
in low-power CMOS technologies. As of 2003, it was estimated that 1 billion units were

manufactured every year. The 555 is the most popular integrated circuit ever
manufactured.
PHOTO DIODE
A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical current.

The current is generated when photons are absorbed in the photodiode. Photodiodes
may contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and may have large or small surface areas.
Photodiodes usually have a slower response time as their surface area increases. The
common, traditional solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area
photodiode. Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they
may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window
or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device.
Many diodes designed for use specially as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than
a p–n junction, to increase the speed of response. A photodiode is designed to operate
in reverse bias.[1]
TRANSISTOR:(BC548)
BC548 is a general purpose BJT NPN transistor mostly used in electronics hobbyists
and educational electronics projects. Besides these uses it can also be used in
commercial circuits. It comes in TO-92 packaging and the maximum output current
this transistor can handle is 100mA. The transistor is having very good DC current
gain and low noise capabilities due to which it is ideal to use in signal amplification
stages. The typical saturation voltage is only 90 millivolts which is also a good sign to
use it as a switch. The max transition frequency of the transistor is 300MHz so it will

Resistors
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage
across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance
with.
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy,
such as nickel/chrome). The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the
tolerance, maximum working voltage and the power rating.Other characteristics
include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical
resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted
current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends
upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's
determined by design.
CAPACITORS
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance
means that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F.
However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values. Three
prefixes (multipliers) are used, μ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):

LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE):
A light-emitting-diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that emits light when

an electric current is applied in the forward direction of the device, as in the simple
LED circuit. The effect is a form of electroluminescence where incoherent and
narrow-spectrum light is emitted from the p-n junction in a solid state material.
Voltage regulated IC
voltage regulator is a system designed to automatically maintain a

constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may use a simple feed-forward design or may
include negative feedback. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic
components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC
voltages. Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies
where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In automobile
alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators control the output of
the plant. In an electric power distribution system.

4. PCB MAKING
Introduction
The printed circuit board (PCB) acts as the linchpin for almost all of today’s modern
electronics. If the device needs to do some sort of computation — such as is the case
even with simple items like a digital clock — chances are there’s a PCB inside of it.
PCBs bring electronics to life by routing electrical signals where they need to go to
satisfy all of the device’s electronic requirements. For this to happen, PCBs are laid
with a network of paths outlined in the traces. It’s these copper pathways that allow
PCBs to direct electrical currents around their surface.
Types of PCB‘S
There are three main types of circuit boards that get manufactured on a
consistent basis, and it’s important to understand the differences between each so you
can decide the right circuit board for your requirements. The three main types of
circuit boards in current manufacture are:
Single-Sided Circuit Boards: These boards when made with a FR4 base have rigid
laminate of woven glass epoxy material, which is then covered on one side with a
copper coating that is applied in varying thicknesses depending on the application
Double-Sided Circuit Boards: Double-sided boards have the same woven glass epoxy
base as single-sided boards — however, in the case of a double-sided board, there is
copper coating on both sides of the board, also to varying thicknesses depending on
the application
Multi-Layer Boards: These use the same base material as single and double-sided
boards, but are made with copper foil instead of copper coating — the copper foil is
used to make “layers,” alternating between base material and copper foil until the
number of desired layers is reached.
Steps of PCB making

The steps of the PCB making process are as follows:
Step One: Designing the PCB
The beginning step of any PCB manufacture is, of course, the design. PCB
manufacture and design always starts with a plan: the designer lays out a blueprint for
the PCB that fulfills all the requirements as outlined. The most commonly-used
design software used by PCB designers is a software called Extended Gerber — also
known as IX274X and also PCB can be drawn normally on copper boards for small
circuits.

Step 2 printing the PCB design
After all the checks are complete, the PCB design can be printed. Unlike other plans,
like architectural drawings, PCB plans don’t print out on a regular 8.5 x 11 sheet of
paper. Instead, a special kind of printer, known as a plotter printer, is used. A plotter
printer makes a “film” of the PCB. The final product of this “film” looks much like
the transparencies that used to be used in schools — it’s essentially a photo negative
of the board itself. There is another way to draw the circuit on PCB that is by hand
with permanent carbon marker. We have to draw atleast two layers.
The inside layers of the PCB are represented in two ink colors:
Black Ink: Used for the copper traces and circuits of the PCB
Clear Ink: Denotes the non-conductive areas of the PCB, like the fiberglass base
On the copper layers of the PCB design, black ink refers to the line of copper
pathways and clear ink refers to areas where copper will be removed. Then make the
PCB to dry for some time.
Step 3 Getting Rid of the Unneeded COPPER or Etching
The next stage in the process is that of removing the unwanted copper. Usually to etch
the copper we use an aqueous solution of ferric chloride (IRON (III) CHLORIDE,
FECL3). We use carbon to mark because the ferric chloride does not eat carbon it eats
only the copper, so the underneath copper is protected. Once the unprotected copper is
removed, the hardened photo resist from earlier needs to be removed. After this the
PCB is cleaned.
Step 4 Electrical Reliability Testing
After the PCB has been coated and cured (if necessary), a technician performs a
battery of electrical tests on the different areas of the PCB to ensure functionality. The
main tests that are performed are the circuit continuity and isolation tests. The circuit
continuity test checks for any disconnections in the PCB, known as “opens.” The
circuit isolation test, on the other hand, checks the isolation values of the PCB’s
various parts in order to check if there are any shorts. While the electrical tests mainly
exist to ensure functionality, they also work as test of how well the initial PCB design
stood up to the manufacturing process
Step 5 Drilling

After testing the PCB then according circuit the holes are kept on the PCB to place the
components.
Step 6 Placing Components
After drilling, the components are placed on the PCB according to the circuit. We
must check the positive and negative terminals before placing the components.
Step 7 Soldering
Correctly placing the components, then the components are soldered with required
heat. After soldering again the PCB is tested for electrical reliability.

5. WORKING AND OPERATION
This Photodiode based Alarm can be used to give a warning alarm when someone
passes through a protected area. The circuit is kept standby through a laser beam or
IR beam focused on to the Photodiode. When the beam path breaks, alarm will be
triggered.
The circuit uses a PN Photodiode in the reverse bias mode to detect light intensity. In
the presence of Laser/IR rays, the Photodiode conducts and provides base bias to T1.
The NPN transistor T1 conducts and takes the reset pin 4 of IC1 to ground potential.
IC1 is wired as an Astable oscillator using the components R3, VR1 and C3. The
Astable operates only when its resent pin becomes high. When the Laser/IR beam
breaks, current thorough the Photodiode ceases and T1 turns off. The collector voltage
of T1 then goes high and enables IC1. The output pulses from IC1 drives the speaker
and alarm tone will be generated.
Circuit diagram:

6. Working of Photodiode
The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes the
diode, it makes a couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism is also called as the
inner photoelectric effect. If the absorption arises in the depletion region junction,
then the carriers are removed from the junction by the inbuilt electric field of the
depletion region. Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons
move toward the cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated. The entire current
through the diode is the sum of the absence of light and the photocurrent. So the
absent current must be reduced to maximize the sensitivity of the device.

7. Types of Photodiode
Although there are numerous types of photodiode available in the market and they all
works on the same basic principles, though some are improved by other effects. The
working of different types of photodiodes work in a slightly different way, but the
basic operation of these diodes remains the same. The types of the photodiodes can be
classified based on its construction and functions as follows.
 PN Photodiode
 Schottky Photo Diode
 PIN Photodiode
 Avalanche Photodiode
PIN photodiode operation
A PIN photodiode is made of p region and n region separated by a highly resistive

intrinsic layer. The intrinsic layer is placed between the p region and n region to
increase the width of depletion region.
The p-type and n-type semiconductors are heavily doped. Therefore, the p region and
n region of the PIN photodiode has large number of charge carriers to carry electric
current. However, these charge carriers will not carry electric current under reverse
bias condition.
On the other hand, intrinsic semiconductor is an undoped semiconductor material.

Therefore, the intrinsic region does not have charge carriers to conduct electric
current.
Under reverse bias condition, the majority charge carriers in n region and p region
moves away from the junction. As a result, the width of depletion region becomes
very wide. Therefore, majority carriers will not carry electric current under reverse
bias condition.
However, the minority carriers will carry electric current because they experience
repulsive force from the external electric field.

In PIN photodiode, the charge carriers generated in the depletion region carry most of
the electric current. The charge carriers generated in the p region or n region carry
only a small electric current.
When light or photon energy is applied to the PIN diode, most part of the energy is
observed by the intrinsic or depletion region because of the wide depletion width. As
a result, a large number of electron-hole pairs are generated.
Free electrons generated in the intrinsic region move towards n-side whereas holes
generated in the intrinsic region move towards p-side. The free electrons and holes
moved from one region to another region carry electric current.
When free electrons and holes reach n region and p region, they are attracted to
towards the positive and negative terminals of the battery.
Avalanche photodiode
The operation of avalanche photodiode is similar to the PN junction and PIN

photodiode except that a high reverse bias voltage is applied in case of avalanche
photodiode to achieve avalanche multiplication.
Applying high reverse bias voltage to the avalanche photodiode will not directly
increase the generation of charge carriers. However, it provides energy to the
electron-hole pairs generated by the incident light.
When light energy is applied to the avalanche photodiode, electron-hole pairs are
generated in the depletion. The generated electron-hole pairs experience a force due to
the depletion region electric field and external electric field.
In avalanche photodiode, a very high reverse bias voltage supply large amount of
energy to the minority carriers (electron-hole pairs). The minority carriers which gains
large amount of energy are accelerated to greater velocities.
When the free electrons moving at high speed collides with the atom, they knock off
more free electrons. The newly generated free electrons are again accelerated and
collide with other atoms. Because of this continuous collision with atoms, a large
number of minority carriers are generated. Thus, avalanche photodiodes generates
more number of charge carriers than PN and PIN photodiodes.
factor.

Advantages of avalanche photodiode
1. High sensitivity
2. Larger gain
PN junction photodiode
PN junction photodiodes are the first form of photodiodes. They are the most widely
used photodiodes before the development of PIN photodiodes. PN junction
photodiode is also simply referred as photodiode. Nowadays, PN junction
photodiodes are not widely used.
When external light energy is supplied to the p-n junction photodiode, the valence
electrons in the depletion region gains energy.
If the light energy applied to the photodiode is greater the band-gap of semiconductor
material, the valence electrons gain enough energy and break bonding with the
parent atom. The valence electron which breaks bonding with the parent atom will
become free electron. Free electrons moves freely from one place to another place by
carrying the electric current.
When the valence electron leave the valence shell an empty space is created in the
valence shell at which valence electron left. This empty space in the valence shell is
called a hole. Thus, both free electrons and holes are generated as pairs. The
mechanism of generating electron-hole pair by using light energy is known as the
inner photoelectric effect.

The minority carriers in the depletion region experience force due to the depletion
region electric field and the external electric field. For example, free electrons in the
depletion region experience repulsive and attractive force from the negative and
positive ions present at the edge of depletion region at p-side and n-side. As result,
free electrons move towards the n region. When the free electrons reaches n region.

8.Applications:
Photodiodes find application in the following:
 Cameras, cd players, TVs and remote controls

 Medical devices eg instruments to analyse samples, detectors for
computed tomography and blood gas monitors
 Safety equipment eg smoke detectors
 Optical communication devices
 Position sensors
 Bar code scanners
 Automotive devices
 Surveying instruments

9.Advantages of Photodiode:
Following are the advantages of Photodiode:
➨Better frequency response
➨Linear
➨Less Noisy
➨It can be used as variable resistance device.
➨It is highly sensitive to the light.
➨The speed of operation is very high. The switching of current and hence resistance
value from high to low or otherwise is very quick.

10. Disadvantages of Photodiode:
Following are the disadvantages of Photodiode:
➨Small active area
➨Rapid increase in dark current and it depends on temperature.
➨Require amplification at low illumination level.
➨Photodiode characteristics are temperature dependent\ and have poor

temperature stability.
➨Current/change in current is in small and hence may not be sufficient to

drive the circuits , hence amplification is necessary in photodiode based
circuits.

11.CONCLUSION & BIBILIOGRAGHY
CONCLUSION:
Fire alarms are prime necessities in modern buildings and architectures, especially in
banks, data centers and gas stations. They detects the fire in ambiance at very early
stage by sensing smoke or/and heat and raise an alarm which warns people about the
fire and furnish sufficient time to take preventive measures. It not only prevents a big
losses caused by deadly fire but sometimes proves to be life savers. Here we are
building one simple fire alarm system with the help of 555 Timer IC, which will sense
the fire (temperature rise in surrounding), and trigger the alarm.
The key component of the circuit is PHOTO DIODE, which has been used as fire
detector or fire sensor. IT is temperature sensitive resistor, whose resistance changes
according to the temperature, its resistance decreases with the increase in temperature
and vice versa. We have built the circuit using, mainly three components that is,
Thermistor, NPN transistor and 555 Timer IC. You can find more such simple circuits
here in this electronic circuits section.
BIBILIOGRAPHY:
https://www.elprocus.com/photodiode-working-principle-applications/
https://www.electroschematics.com/6131/photodiode-alarm/


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[FIRE DETECTOR USING PHOTO DIODE] 2018-2019

A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical current.

A photodiode is a p-n junction or pin semiconductor device that consumes light

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 1

How photodiode works?

Layers of PIN photodiode

A PN junction photodiode is made of two layers namely p-type and n-type

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 2

In PIN photodiode, an addition layer called intrinsic semiconductor is placed between

If trivalent impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, a p-type

In p-type semiconductors, the number of free electrons in the conduction band is

If pentavalent impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, an n-type

In n-type semiconductors, the number of free electrons in the conduction band is

Intrinsic semiconductors are the pure form of semiconductors. In intrinsic

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 3

PIN photodiode operation

A PIN photodiode is made of p region and n region separated by a highly resistive

On the other hand, intrinsic semiconductor is an undoped semiconductor material.

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 4

Photodiode operation modes

A photodiode can be operated in one of the two modes: photovoltaic mode or

In the photovoltaic mode, the photodiode is unbiased. In other words, no external

voltage is applied to the photodiode under photovoltaic mode.

In photovoltaic mode, dark current is very low. Photodiodes operated in photovoltaic

In photoconductive mode, an external reverse bias voltage is applied to the

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 5

A power supply is an electrical device that supplies electric power to

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 6

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 7

A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical current.

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 8

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 9

LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE):

A light-emitting-diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that emits light when

voltage regulator is a system designed to automatically maintain a

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 10

Steps of PCB making

Step One: Designing the PCB

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 11

Step 2 printing the PCB design

Step 3 Getting Rid of the Unneeded COPPER or Etching

Step 4 Electrical Reliability Testing

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 12

Step 6 Placing Components

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 13

5. WORKING AND OPERATION

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 14

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 15

A PIN photodiode is made of p region and n region separated by a highly resistive

On the other hand, intrinsic semiconductor is an undoped semiconductor material.

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 16

The operation of avalanche photodiode is similar to the PN junction and PIN

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 17

Advantages of avalanche photodiode

photodiodes are not widely used.

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 18

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 19

Photodiodes find application in the following:

 Cameras, cd players, TVs and remote controls

Pragati Engineering College,Surampalem Page 20

Following are the advantages of Photodiode:

➨Better frequency response