Bio Notes

1. Exchange Surfaces
To ensure the exchange of materials is effective, it needs a large surface area, it
needs to be moist and it need to be thin (about one cell thick). They are also
close to a blood supply.

Exchange Organ Location Organ System Material

Surfaces Exchange
Alveoli Lungs Respiratory Gases
Villi Small Intestine Digestive Nutrients
Nephron Kidney Excretory Waste

2. Large Surface Area

Alveoli are air sacs that are at the end of the bronchiole in the human lungs. They
are covered in a network of capillaries (up to 70%). Gas exchange is done by
diffusion.
3. Gas Exchange
Each lung has about 300 million alveoli and a resultant large surface area. The
network of capillaries is close to the blood supply and the distance for diffusion is
small because of thin walls. Alveoli are also covered in a film of moisture.
4. Smoking can cause a reduction in surface area, moisture and a reduction in amount
of oxygen from diffusion. Pneumonia inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs and
may fill up the air sacs with fluid or pus. Cystic Fibrosis is a genetic disorder that causes
the mucous glands to produce thick sticky mucus.
5. Breathing
Inhalation
a. The intercostal muscles move the ribcage upwards.
b. The diaphragm contracts and flattens which increases the volume of the
lungs.
c. Air flows from the atmosphere to the lungs.
Exhalation
a. The intercostal muscles move the ribcage downwards and inwards.
b. The diaphragm relaxes and moves up.
c. Air flows from atmosphere to lungs.
6. Digestion
The digestive tract consists of the following.
a. Oesophagus
 b. Stomach
c. Small intestine
d. Large intestine
e. Colon
f. Rectum
7. Nutrition
It refers to the ingestion and digestion of food and has five parts:
a. Chemical digestion
b. Mechanical digestion
c. Ingestion
d. Absorption
e. Egestion
8. Food and Digestion
Major Macromolecule Type of Digestive Enzyme Monomer Produce
Protein Protease Amino Acids
Carbohydrates Amylases Glucose
Lipids Lipase Fatty Acids and glycerol
9. Nutrient Absorption
The movement of nutrients from food into the bloodstream is called absorption.
This mostly occurs in the small intestine.
10. Coeliac Disease
Gluten allergy results in an immune response, where lymphocytes attack and
destroy villi.
11. Enzymes
The three types of enzymes are
a. Carbohydrase (amylase) chops carbohydrates into smaller sugar molecules.
b. Protease cuts proteins into soluble amino acids
c. Lipase breaks fats down into smaller fatty acids and glycerol.
12. Protein Digestion
Proteins are digested in the stomach (acidic environment) by protease which
breaks them down into 20 different amino acids.
13. Carbohydrates
They are chains of identical sugar molecules. Carbohydrase breaks the chemical
bonds between each sugar molecule as part of digestion.
14. Fats
Fats are digested in two stages. Bile released by the gall bladder allows the fat to
mix with water by breaking up the fat into smaller droplets.
Secondly, an enzyme called Lipase breaks the fats down into smaller fatty acid
molecules and glycerol.
15. Urine Excretory System

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 The ureters are tubes that carry urine from the pelvis of the kidneys to the urinary
bladder. The urinary bladder temporarily stores urine until its released from the
body. The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the urinary bladder to the
outside of the body. The outer and inner end of the urethra is controlled by a
circular muscle called a sphincter.
16. Function of the kidney
Their main function is to filter blood in order to remove cellular waste products
from the body. At any given time, 20% of the blood is in the kidneys. Humans can
function with just one kidney. If one ceases to work, the other increases in size to
handle the workload. They help to maintain homeostasis by filtering the blood.
The kidneys are fist-sized bean shaped structures. They have two layers: medulla
and cortex. Their filtering units are called nephrons. They have a renal artery and
renal vein. It removes waste in blood and helps to maintain electrolytes, pH level
and fluid balances.
17. Other Waste Products
Urea is a nitrogenous waste product synthesised in the liver from the breakdown
of protein. It is the main component of urine. Uric acid is produced from the
breakdown of DNA and RNA. Creatinine is a waste product of muscle action
18. Nephrons
They are the filtering units in the kidney. They are responsible for cleaning the
blood and producing urine. They clean and rebalance the blood. There are
approximately 1 million nephrons in each kidney.
Ecosystems
1. Biodiversity (the variety of plant and animal life) is important because the higher
the biodiversity of an ecosystem, the more stable it is, that is, it is more capable
of overcoming changes in environmental conditions.
2. Genetic diversity refers to the variation in the amount of genetic information
within and among individuals of a population, a species or a community, for
example, domesticated dogs.
Larger gene pools are more likely to overcome changes in environmental
conditions, such as competition, climate change, predation and climate
change.
3. Species diversity refers to the number of species and abundance of each species
that reside in a particular location. Invertebrates make up about 99% of all animal
species, and most of these are insects. Invertebrates include crabs, spiders and
scorpions. The greater the topography, the more diverse the ecosystem.
4. Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of ecosystems in a given area. An
ecosystem is a community of organisms and their physical environment
interacting together. An ecosystem can cover a large area, such as a whole

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 forest, or a small area, such as a pond. An example of ecological diversity on a
global scale is the variation in ecosystems, such as deserts, forests and grasslands.
Complex Question Matrix
What would happen if nothing was done to stop the fire spreading?
If there was no action undertaken to prevent further spreading of the fire, it would
greatly impact the native species which may die out from their habitat being
destroyed. Humans would also be affected by the rainforest burning down,
because the Amazon is responsible for 20% of the Earth’s oxygen supply, and as
such, its death would greatly increase global warming as the volume of greenhouse
gases like carbon dioxide and monoxide wouldn’t be converted into oxygen. The
earth would heat up faster and as a result, abnormal weather phenomena as well
as extinction of several species unable to cope with the heat. The icecaps would
also melt faster, thereby increasing the sea level, drowning lower lying islands and
ecosystems. Taking into consideration the greed of most people in power, little
would be done in time to prevent detrimental things, with the earth eventually
perishing as a result.

5. Biological Classification
It is a hierarchical system of categories based on similarities in genes and physical
features. There are two types, artificial and biological.
i. Artificial Classification
Based on easily observable/describable characteristics
6. Classification (Dichotomous) Key
It is based upon a set of questions about the physical characteristics of an
organism. This allows the organisms to be placed into groups.
Artificial classification is easy to do; however, it doesn’t take genetics into
account and has no consideration of evolutionary traits.
7. Natural Classification
Grouping organisms based on shared morphological (structural formation) and
anatomical characteristics is called natural classification. These are inherited
from a recent common ancestor. It is based on evolutionary relationships.
8. Phylogenetic Classification
The grouping of organisms based on the degree of similarities in the nucleotide
amino acid sequence or genes and proteins (DNA). Organisms that are more
closely related have similar genotypes (genes that code for certain
characteristics). They are likely to share a common recent ancestor.
Cytochrome C is a protein linked to aerobic respiration. The amino acid
sequence of a protein can be used to compare the similarity of organisms.

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 9. Taxon (plural Taxa)
Living things are grouped into taxa, which are based on shared characteristics.
All species grouped into a taxon have evolved from a common ancestor. The
eight recognised taxa are arranged from most to least inclusive.

Gimpy-Gimpy Peregrine Falcon

Kingdom: Plantae Kingdom: Animalia

Clade: Angiosperms Phylum: Chordata

Clade: Eudicots Class: Aves

Clade: Rosids Order: Falconiformes

Order: Rosales Family: Falconidae

Family: Urticaceae Genus: Falco

Genus: Dendrocnide Species: F. peregrinus

Species: D. moroides

10. Adaptations
a. Behavioural
Behavioural adaptations are the things organisms do to survive. For
example, bird calls and migration are behavioural adaptations.
b. Structural
They are the physical features of an organism that help an organism to
survive in a particular environment. For example, the beak of a toucan
or the fur of a wolf.
c. Physiological
A metabolic within the cell, or tissues, of an organism in response to an
environmental stimulus resulting in the improved ability of it to cope with
its changing environment, such as snake venom.

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 11. How do organisms adapt?
Adaptations are features that promote the survival and reproductive success of an
organism. It allows it to be better suited to its environment. Adaptations can be inherited
and are a result of natural selection.
12. Natural Selection
It was proposed by Charles Darwin. Survival of the fittest. An organism with heritable
traits that are better suited to its environment will tend to leave more offspring than their
peers, causing the traits to increase in frequency over generations.
13. Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are large underwater structures composed of the skeletons of colonial
marine invertebrates called coral. The biotic factors of a coral reef are the living coral
polyps and associated zooxanthellae (algae). Additionally, fish, aquatic plants, and
other organisms living in and around the reef are also considered to be biotic factors.
Abiotic factors of a coral reef include the water surrounding the reef, rocks, pebbles, or
sand, and the calcium carbonate "skeleton" of the coral. Organisms that live in coral
reefs include stingrays, clownfish and seahorses.
Due to the complex structures of coral reefs, with their many nooks, crannies, and hiding
spaces, fish have adapted a body structure to easily manoeuvre through the coral. In
open water fish have adapted bodies to swim faster, but within the coral reefs fish have
adapted bodies that are flat and manoeuvrable. Also, the pectoral and pelvic fins have
switched places. This corresponds and works with the flatter body.
Fish found in coral reefs also have bright colouring to help with mating or camouflage.
Due to the wide variety of prey found in coral reefs, the fish have developed a
generalized feeding structure to take advantage of the biodiversity. Lastly sessile
animals, such as coral, have adapted toxins to keep away predators. In order to collect
the sunlight needed for photosynthesis, plants in coral reefs have larger cells. Plants have
also created many symbiotic relationships with other animals in order to survive.
Examples include: Zooxanthellae lives inside the polyps in coral. In exchange the
protection the coral provides, the Zooxanthellae provides the coral with needed
nutrients. Sea grasses live in between the coral reefs, and they transfer nutrients to the
coral. Their roots are adapted to keep the plant in place during strong ocean
currents. When the sea grass dies it helps to create future plant growth. Mangroves grow
behind the coral reefs. They grow above the sea water, and their roots protect from the
sediment overpowering the coral.

14. Energy Pyramid

If a grassland ecosystem has 10,000 kilocalories of energy concentrated in vegetation,
only about 1,000 kcal will be transferred to primary consumers, and very little (only
10kcal) makes it to the tertiary level.